Revista de agricultura  (BOLIVIA) ISSN 1998-9652 Deposit Legal 2-3-126-09  NUMBER 54  JULY 2014   Content   CURRENT NATIONAL AFFAIRS:  Quinoa economy: Perspectives and challenges. Jorge  Blajos; Norka Ojeda; Edson Gandarillas; Antonio  Gandarillas (pp. 3-10) The current and potential role of q’ilaq’ila (Lupinus spp.)   in sustainable production systems of quinoa.  Alejandro   Bonifacio; Genaro Aroni; Milton Villca; Patricia Ramos;  Miriam Alcon; Antonio Gandarillas (pp. 11-18) The most important diseases affecting the quinoa crop in  Bolivia. Giovanna Plata; Antonio Gandarillas (pp. 19-28) TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT  Generating varieties of quinoa in a market context and  climate chang. Alejandro Bonifacio; Amalia Vargas;  Genaro Aroni (pp. 29-35) Parasitoid complex associated with the quinoa moth - key  crop pest in the Bolivian Altiplano. Reinaldo Quispe; Raúl  Saravia; Miguel Barrantes (pp. 36-45) Lepidoptera associated to quinoa crop in the Bolivian  Altiplano: Taxonomic updating. Raúl Saravia; Reinaldo  Quispe; Luis Crespo (pp. 46-52)   SPECIAL NUMBER DEDICATED TO PROINPA FOUNDATION  IN THE FRAMEWORK OF RESEARCH WITH CHENOPODIUM QUINOA   Bacteria associated to quinoa crop in the Bolivian  Altiplano and its biotechnological potential. Noel Ortuño;  Mayra Claros; Claudia Gutiérrez; Marlene Angulo; José  Castillo (pp. 53-61) Synthesis and development of sex pheromones for two  noctuidae, key pests of the quinoa crop. Raúl Saravia;  Luis Crespo; Reinaldo Quispe; Milton Villca (pp. 62-67) Mass diffusion of the Integrated Pest Management (IPM)  strategy in quinoa.  Vladimir Lino; José Olivera; Raúl   Saravia; Reinaldo Quispe, Edson Gandarillas, Luis  Crespo (pp. 68-72) Native shrubs and their perspectives contribution to the  quinoa production sustainability. Alejandro Bonifacio;  Genaro Aroni; Milton Villca; Miriam Alcon; Patricia  Ramos; Liz Chambi (pp. 73-83) Formation of the Chenopodium quinoa Willd (Quinoa)  core collection in Bolivia with morphological and  molecular data.  Silene Veramendi; Ximena Cadima;   Milton Pinto; Wilfredo Rojas (pp. 84-91) Potential uses of the genetic diversity of quinoa in  agribusiness: Opportunities and challenges. Wilfredo  Rojas; Milton Pinto; Amalia Vargas (pp. 92-99) Institutions responsible for the   present publication:  Research Institute of the   Agricultural Sciences and   Livestock Faculty  “Martin Cardenas” (UMSS).  “La Violeta” Forages Research   Center.  The Foundation for the Promotion   and Research of Andean Products   (PROINPA).   REVISTA DE AGRICULTURA REVISTA DE AGRICULTURA VERSIÓN EN INGLÉS     Review /Editorial Committee  Journal of Agriculture:  Ing. Agr. MSc. Fimo Alemán  Ing. Agr. MSc. Edgar Gutiérrez  Ing. Agr. Ruddy Meneses  Ing. Agr. PhD. Antonio Gandarillas  Ing. Agr. PhD. Julio Gabriel  PROINPA Review Committee  Ing. Agr. MSc. Jorge Blajos  Ing. Agr. PhD. Edson Gandarillas  Ing. Agr. MSc. Ximena Cadima  Lic. Samantha Cabrera  Production Coordinator  Ing. Agr. MSc. Hernán Campos  Translations  AGRIDEL S.R.L.  Pre- Diagramation  Ing. Agr. Ruddy Meneses A.  Arts and diagramation  Lic. María Isabel Soliz  Printing  Impresiones Poligraf  Print run  1000 copies    The publishers have been very careful to rigorously reproduce  the articles published in this journal. However, the ideas and  opinions expressed in these articles are the sole responsibility  of the authors and do not necessarily represent the point of  views of the Faculty of Agricultural Sciences and Livestock  “Martin Cardenas” of the University of San Simon.  Total or partial reproduction of the articles in this journal are  permitted, as long as the source is cited.   REVISTA DE AGRICULTURA   EDITORIAL   Cover Photo: Royal quinoa crop in the Southern Altiplano of Bolivia PROINPA Foundation   Quinua, a God's gift of the past, present and future  Quinua (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.), an ancient Andean agricultural  product, which probably went through different processes to satisfy the  hunger of the Andean people, has also experimented a series of technical  actions ranging from the collection and identification of germplasm to  postharvest and its transformation. Half a century ago, quinoa was a product of daily consumption for Andean  populations in different forms, such as phisara, the phiri, the chaque, the  kispiña, the mucuna, the q’usa (chichi), chiwa and other delicacies that  satisfied human nutritional needs; thus, rural families, miners and other  social groups, had in their hands a golden grain of high value. In those  years consumption was lower in the cities, to the point that there were  generations that had not even tasted this food, to date this grain is sought  by the World. This trend causes a rapid increase in the area cultivated with  quinoa in Bolivia (currently more than 100,000 hectares), affecting fragile  ecosystems by removing native vegetation, resulting in an imbalance of the  referential trophic level, for example, the feeding of camelids and other  wildlife, ignoring that everything is part of the whole, taking the risk of  accelerating desertification processes. To address this situation many institutions generate technology and  disseminate knowledge. It is the case of PROINPA Foundation, which in  the present edition of the "Revista de Agricultura", presents outstanding  research results that should be used to informe policy making at national  level and to establish the framework for a capacity building and applied  research strategy, so that the cultivation of this ancient crop can be focused  on three aspects:  that it is accesible for a good life, that it is profitable in  order not to frustrate farmers and the entire value chain, and  fundamentally that it is sustainable to achieve effective food security in the  country.   Fimo Alemán Daza  Chairman, Editorial Committee  Revista de Agricultura     Revista de Agricultura, Nro. 54 - Julio de 2014   Presentation 1   Presentation Revista de Agricultura   For the institutions that work on agriculture and technology development, quinoa is a  success case, but also a concern. Indicators of production, processing and export have  exceeded all expectations, generating significant resources for the country and mainly for  farmers. There is concern within all actors of the quinoa value chain, including the central  government with regards to sustainability and how to pass from a temporary success known  as the "quinoa boom" to a sustained success. One of the key elements to achieve sustainability of production is the development of  technology, in this line of thinking; the McKnight Foundation and DANIDA have invested  and entrusted the contribution to this task to PROINPA. In this issue of the magazine, several research pieces generated by PROINPA are  summarized.  The objective is to improve productive efficiency with a comprehensive view  of the landscape and the quinoa production system as a whole, considering elements of  integrated pest management, the use of varieties and seeds among others. We hope that these articles contribute to foster knowledge about quinoa production in  Bolivia and the world, and that they are useful to nurture a more sustainable and productive  agriculture for farmers of the Bolivian Altiplano.    Ing. César Villagómez Villarroel PhD. (c)  Board Chairman of PROINPA Foundatiobn     ISSN 1998 - 9652   Area: Current National Affairs 2   Quinoa crops in Bolivia     Revista de Agricultura, No. 54 - July 2014  Area: Current National Affairs 3   Economy of quinoa: Perspectives and Challenges   Jorge Blajos; Norka Ojeda; Edson Gandarillas; Antonio Gandarillas    PROINPA Foundation  E mail: j.blajos@proinpa.org    Background   Summary. Economy of quinoa: Perspectives and Challenges. Quinoa has become the main  non-traditional export product from the Andean region and from Bolivia. This has enabled  thousands of families to improve their income, a fundamental condition for the development of a  country. The production and prices of quinoa are growing at a very fast pace, which threatens the  sustainability of its production and its competitiveness. The loss of yield in quinoa is one of the  clearest indicators of the situation, and of the implications on the loss of competitiveness and  unsustainability of its production. This raises the urgent need for joint efforts to improve productivi- ty, reversing the negative trend, as a major action to promote that benefits being generated by  quinoa remain permanent for thousands of farmer families. Keywords: Exports; Competitiveness; Sustainability Resumen. Economía de la Quinua: Perspectivas y desafíos. La quinua se ha constituido en el  principal rubro de exportación no tradicional de la región andina y de Bolivia. Esto ha permitido  que miles de familias mejoren sus ingresos, condición fundamental para el desarrollo de un país.  La producción y los precios de la quinua están creciendo a un ritmo muy acelerado, lo que pone  en riesgo la propia sostenibilidad de su producción y competitividad. La pérdida en el rendimiento  de la quinua, es uno de los indicadores claros de esta situación, y de las implicancias sobre la  pérdida de competitividad e insostenibilidad de su producción. Esto plantea la urgencia de unir  esfuerzos para mejorar la productividad, revirtiendo la tendencia negativa, esto como una de las  principales acciones para promover que los beneficios que está generando la quinua para miles  de familias de productores, sean duraderos. Palabras clave: Exportaciones; Competitividad; Sostenibilidad    The economic development of a country  is a necessary but not sufficient condition  for the existence of human development,  understanding the later as a general  development of the individual, in all of its  dimensions (Guerra, 2012). In order to promote economic  development, countries establish policies  that include actions to foster exports. As a  country develops its capacity to export  goods and services, it generates revenue    and strengthens its economic system.   Exports drive demand for production  factors, particularly labor; thus creating  employment. Usually countries classify exports in  traditional and nontraditional, referring to  their history and importance in the  economy. In the case of Bolivia, the  export of food is considered  nontraditional, mainly because it is of  recent inclusion in the context of the  national economy.   Among the nontraditional exports,  soy-bean and its byproducts standout,  with an export value of 685 million per  year. The export statistics of  nontraditional products show that the  Andean region, and particularly the  Altiplano region, both have a minor  participation in exports.  Nevertheless, it  is important to highlight that the export of  quinoa in these regions constitutes the  main non-traditional export product of the  Andes and of the Bolivian Altiplano, with  a value of up to 153 million USD in 2013. For a good or service to be exported, it  must have comparative advantages. In the  case of quinoa these advantages are  manifested in the nutritional quality of the  grain, the fact that it does not contain  gluten and the uniqueness of the Royal  Quinoa organic production.   Evolution of exports of  Bolivian quinoa   According to data provided by the  Vice-Ministry of Rural Development and    Agriculture (VDRA), export volumes of  quinoa in 2013 have exceeded 35  thousand tons, equivalent to more than  153 million dollars. This represents a rise  of 33 % in volume, in comparison to the  year 2012; and an increase in over 90% of  the export value of quinoa, also in  comparison with the previous year. The  FOB (free on board) price showed a  record high in 2013 (6,000 USD/t in  November) reaching an average of more  than 4,300 USD/t, in comparison to 1,200  USD/t in 2006 (Figure 1). Figure 1 highlights the growing trend of  the export value of quinoa, where the  primary endpoint was the price. This is  generating a significant increase in the  value of domestic exports of quinoa  (Gandarillas  et al., 2014) and driving at   the same time the production of this grain  not only in Bolivia but also in different  countries that see in quinoa a growing  business opportunity because of the  increasing international demand.    Evolution of quinoa  production in Bolivia   The quinoa production in Bolivia has  experienced a significant increase in the  last decade, from a production of 23,000  tons in the year 2000 to above 61,000 tons  in 2013 (Figure 2). Such production volumes have also  implied an increase in the cultivated area,  ranging from almost 36,000 hectares in  2000 to more than 130,000 hectares by  2013 (Gandarillas et al., 2014). This substantial increase in the cultivated  area can be explained through the boom  caused by the appreciation of consumers  worldwide, for a food with the  characteristics of quinoa. In addition to  this, the declaration of the International  Year of Quinoa by the United Nations,  which after a series of national and  international promotional events, has  managed to position it among foods of the  highest culinary standard; causing a sharp    increase in foreign demand for this  product. The quantity of quinoa produced has  increased due to the expansion of the  cultivated area, while yield reflects a clear  downward trend (Figure 2) (Gandarillas et  al., 2014). Agricultural practices, little or no  replacement of soil fertility, the intensity  of the negative effects of climate change,  population dynamics of pests and diseases  and the use of grain as seed, are the  elements that explain the negative trend in  yield. This fact, in addition to the  considerable increase in selling prices, has  driven the generation of technology and  varieties adapted to other regions of the  country with benign climate for quinoa  production. Nevertheless, the Southern  Altiplano of Bolivia continues to be the  major quinoa producing region in the  country, where it is estimated that more  than twenty thousand families live from  the production and marketing of quinoa.   Economic effects of the quinoa  boom   An important outcome of this whole  situation is the economic effect that the  quinoa boom has generated for every  actor in the value chain. Producers,  intermediaries, brokers and exporters,  have benefited from price increases and  from the international demand for quinoa.  In the specific case of quinoa producing  families, although their unitary costs of  production have been increased mainly  due to a downward trend in yield,  sky-high prices in the export market have  allowed their revenues to remain stable or  even increase. This outcome has given  farmer families the opportunity to  implement modern technology to increase  production, and at the same time to  improve their quality of life (Figure 3).   Figure 3 shows an approximation of the  benefits received by different actors from  the quinoa value chain of, and the major  costs they deal with. It can be observed  that the decline in profitability of quinoa  production, during the last years, has had a  considerable effect on the unitary costs of  production per ton, a fact that has led to a  rise in prices in the domestic market as  well as in the export price. This has forced farmers to increase crop  production areas, inputs (mainly  chemical) and general efforts to sustain  production volumes; in order to maintain  their standard of living.  Additionally, the  expansion of cultivated area is detrimental  to other sectors such as live-stock  production (cameloid husbandry),  threatening the balance of the local  ecosystem.   This constitutes a challenge for local  authorities, institutions and quinoa  producer organizations themselves; which  to date are validating crop management  strategies that enable them to maintain  and improve farmer’s living standards and  the conditions of the local ecosystem. According to Avitabile (2013), the rise in  the price of quinoa has enabled farming  families to improve their living standards,  to have greater access to basic services,  and to increase their access to education.  It also indicates that while quinoa  consumption has declined in the Southern  Altiplano, the diet of farm families has  been diversified; now having access to  foods like fruits and vegetables, which  was not possible before mainly due to  economic and geographical problems.  Despite the rise in the price of quinoa,  70% of surveyed households in the study  by Avitabile mentioned that they  consumed quinoa between 2-4 times a  week. Apparently farmers have also social  motives that have privileged other  products in their diets. In many cases,  current quinoa producers, especially those  that hold greater extensions of land and  means of production, have experienced  recent migration processes. Many of them  have returned to their communities thanks  to the quinoa boom, and usually do not  stay to live permanently in the producing  areas, but are now “resident” community  members, meaning sporadic settlers.  Migration processes have played an  important role in changing the eating  habits of “resident” producers, who now  seek a diet similar to the one they had in  the cities (Pacheco et al., 2014).   Moreover, we must consider that quinoa  was the main food in producing areas for a  long time, and many producers at the ease  they currently have to vary their diet,  choose other foods that they previously  could not access. This ease of access to a  variety of foods is quite evident in the  region known as “intersalar” located  between the salt flatlands of Uyuni and  Coipasa. People who have worked in this  area for several years are aware of the  number of stores, small restaurants and  pensions that have opened in the region in  recent years. This along with the  improvement of roads and the enhanced  purchasing power of the population has  greatly increased food supply and its  diversity (including processed foods). An aspect related to the quinoa boom has  been the creation and consolidation of the  export industry. Consequently, in recent  years there has been an increase in legally  established enterprises that contribute to  enhance grain quality (processing) and to  open new and better channels of trade,  facilitating the export of quinoa and  improving conditions of input purchase  and supply for producers. Some  companies have forayed into the  manufacture of products from flour and  quinoa flakes, opening a new marketing  channel to international markets and  generating greater added value. Other  actors who have been added to the value  chain are the bulking intermediaries.  Before, it was the producers who brought  their produce directly to companies, now  there is a specific segment of the  population dedicated to grain bulking  (both on farms and in popular markets).   This has also contributed to the rise in  prices and to an increase of informal trade  for quinoa. This situation has forced    companies to invest more in order to keep  their trade commitments, incurring in  quinoa production of their own and  creating new mechanisms to establish  loyalty relations with primary producers. Up to this point in the analysis, only the  effects of the quinoa boom in the actors  directly linked to the value chain have  been mentioned.  Nevertheless, changes in  the national dynamics of quinoa  consumption have also been observed.   According to the Vice Ministry of Rural  Development and Agriculture (VDRA),  per capita quinoa consumption has  increased from 0.35 kg in 2008 to 1.11  kilograms in 2012 (IBCE, 2013). This fact  is explained by the government’s social  policies, such as maternity and nursing  subsidies, and other policies that promote  consumption of quinoa in cities and in  rural areas. However, a segment of the  population, who has seen how the prices  of quinoa grain increased and how it  moved from popular markets to luxurious  city shelves, remains isolated.   Quinoa’s international market  trends   Quinoa has positioned itself in world  markets. The trend of the international  price of quinoa is reaching unimagined  levels, which can be very encouraging in a  short term perspective and for certain  actors of the value chain. However  questions emerge in terms of what can  happen with the market and, until when  and to what extent will prices continue to  rise. Clearly the expectation generated by a  product of the characteristics of quinoa    along with its high prices, will motivate  producers and governments from various  regions of the world to start promoting  local production. An example of this is the  Anantha Project in India, which will  invest millions of dollars to promote  regional development and boost quinoa  production  (http://www.apard.gov.in/  project-anantha). The increase in quinoa’s global supply is a  matter of time (Zuckerman, 2014),  therefore it is expected that as demand  grows, prices will tend to stabilize. If  prices stabilize at current levels Bolivian  quinoa farmers, particularly organic  quinoa producers, will continue to have  favorable income assuming of course that  efforts to stabilize crop yields are  effective. In parallel, no significant  increases in production costs are  expected. Additionally, the organic  feature of the Bolivian quinoa production  would become the most important  differentiation factor for Bolivia to  maintain productive leadership. The big challenge for Bolivian quinoa  producers and for all actors in the value  chain is to ensure the sustainability of  production, particularly in the case  organic quinoa. The pressure exerted on production  systems, the expansion of the agricultural  frontier, the effects of climate change, and  declining productivity, are the main  causes that can lead Bolivia to lose its  comparative advantages for quinoa  production. Additionally, it should be  considered that more and more countries  are introducing quinoa in their production  systems and therefore are improving their  performance.   On the other hand, if the increase in  international supply causes a significant  drop in the international price of quinoa,  Bolivian producers will still have profit,  because production costs are relatively  low. However, this situation would not be  sustainable due to the factors mentioned  in the preceding paragraph. Obviously, if Bolivia intends to maintain  world leadership in the production and  marketing of quinoa, and to continue  benefiting thousands of farmer families  and other actors from the quinoa value  chain, it is imperative that measures to  promote sustainability and  competitiveness of quinoa are adopted. Much of these measures have to do with  investment in research and technology  development. Without it, it is impossible  to reverse the negative trend in yields, a  key indicator of the loss of  competitiveness. Neither will it be  possible to promote the sustainable  management of production systems and  landscape, nor achieve the agroecological  production of quinoa. Another important  group of measures has to do with the  generation and enforcement of rules and  regulations in relation to the sustainable  production of quinoa. While the Bolivian government is making  efforts to allocate resources to the  development of technology, the historical  moment demands that this investment be  proportional to the importance of quinoa  for human development in the Altiplano  region and for the national economy.   The importance of increasing  quinoa yield   One factor that is making quinoa more  expensive is the gradual yield reduction.  To produce the same amount of quinoa  there is a gradual need for more and more  acreage, which means higher cost, and  therefore the unitary cost tends to rise. If  one also considers the growing demand,  the result of this combination (yield  reduction and increasing demand) is the  expansion of the agricultural frontier,  which brings along a number of other  pro-problems, including social issues  related to land tenure.  Cultivating a hectare of quinoa has an  average cost of 6,044 Bs, considering the  average yield of 0.45 t/ha, it produces a  unitary production cost of 13,430 Bs/t  (1,930 USD/t). If the negative trend of the  quinoa yield could be reverted and the  average yield of 0.6 t/ha restored, the  unitary cost of production would drop to  10,073 Bs/t (1,447 USD/t).  If additionally  policies for the development of quinoa  production are implemented, setting as a  target to increase yield to at least 0.8 t/ha,  the unitary cost would drop to 7,555 Bs/t  (1,085 USD/t), which would allow a  reduction in the selling price without  reducing producers’ profits. Competitiveness, sustainability, afford-  ability and accessibility of quinoa are  possible as long as the production of  quinoa takes an agro-ecological approach  and one of continuous improvement of  productivity. Improve yields of quinoa,  with a focus on agro-ecological  production, must be the premise of all  stakeholders involved directly and    indirectly with the quinoa production  complex.  If this goal is not achieved, the  Altiplano production systems will be in  serious risk of disappearing and with  them, the wellbeing achieved by  thousands of quinoa farming families.   Cited references   Avitabile, E. 2013. The impact of the quinoa   boom on Bolivian family farmers.  Infographic published by FAO. On line.  Available at:  http://www.fao.org/assets/infographics/Q uinoa_Infographic.pdf. Retrieved May 26,  2014.  Gandarillas, A., Rojas, W., Bonifacio, A.,   Ojeda N. 2014. La quinua en Bolivia:   Perspectiva de la Fundación PROINPA.  Chapter 5. In: Bazile, D. “Estado del arte  de la quinua en el mundo”. FAO. (In  press).   Guerra, Z. 2012. Comercio internacional:   Importancia en el desarrollo económico.  Observatorio de la Economía  Latinoamericana, No. 170 (full text in:  http://www.eumed.net/cursecon/ecolat/m x/2012/).  IBCE 2013. La quinua boliviana traspasa   fronteras para el consumo mundial. Nro.  210. Publication of the Instituto Boliviano  de Comercio Exterior (IBCE) in  commemoration of the International Year  of Quinoa.   Pacheco, M., Blajos, J., Rojas, W. 2014.   Estudio de la producción y mercado de la  quinua. Chapter 6. IICA. (forthcoming).  Zuckerman, C. 2014. Quiero quinua. National   Geographic in Spanish. February 2014.  Vol. 34.     ISSN 1998 - 9652   Area: Current National Affairs 4   9.6  13.1 23.2   43.1  48.5  60.3   79.8    153.3   1,201  1,249    2,233    2,974  3,111  2,976  3,044    4,371   0  1,000 2,000  3,000  4,000 5,000  0   50   100  150  200  2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013   Price in USD/t   Thousands of t and millions of USD   Volume (Thousands  t) Value (Millions of USD) Price (USD/t)   Figure 1. Price, quantity and value of quinoa exports in Bolivia  (Source: Own elaboration based on data from INE, IBCE, VDRA and CABOLQUI)   The economic development of a country  is a necessary but not sufficient condition  for the existence of human development,  understanding the later as a general  development of the individual, in all of its  dimensions (Guerra, 2012). In order to promote economic  development, countries establish policies  that include actions to foster exports. As a  country develops its capacity to export  goods and services, it generates revenue    and strengthens its economic system.   Exports drive demand for production  factors, particularly labor; thus creating  employment. Usually countries classify exports in  traditional and nontraditional, referring to  their history and importance in the  economy. In the case of Bolivia, the  export of food is considered  nontraditional, mainly because it is of  recent inclusion in the context of the  national economy.   Among the nontraditional exports,  soy-bean and its byproducts standout,  with an export value of 685 million per  year. The export statistics of  nontraditional products show that the  Andean region, and particularly the  Altiplano region, both have a minor  participation in exports.  Nevertheless, it  is important to highlight that the export of  quinoa in these regions constitutes the  main non-traditional export product of the  Andes and of the Bolivian Altiplano, with  a value of up to 153 million USD in 2013. For a good or service to be exported, it  must have comparative advantages. In the  case of quinoa these advantages are  manifested in the nutritional quality of the  grain, the fact that it does not contain  gluten and the uniqueness of the Royal  Quinoa organic production.   Evolution of exports of  Bolivian quinoa   According to data provided by the  Vice-Ministry of Rural Development and    Agriculture (VDRA), export volumes of  quinoa in 2013 have exceeded 35  thousand tons, equivalent to more than  153 million dollars. This represents a rise  of 33 % in volume, in comparison to the  year 2012; and an increase in over 90% of  the export value of quinoa, also in  comparison with the previous year. The  FOB (free on board) price showed a  record high in 2013 (6,000 USD/t in  November) reaching an average of more  than 4,300 USD/t, in comparison to 1,200  USD/t in 2006 (Figure 1). Figure 1 highlights the growing trend of  the export value of quinoa, where the  primary endpoint was the price. This is  generating a significant increase in the  value of domestic exports of quinoa  (Gandarillas  et al., 2014) and driving at   the same time the production of this grain  not only in Bolivia but also in different  countries that see in quinoa a growing  business opportunity because of the  increasing international demand.    Evolution of quinoa  production in Bolivia   The quinoa production in Bolivia has  experienced a significant increase in the  last decade, from a production of 23,000  tons in the year 2000 to above 61,000 tons  in 2013 (Figure 2). Such production volumes have also  implied an increase in the cultivated area,  ranging from almost 36,000 hectares in  2000 to more than 130,000 hectares by  2013 (Gandarillas et al., 2014). This substantial increase in the cultivated  area can be explained through the boom  caused by the appreciation of consumers  worldwide, for a food with the  characteristics of quinoa. In addition to  this, the declaration of the International  Year of Quinoa by the United Nations,  which after a series of national and  international promotional events, has  managed to position it among foods of the  highest culinary standard; causing a sharp    increase in foreign demand for this  product. The quantity of quinoa produced has  increased due to the expansion of the  cultivated area, while yield reflects a clear  downward trend (Figure 2) (Gandarillas et  al., 2014). Agricultural practices, little or no  replacement of soil fertility, the intensity  of the negative effects of climate change,  population dynamics of pests and diseases  and the use of grain as seed, are the  elements that explain the negative trend in  yield. This fact, in addition to the  considerable increase in selling prices, has  driven the generation of technology and  varieties adapted to other regions of the  country with benign climate for quinoa  production. Nevertheless, the Southern  Altiplano of Bolivia continues to be the  major quinoa producing region in the  country, where it is estimated that more  than twenty thousand families live from  the production and marketing of quinoa.   Economic effects of the quinoa  boom   An important outcome of this whole  situation is the economic effect that the  quinoa boom has generated for every  actor in the value chain. Producers,  intermediaries, brokers and exporters,  have benefited from price increases and  from the international demand for quinoa.  In the specific case of quinoa producing  families, although their unitary costs of  production have been increased mainly  due to a downward trend in yield,  sky-high prices in the export market have  allowed their revenues to remain stable or  even increase. This outcome has given  farmer families the opportunity to  implement modern technology to increase  production, and at the same time to  improve their quality of life (Figure 3).   Figure 3 shows an approximation of the  benefits received by different actors from  the quinoa value chain of, and the major  costs they deal with. It can be observed  that the decline in profitability of quinoa  production, during the last years, has had a  considerable effect on the unitary costs of  production per ton, a fact that has led to a  rise in prices in the domestic market as  well as in the export price. This has forced farmers to increase crop  production areas, inputs (mainly  chemical) and general efforts to sustain  production volumes; in order to maintain  their standard of living.  Additionally, the  expansion of cultivated area is detrimental  to other sectors such as live-stock  production (cameloid husbandry),  threatening the balance of the local  ecosystem.   This constitutes a challenge for local  authorities, institutions and quinoa  producer organizations themselves; which  to date are validating crop management  strategies that enable them to maintain  and improve farmer’s living standards and  the conditions of the local ecosystem. According to Avitabile (2013), the rise in  the price of quinoa has enabled farming  families to improve their living standards,  to have greater access to basic services,  and to increase their access to education.  It also indicates that while quinoa  consumption has declined in the Southern  Altiplano, the diet of farm families has  been diversified; now having access to  foods like fruits and vegetables, which  was not possible before mainly due to  economic and geographical problems.  Despite the rise in the price of quinoa,  70% of surveyed households in the study  by Avitabile mentioned that they  consumed quinoa between 2-4 times a  week. Apparently farmers have also social  motives that have privileged other  products in their diets. In many cases,  current quinoa producers, especially those  that hold greater extensions of land and  means of production, have experienced  recent migration processes. Many of them  have returned to their communities thanks  to the quinoa boom, and usually do not  stay to live permanently in the producing  areas, but are now “resident” community  members, meaning sporadic settlers.  Migration processes have played an  important role in changing the eating  habits of “resident” producers, who now  seek a diet similar to the one they had in  the cities (Pacheco et al., 2014).   Moreover, we must consider that quinoa  was the main food in producing areas for a  long time, and many producers at the ease  they currently have to vary their diet,  choose other foods that they previously  could not access. This ease of access to a  variety of foods is quite evident in the  region known as “intersalar” located  between the salt flatlands of Uyuni and  Coipasa. People who have worked in this  area for several years are aware of the  number of stores, small restaurants and  pensions that have opened in the region in  recent years. This along with the  improvement of roads and the enhanced  purchasing power of the population has  greatly increased food supply and its  diversity (including processed foods). An aspect related to the quinoa boom has  been the creation and consolidation of the  export industry. Consequently, in recent  years there has been an increase in legally  established enterprises that contribute to  enhance grain quality (processing) and to  open new and better channels of trade,  facilitating the export of quinoa and  improving conditions of input purchase  and supply for producers. Some  companies have forayed into the  manufacture of products from flour and  quinoa flakes, opening a new marketing  channel to international markets and  generating greater added value. Other  actors who have been added to the value  chain are the bulking intermediaries.  Before, it was the producers who brought  their produce directly to companies, now  there is a specific segment of the  population dedicated to grain bulking  (both on farms and in popular markets).   This has also contributed to the rise in  prices and to an increase of informal trade  for quinoa. This situation has forced    companies to invest more in order to keep  their trade commitments, incurring in  quinoa production of their own and  creating new mechanisms to establish  loyalty relations with primary producers. Up to this point in the analysis, only the  effects of the quinoa boom in the actors  directly linked to the value chain have  been mentioned.  Nevertheless, changes in  the national dynamics of quinoa  consumption have also been observed.   According to the Vice Ministry of Rural  Development and Agriculture (VDRA),  per capita quinoa consumption has  increased from 0.35 kg in 2008 to 1.11  kilograms in 2012 (IBCE, 2013). This fact  is explained by the government’s social  policies, such as maternity and nursing  subsidies, and other policies that promote  consumption of quinoa in cities and in  rural areas. However, a segment of the  population, who has seen how the prices  of quinoa grain increased and how it  moved from popular markets to luxurious  city shelves, remains isolated.   Quinoa’s international market  trends   Quinoa has positioned itself in world  markets. The trend of the international  price of quinoa is reaching unimagined  levels, which can be very encouraging in a  short term perspective and for certain  actors of the value chain. However  questions emerge in terms of what can  happen with the market and, until when  and to what extent will prices continue to  rise. Clearly the expectation generated by a  product of the characteristics of quinoa    along with its high prices, will motivate  producers and governments from various  regions of the world to start promoting  local production. An example of this is the  Anantha Project in India, which will  invest millions of dollars to promote  regional development and boost quinoa  production  (http://www.apard.gov.in/  project-anantha). The increase in quinoa’s global supply is a  matter of time (Zuckerman, 2014),  therefore it is expected that as demand  grows, prices will tend to stabilize. If  prices stabilize at current levels Bolivian  quinoa farmers, particularly organic  quinoa producers, will continue to have  favorable income assuming of course that  efforts to stabilize crop yields are  effective. In parallel, no significant  increases in production costs are  expected. Additionally, the organic  feature of the Bolivian quinoa production  would become the most important  differentiation factor for Bolivia to  maintain productive leadership. The big challenge for Bolivian quinoa  producers and for all actors in the value  chain is to ensure the sustainability of  production, particularly in the case  organic quinoa. The pressure exerted on production  systems, the expansion of the agricultural  frontier, the effects of climate change, and  declining productivity, are the main  causes that can lead Bolivia to lose its  comparative advantages for quinoa  production. Additionally, it should be  considered that more and more countries  are introducing quinoa in their production  systems and therefore are improving their  performance.   On the other hand, if the increase in  international supply causes a significant  drop in the international price of quinoa,  Bolivian producers will still have profit,  because production costs are relatively  low. However, this situation would not be  sustainable due to the factors mentioned  in the preceding paragraph. Obviously, if Bolivia intends to maintain  world leadership in the production and  marketing of quinoa, and to continue  benefiting thousands of farmer families  and other actors from the quinoa value  chain, it is imperative that measures to  promote sustainability and  competitiveness of quinoa are adopted. Much of these measures have to do with  investment in research and technology  development. Without it, it is impossible  to reverse the negative trend in yields, a  key indicator of the loss of  competitiveness. Neither will it be  possible to promote the sustainable  management of production systems and  landscape, nor achieve the agroecological  production of quinoa. Another important  group of measures has to do with the  generation and enforcement of rules and  regulations in relation to the sustainable  production of quinoa. While the Bolivian government is making  efforts to allocate resources to the  development of technology, the historical  moment demands that this investment be  proportional to the importance of quinoa  for human development in the Altiplano  region and for the national economy.   The importance of increasing  quinoa yield   One factor that is making quinoa more  expensive is the gradual yield reduction.  To produce the same amount of quinoa  there is a gradual need for more and more  acreage, which means higher cost, and  therefore the unitary cost tends to rise. If  one also considers the growing demand,  the result of this combination (yield  reduction and increasing demand) is the  expansion of the agricultural frontier,  which brings along a number of other  pro-problems, including social issues  related to land tenure.  Cultivating a hectare of quinoa has an  average cost of 6,044 Bs, considering the  average yield of 0.45 t/ha, it produces a  unitary production cost of 13,430 Bs/t  (1,930 USD/t). If the negative trend of the  quinoa yield could be reverted and the  average yield of 0.6 t/ha restored, the  unitary cost of production would drop to  10,073 Bs/t (1,447 USD/t).  If additionally  policies for the development of quinoa  production are implemented, setting as a  target to increase yield to at least 0.8 t/ha,  the unitary cost would drop to 7,555 Bs/t  (1,085 USD/t), which would allow a  reduction in the selling price without  reducing producers’ profits. Competitiveness, sustainability, afford-  ability and accessibility of quinoa are  possible as long as the production of  quinoa takes an agro-ecological approach  and one of continuous improvement of  productivity. Improve yields of quinoa,  with a focus on agro-ecological  production, must be the premise of all  stakeholders involved directly and    indirectly with the quinoa production  complex.  If this goal is not achieved, the  Altiplano production systems will be in  serious risk of disappearing and with  them, the wellbeing achieved by  thousands of quinoa farming families.   Cited references   Avitabile, E. 2013. The impact of the quinoa   boom on Bolivian family farmers.  Infographic published by FAO. On line.  Available at:  http://www.fao.org/assets/infographics/Q uinoa_Infographic.pdf. Retrieved May 26,  2014.  Gandarillas, A., Rojas, W., Bonifacio, A.,   Ojeda N. 2014. La quinua en Bolivia:  Perspectiva de la Fundación PROINPA.  Chapter 5. In: Bazile, D. “Estado del arte  de la quinua en el mundo”. FAO. (In  press).   Guerra, Z. 2012. Comercio internacional:   Importancia en el desarrollo económico.  Observatorio de la Economía  Latinoamericana, No. 170 (full text in:  http://www.eumed.net/cursecon/ecolat/m x/2012/).  IBCE 2013. La quinua boliviana traspasa   fronteras para el consumo mundial. Nro.  210. Publication of the Instituto Boliviano  de Comercio Exterior (IBCE) in  commemoration of the International Year  of Quinoa.   Pacheco, M., Blajos, J., Rojas, W. 2014.   Estudio de la producción y mercado de la  quinua. Chapter 6. IICA. (forthcoming).  Zuckerman, C. 2014. Quiero quinua. National   Geographic in Spanish. February 2014.  Vol. 34.     Revista de Agricultura, Nro. 54 - Julio de 2014   Area: Current National Affairs 5   Figure 2. Quinoa production area and yield in Bolivia.  (Source: Own elaboration based on data from INE, IBCE, VDRA and CABOLQUI)   23.16   22.59   23.79    24.60   24.75   26.79   27.74   28.23    28.81   34.16    36.11   38.26   50.57   61.18    35.91   35.69   37.33   38.94   40.54   43.55   46.32   48.90   50.36   59.92   63.01   64.77   96.54   131.19    0.64   0.63   0.64   0.63   0.61   0.61   0.60   0.58   0.57   0.57   0.57   0.59   0.52   0.47    0.00   0.10   0.20   0.30   0.40   0.50   0.60   0.70  0   20   40   60   80   100   120   140  2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013*   Yield  t/ha    Thousand  ha and  t    Production Cultivated Area Yield   The economic development of a country  is a necessary but not sufficient condition  for the existence of human development,  understanding the later as a general  development of the individual, in all of its  dimensions (Guerra, 2012). In order to promote economic  development, countries establish policies  that include actions to foster exports. As a  country develops its capacity to export  goods and services, it generates revenue    and strengthens its economic system.   Exports drive demand for production  factors, particularly labor; thus creating  employment. Usually countries classify exports in  traditional and nontraditional, referring to  their history and importance in the  economy. In the case of Bolivia, the  export of food is considered  nontraditional, mainly because it is of  recent inclusion in the context of the  national economy.   Among the nontraditional exports,  soy-bean and its byproducts standout,  with an export value of 685 million per  year. The export statistics of  nontraditional products show that the  Andean region, and particularly the  Altiplano region, both have a minor  participation in exports.  Nevertheless, it  is important to highlight that the export of  quinoa in these regions constitutes the  main non-traditional export product of the  Andes and of the Bolivian Altiplano, with  a value of up to 153 million USD in 2013. For a good or service to be exported, it  must have comparative advantages. In the  case of quinoa these advantages are  manifested in the nutritional quality of the  grain, the fact that it does not contain  gluten and the uniqueness of the Royal  Quinoa organic production.   Evolution of exports of  Bolivian quinoa   According to data provided by the  Vice-Ministry of Rural Development and    Agriculture (VDRA), export volumes of  quinoa in 2013 have exceeded 35  thousand tons, equivalent to more than  153 million dollars. This represents a rise  of 33 % in volume, in comparison to the  year 2012; and an increase in over 90% of  the export value of quinoa, also in  comparison with the previous year. The  FOB (free on board) price showed a  record high in 2013 (6,000 USD/t in  November) reaching an average of more  than 4,300 USD/t, in comparison to 1,200  USD/t in 2006 (Figure 1). Figure 1 highlights the growing trend of  the export value of quinoa, where the  primary endpoint was the price. This is  generating a significant increase in the  value of domestic exports of quinoa  (Gandarillas  et al., 2014) and driving at   the same time the production of this grain  not only in Bolivia but also in different  countries that see in quinoa a growing  business opportunity because of the  increasing international demand.    Evolution of quinoa  production in Bolivia   The quinoa production in Bolivia has  experienced a significant increase in the  last decade, from a production of 23,000  tons in the year 2000 to above 61,000 tons  in 2013 (Figure 2). Such production volumes have also  implied an increase in the cultivated area,  ranging from almost 36,000 hectares in  2000 to more than 130,000 hectares by  2013 (Gandarillas et al., 2014). This substantial increase in the cultivated  area can be explained through the boom  caused by the appreciation of consumers  worldwide, for a food with the  characteristics of quinoa. In addition to  this, the declaration of the International  Year of Quinoa by the United Nations,  which after a series of national and  international promotional events, has  managed to position it among foods of the  highest culinary standard; causing a sharp    increase in foreign demand for this  product. The quantity of quinoa produced has  increased due to the expansion of the  cultivated area, while yield reflects a clear  downward trend (Figure 2) (Gandarillas et  al., 2014). Agricultural practices, little or no  replacement of soil fertility, the intensity  of the negative effects of climate change,  population dynamics of pests and diseases  and the use of grain as seed, are the  elements that explain the negative trend in  yield. This fact, in addition to the  considerable increase in selling prices, has  driven the generation of technology and  varieties adapted to other regions of the  country with benign climate for quinoa  production. Nevertheless, the Southern  Altiplano of Bolivia continues to be the  major quinoa producing region in the  country, where it is estimated that more  than twenty thousand families live from  the production and marketing of quinoa.   Economic effects of the quinoa  boom   An important outcome of this whole  situation is the economic effect that the  quinoa boom has generated for every  actor in the value chain. Producers,  intermediaries, brokers and exporters,  have benefited from price increases and  from the international demand for quinoa.  In the specific case of quinoa producing  families, although their unitary costs of  production have been increased mainly  due to a downward trend in yield,  sky-high prices in the export market have  allowed their revenues to remain stable or  even increase. This outcome has given  farmer families the opportunity to  implement modern technology to increase  production, and at the same time to  improve their quality of life (Figure 3).   Figure 3 shows an approximation of the  benefits received by different actors from  the quinoa value chain of, and the major  costs they deal with. It can be observed  that the decline in profitability of quinoa  production, during the last years, has had a  considerable effect on the unitary costs of  production per ton, a fact that has led to a  rise in prices in the domestic market as  well as in the export price. This has forced farmers to increase crop  production areas, inputs (mainly  chemical) and general efforts to sustain  production volumes; in order to maintain  their standard of living.  Additionally, the  expansion of cultivated area is detrimental  to other sectors such as live-stock  production (cameloid husbandry),  threatening the balance of the local  ecosystem.   This constitutes a challenge for local  authorities, institutions and quinoa  producer organizations themselves; which  to date are validating crop management  strategies that enable them to maintain  and improve farmer’s living standards and  the conditions of the local ecosystem. According to Avitabile (2013), the rise in  the price of quinoa has enabled farming  families to improve their living standards,  to have greater access to basic services,  and to increase their access to education.  It also indicates that while quinoa  consumption has declined in the Southern  Altiplano, the diet of farm families has  been diversified; now having access to  foods like fruits and vegetables, which  was not possible before mainly due to  economic and geographical problems.  Despite the rise in the price of quinoa,  70% of surveyed households in the study  by Avitabile mentioned that they  consumed quinoa between 2-4 times a  week. Apparently farmers have also social  motives that have privileged other  products in their diets. In many cases,  current quinoa producers, especially those  that hold greater extensions of land and  means of production, have experienced  recent migration processes. Many of them  have returned to their communities thanks  to the quinoa boom, and usually do not  stay to live permanently in the producing  areas, but are now “resident” community  members, meaning sporadic settlers.  Migration processes have played an  important role in changing the eating  habits of “resident” producers, who now  seek a diet similar to the one they had in  the cities (Pacheco et al., 2014).   Moreover, we must consider that quinoa  was the main food in producing areas for a  long time, and many producers at the ease  they currently have to vary their diet,  choose other foods that they previously  could not access. This ease of access to a  variety of foods is quite evident in the  region known as “intersalar” located  between the salt flatlands of Uyuni and  Coipasa. People who have worked in this  area for several years are aware of the  number of stores, small restaurants and  pensions that have opened in the region in  recent years. This along with the  improvement of roads and the enhanced  purchasing power of the population has  greatly increased food supply and its  diversity (including processed foods). An aspect related to the quinoa boom has  been the creation and consolidation of the  export industry. Consequently, in recent  years there has been an increase in legally  established enterprises that contribute to  enhance grain quality (processing) and to  open new and better channels of trade,  facilitating the export of quinoa and  improving conditions of input purchase  and supply for producers. Some  companies have forayed into the  manufacture of products from flour and  quinoa flakes, opening a new marketing  channel to international markets and  generating greater added value. Other  actors who have been added to the value  chain are the bulking intermediaries.  Before, it was the producers who brought  their produce directly to companies, now  there is a specific segment of the  population dedicated to grain bulking  (both on farms and in popular markets).   This has also contributed to the rise in  prices and to an increase of informal trade  for quinoa. This situation has forced    companies to invest more in order to keep  their trade commitments, incurring in  quinoa production of their own and  creating new mechanisms to establish  loyalty relations with primary producers. Up to this point in the analysis, only the  effects of the quinoa boom in the actors  directly linked to the value chain have  been mentioned.  Nevertheless, changes in  the national dynamics of quinoa  consumption have also been observed.   According to the Vice Ministry of Rural  Development and Agriculture (VDRA),  per capita quinoa consumption has  increased from 0.35 kg in 2008 to 1.11  kilograms in 2012 (IBCE, 2013). This fact  is explained by the government’s social  policies, such as maternity and nursing  subsidies, and other policies that promote  consumption of quinoa in cities and in  rural areas. However, a segment of the  population, who has seen how the prices  of quinoa grain increased and how it  moved from popular markets to luxurious  city shelves, remains isolated.   Quinoa’s international market  trends   Quinoa has positioned itself in world  markets. The trend of the international  price of quinoa is reaching unimagined  levels, which can be very encouraging in a  short term perspective and for certain  actors of the value chain. However  questions emerge in terms of what can  happen with the market and, until when  and to what extent will prices continue to  rise. Clearly the expectation generated by a  product of the characteristics of quinoa    along with its high prices, will motivate  producers and governments from various  regions of the world to start promoting  local production. An example of this is the  Anantha Project in India, which will  invest millions of dollars to promote  regional development and boost quinoa  production  (http://www.apard.gov.in/  project-anantha). The increase in quinoa’s global supply is a  matter of time (Zuckerman, 2014),  therefore it is expected that as demand  grows, prices will tend to stabilize. If  prices stabilize at current levels Bolivian  quinoa farmers, particularly organic  quinoa producers, will continue to have  favorable income assuming of course that  efforts to stabilize crop yields are  effective. In parallel, no significant  increases in production costs are  expected. Additionally, the organic  feature of the Bolivian quinoa production  would become the most important  differentiation factor for Bolivia to  maintain productive leadership. The big challenge for Bolivian quinoa  producers and for all actors in the value  chain is to ensure the sustainability of  production, particularly in the case  organic quinoa. The pressure exerted on production  systems, the expansion of the agricultural  frontier, the effects of climate change, and  declining productivity, are the main  causes that can lead Bolivia to lose its  comparative advantages for quinoa  production. Additionally, it should be  considered that more and more countries  are introducing quinoa in their production  systems and therefore are improving their  performance.   On the other hand, if the increase in  international supply causes a significant  drop in the international price of quinoa,  Bolivian producers will still have profit,  because production costs are relatively  low. However, this situation would not be  sustainable due to the factors mentioned  in the preceding paragraph. Obviously, if Bolivia intends to maintain  world leadership in the production and  marketing of quinoa, and to continue  benefiting thousands of farmer families  and other actors from the quinoa value  chain, it is imperative that measures to  promote sustainability and  competitiveness of quinoa are adopted. Much of these measures have to do with  investment in research and technology  development. Without it, it is impossible  to reverse the negative trend in yields, a  key indicator of the loss of  competitiveness. Neither will it be  possible to promote the sustainable  management of production systems and  landscape, nor achieve the agroecological  production of quinoa. Another important  group of measures has to do with the  generation and enforcement of rules and  regulations in relation to the sustainable  production of quinoa. While the Bolivian government is making  efforts to allocate resources to the  development of technology, the historical  moment demands that this investment be  proportional to the importance of quinoa  for human development in the Altiplano  region and for the national economy.   The importance of increasing  quinoa yield   One factor that is making quinoa more  expensive is the gradual yield reduction.  To produce the same amount of quinoa  there is a gradual need for more and more  acreage, which means higher cost, and  therefore the unitary cost tends to rise. If  one also considers the growing demand,  the result of this combination (yield  reduction and increasing demand) is the  expansion of the agricultural frontier,  which brings along a number of other  pro-problems, including social issues  related to land tenure.  Cultivating a hectare of quinoa has an  average cost of 6,044 Bs, considering the  average yield of 0.45 t/ha, it produces a  unitary production cost of 13,430 Bs/t  (1,930 USD/t). If the negative trend of the  quinoa yield could be reverted and the  average yield of 0.6 t/ha restored, the  unitary cost of production would drop to  10,073 Bs/t (1,447 USD/t).  If additionally  policies for the development of quinoa  production are implemented, setting as a  target to increase yield to at least 0.8 t/ha,  the unitary cost would drop to 7,555 Bs/t  (1,085 USD/t), which would allow a  reduction in the selling price without  reducing producers’ profits. Competitiveness, sustainability, afford-  ability and accessibility of quinoa are  possible as long as the production of  quinoa takes an agro-ecological approach  and one of continuous improvement of  productivity. Improve yields of quinoa,  with a focus on agro-ecological  production, must be the premise of all  stakeholders involved directly and    indirectly with the quinoa production  complex.  If this goal is not achieved, the  Altiplano production systems will be in  serious risk of disappearing and with  them, the wellbeing achieved by  thousands of quinoa farming families.   Cited references   Avitabile, E. 2013. The impact of the quinoa   boom on Bolivian family farmers.  Infographic published by FAO. On line.  Available at:  http://www.fao.org/assets/infographics/Q uinoa_Infographic.pdf. Retrieved May 26,  2014.  Gandarillas, A., Rojas, W., Bonifacio, A.,   Ojeda N. 2014. La quinua en Bolivia:  Perspectiva de la Fundación PROINPA.  Chapter 5. In: Bazile, D. “Estado del arte  de la quinua en el mundo”. FAO. (In  press).   Guerra, Z. 2012. Comercio internacional:   Importancia en el desarrollo económico.  Observatorio de la Economía  Latinoamericana, No. 170 (full text in:  http://www.eumed.net/cursecon/ecolat/m x/2012/).  IBCE 2013. La quinua boliviana traspasa   fronteras para el consumo mundial. Nro.  210. Publication of the Instituto Boliviano  de Comercio Exterior (IBCE) in  commemoration of the International Year  of Quinoa.   Pacheco, M., Blajos, J., Rojas, W. 2014.   Estudio de la producción y mercado de la  quinua. Chapter 6. IICA. (forthcoming).  Zuckerman, C. 2014. Quiero quinua. National   Geographic in Spanish. February 2014.  Vol. 34.     ISSN 1998 - 9652   Area: Current National Affairs 6   Figure 3. Cost ratio and benefit distribution USD/t  (Source: Own elaboration based on data from IBCE, VDRA  and primary production costs information)   839  947  1,030  1,067  1,336  1,930   875  981  1,142  1,219  1,106   1,220   190  214   241  254  271    350   328   831  698  436  330    871   2,233    2,974  3,111  2,976  3,044    4,371   0   1,000   2,000   3,000   4,000  2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013   US Dóllars     Benefit for  Intermediaries  and Exporters  Processing Co st   Benefit for  Producers   Production Cost   FOB Price  (USD/t)   The economic development of a country  is a necessary but not sufficient condition  for the existence of human development,  understanding the later as a general  development of the individual, in all of its  dimensions (Guerra, 2012). In order to promote economic  development, countries establish policies  that include actions to foster exports. As a  country develops its capacity to export  goods and services, it generates revenue    and strengthens its economic system.   Exports drive demand for production  factors, particularly labor; thus creating  employment. Usually countries classify exports in  traditional and nontraditional, referring to  their history and importance in the  economy. In the case of Bolivia, the  export of food is considered  nontraditional, mainly because it is of  recent inclusion in the context of the  national economy.   Among the nontraditional exports,  soy-bean and its byproducts standout,  with an export value of 685 million per  year. The export statistics of  nontraditional products show that the  Andean region, and particularly the  Altiplano region, both have a minor  participation in exports.  Nevertheless, it  is important to highlight that the export of  quinoa in these regions constitutes the  main non-traditional export product of the  Andes and of the Bolivian Altiplano, with  a value of up to 153 million USD in 2013. For a good or service to be exported, it  must have comparative advantages. In the  case of quinoa these advantages are  manifested in the nutritional quality of the  grain, the fact that it does not contain  gluten and the uniqueness of the Royal  Quinoa organic production.   Evolution of exports of  Bolivian quinoa   According to data provided by the  Vice-Ministry of Rural Development and    Agriculture (VDRA), export volumes of  quinoa in 2013 have exceeded 35  thousand tons, equivalent to more than  153 million dollars. This represents a rise  of 33 % in volume, in comparison to the  year 2012; and an increase in over 90% of  the export value of quinoa, also in  comparison with the previous year. The  FOB (free on board) price showed a  record high in 2013 (6,000 USD/t in  November) reaching an average of more  than 4,300 USD/t, in comparison to 1,200  USD/t in 2006 (Figure 1). Figure 1 highlights the growing trend of  the export value of quinoa, where the  primary endpoint was the price. This is  generating a significant increase in the  value of domestic exports of quinoa  (Gandarillas  et al., 2014) and driving at   the same time the production of this grain  not only in Bolivia but also in different  countries that see in quinoa a growing  business opportunity because of the  increasing international demand.    Evolution of quinoa  production in Bolivia   The quinoa production in Bolivia has  experienced a significant increase in the  last decade, from a production of 23,000  tons in the year 2000 to above 61,000 tons  in 2013 (Figure 2). Such production volumes have also  implied an increase in the cultivated area,  ranging from almost 36,000 hectares in  2000 to more than 130,000 hectares by  2013 (Gandarillas et al., 2014). This substantial increase in the cultivated  area can be explained through the boom  caused by the appreciation of consumers  worldwide, for a food with the  characteristics of quinoa. In addition to  this, the declaration of the International  Year of Quinoa by the United Nations,  which after a series of national and  international promotional events, has  managed to position it among foods of the  highest culinary standard; causing a sharp    increase in foreign demand for this  product. The quantity of quinoa produced has  increased due to the expansion of the  cultivated area, while yield reflects a clear  downward trend (Figure 2) (Gandarillas et  al., 2014). Agricultural practices, little or no  replacement of soil fertility, the intensity  of the negative effects of climate change,  population dynamics of pests and diseases  and the use of grain as seed, are the  elements that explain the negative trend in  yield. This fact, in addition to the  considerable increase in selling prices, has  driven the generation of technology and  varieties adapted to other regions of the  country with benign climate for quinoa  production. Nevertheless, the Southern  Altiplano of Bolivia continues to be the  major quinoa producing region in the  country, where it is estimated that more  than twenty thousand families live from  the production and marketing of quinoa.   Economic effects of the quinoa  boom   An important outcome of this whole  situation is the economic effect that the  quinoa boom has generated for every  actor in the value chain. Producers,  intermediaries, brokers and exporters,  have benefited from price increases and  from the international demand for quinoa.  In the specific case of quinoa producing  families, although their unitary costs of  production have been increased mainly  due to a downward trend in yield,  sky-high prices in the export market have  allowed their revenues to remain stable or  even increase. This outcome has given  farmer families the opportunity to  implement modern technology to increase  production, and at the same time to  improve their quality of life (Figure 3).   Figure 3 shows an approximation of the  benefits received by different actors from  the quinoa value chain of, and the major  costs they deal with. It can be observed  that the decline in profitability of quinoa  production, during the last years, has had a  considerable effect on the unitary costs of  production per ton, a fact that has led to a  rise in prices in the domestic market as  well as in the export price. This has forced farmers to increase crop  production areas, inputs (mainly  chemical) and general efforts to sustain  production volumes; in order to maintain  their standard of living.  Additionally, the  expansion of cultivated area is detrimental  to other sectors such as live-stock  production (cameloid husbandry),  threatening the balance of the local  ecosystem.   This constitutes a challenge for local  authorities, institutions and quinoa  producer organizations themselves; which  to date are validating crop management  strategies that enable them to maintain  and improve farmer’s living standards and  the conditions of the local ecosystem. According to Avitabile (2013), the rise in  the price of quinoa has enabled farming  families to improve their living standards,  to have greater access to basic services,  and to increase their access to education.  It also indicates that while quinoa  consumption has declined in the Southern  Altiplano, the diet of farm families has  been diversified; now having access to  foods like fruits and vegetables, which  was not possible before mainly due to  economic and geographical problems.  Despite the rise in the price of quinoa,  70% of surveyed households in the study  by Avitabile mentioned that they  consumed quinoa between 2-4 times a  week. Apparently farmers have also social  motives that have privileged other  products in their diets. In many cases,  current quinoa producers, especially those  that hold greater extensions of land and  means of production, have experienced  recent migration processes. Many of them  have returned to their communities thanks  to the quinoa boom, and usually do not  stay to live permanently in the producing  areas, but are now “resident” community  members, meaning sporadic settlers.  Migration processes have played an  important role in changing the eating  habits of “resident” producers, who now  seek a diet similar to the one they had in  the cities (Pacheco et al., 2014).   Moreover, we must consider that quinoa  was the main food in producing areas for a  long time, and many producers at the ease  they currently have to vary their diet,  choose other foods that they previously  could not access. This ease of access to a  variety of foods is quite evident in the  region known as “intersalar” located  between the salt flatlands of Uyuni and  Coipasa. People who have worked in this  area for several years are aware of the  number of stores, small restaurants and  pensions that have opened in the region in  recent years. This along with the  improvement of roads and the enhanced  purchasing power of the population has  greatly increased food supply and its  diversity (including processed foods). An aspect related to the quinoa boom has  been the creation and consolidation of the  export industry. Consequently, in recent  years there has been an increase in legally  established enterprises that contribute to  enhance grain quality (processing) and to  open new and better channels of trade,  facilitating the export of quinoa and  improving conditions of input purchase  and supply for producers. Some  companies have forayed into the  manufacture of products from flour and  quinoa flakes, opening a new marketing  channel to international markets and  generating greater added value. Other  actors who have been added to the value  chain are the bulking intermediaries.  Before, it was the producers who brought  their produce directly to companies, now  there is a specific segment of the  population dedicated to grain bulking  (both on farms and in popular markets).   This has also contributed to the rise in  prices and to an increase of informal trade  for quinoa. This situation has forced    companies to invest more in order to keep  their trade commitments, incurring in  quinoa production of their own and  creating new mechanisms to establish  loyalty relations with primary producers. Up to this point in the analysis, only the  effects of the quinoa boom in the actors  directly linked to the value chain have  been mentioned.  Nevertheless, changes in  the national dynamics of quinoa  consumption have also been observed.   According to the Vice Ministry of Rural  Development and Agriculture (VDRA),  per capita quinoa consumption has  increased from 0.35 kg in 2008 to 1.11  kilograms in 2012 (IBCE, 2013). This fact  is explained by the government’s social  policies, such as maternity and nursing  subsidies, and other policies that promote  consumption of quinoa in cities and in  rural areas. However, a segment of the  population, who has seen how the prices  of quinoa grain increased and how it  moved from popular markets to luxurious  city shelves, remains isolated.   Quinoa’s international market  trends   Quinoa has positioned itself in world  markets. The trend of the international  price of quinoa is reaching unimagined  levels, which can be very encouraging in a  short term perspective and for certain  actors of the value chain. However  questions emerge in terms of what can  happen with the market and, until when  and to what extent will prices continue to  rise. Clearly the expectation generated by a  product of the characteristics of quinoa    along with its high prices, will motivate  producers and governments from various  regions of the world to start promoting  local production. An example of this is the  Anantha Project in India, which will  invest millions of dollars to promote  regional development and boost quinoa  production  (http://www.apard.gov.in/  project-anantha). The increase in quinoa’s global supply is a  matter of time (Zuckerman, 2014),  therefore it is expected that as demand  grows, prices will tend to stabilize. If  prices stabilize at current levels Bolivian  quinoa farmers, particularly organic  quinoa producers, will continue to have  favorable income assuming of course that  efforts to stabilize crop yields are  effective. In parallel, no significant  increases in production costs are  expected. Additionally, the organic  feature of the Bolivian quinoa production  would become the most important  differentiation factor for Bolivia to  maintain productive leadership. The big challenge for Bolivian quinoa  producers and for all actors in the value  chain is to ensure the sustainability of  production, particularly in the case  organic quinoa. The pressure exerted on production  systems, the expansion of the agricultural  frontier, the effects of climate change, and  declining productivity, are the main  causes that can lead Bolivia to lose its  comparative advantages for quinoa  production. Additionally, it should be  considered that more and more countries  are introducing quinoa in their production  systems and therefore are improving their  performance.   On the other hand, if the increase in  international supply causes a significant  drop in the international price of quinoa,  Bolivian producers will still have profit,  because production costs are relatively  low. However, this situation would not be  sustainable due to the factors mentioned  in the preceding paragraph. Obviously, if Bolivia intends to maintain  world leadership in the production and  marketing of quinoa, and to continue  benefiting thousands of farmer families  and other actors from the quinoa value  chain, it is imperative that measures to  promote sustainability and  competitiveness of quinoa are adopted. Much of these measures have to do with  investment in research and technology  development. Without it, it is impossible  to reverse the negative trend in yields, a  key indicator of the loss of  competitiveness. Neither will it be  possible to promote the sustainable  management of production systems and  landscape, nor achieve the agroecological  production of quinoa. Another important  group of measures has to do with the  generation and enforcement of rules and  regulations in relation to the sustainable  production of quinoa. While the Bolivian government is making  efforts to allocate resources to the  development of technology, the historical  moment demands that this investment be  proportional to the importance of quinoa  for human development in the Altiplano  region and for the national economy.   The importance of increasing  quinoa yield   One factor that is making quinoa more  expensive is the gradual yield reduction.  To produce the same amount of quinoa  there is a gradual need for more and more  acreage, which means higher cost, and  therefore the unitary cost tends to rise. If  one also considers the growing demand,  the result of this combination (yield  reduction and increasing demand) is the  expansion of the agricultural frontier,  which brings along a number of other  pro-problems, including social issues  related to land tenure.  Cultivating a hectare of quinoa has an  average cost of 6,044 Bs, considering the  average yield of 0.45 t/ha, it produces a  unitary production cost of 13,430 Bs/t  (1,930 USD/t). If the negative trend of the  quinoa yield could be reverted and the  average yield of 0.6 t/ha restored, the  unitary cost of production would drop to  10,073 Bs/t (1,447 USD/t).  If additionally  policies for the development of quinoa  production are implemented, setting as a  target to increase yield to at least 0.8 t/ha,  the unitary cost would drop to 7,555 Bs/t  (1,085 USD/t), which would allow a  reduction in the selling price without  reducing producers’ profits. Competitiveness, sustainability, afford-  ability and accessibility of quinoa are  possible as long as the production of  quinoa takes an agro-ecological approach  and one of continuous improvement of  productivity. Improve yields of quinoa,  with a focus on agro-ecological  production, must be the premise of all  stakeholders involved directly and    indirectly with the quinoa production  complex.  If this goal is not achieved, the  Altiplano production systems will be in  serious risk of disappearing and with  them, the wellbeing achieved by  thousands of quinoa farming families.   Cited references   Avitabile, E. 2013. The impact of the quinoa   boom on Bolivian family farmers.  Infographic published by FAO. On line.  Available at:  http://www.fao.org/assets/infographics/Q uinoa_Infographic.pdf. Retrieved May 26,  2014.  Gandarillas, A., Rojas, W., Bonifacio, A.,   Ojeda N. 2014. La quinua en Bolivia:  Perspectiva de la Fundación PROINPA.  Chapter 5. In: Bazile, D. “Estado del arte  de la quinua en el mundo”. FAO. (In  press).   Guerra, Z. 2012. Comercio internacional:   Importancia en el desarrollo económico.  Observatorio de la Economía  Latinoamericana, No. 170 (full text in:  http://www.eumed.net/cursecon/ecolat/m x/2012/).  IBCE 2013. La quinua boliviana traspasa   fronteras para el consumo mundial. Nro.  210. Publication of the Instituto Boliviano  de Comercio Exterior (IBCE) in  commemoration of the International Year  of Quinoa.   Pacheco, M., Blajos, J., Rojas, W. 2014.   Estudio de la producción y mercado de la  quinua. Chapter 6. IICA. (forthcoming).  Zuckerman, C. 2014. Quiero quinua. National   Geographic in Spanish. February 2014.  Vol. 34.     Revista de Agricultura, Nro. 54 - Julio de 2014   Area: Current National Affairs 7   The economic development of a country  is a necessary but not sufficient condition  for the existence of human development,  understanding the later as a general  development of the individual, in all of its  dimensions (Guerra, 2012). In order to promote economic  development, countries establish policies  that include actions to foster exports. As a  country develops its capacity to export  goods and services, it generates revenue    and strengthens its economic system.   Exports drive demand for production  factors, particularly labor; thus creating  employment. Usually countries classify exports in  traditional and nontraditional, referring to  their history and importance in the  economy. In the case of Bolivia, the  export of food is considered  nontraditional, mainly because it is of  recent inclusion in the context of the  national economy.   Among the nontraditional exports,  soy-bean and its byproducts standout,  with an export value of 685 million per  year. The export statistics of  nontraditional products show that the  Andean region, and particularly the  Altiplano region, both have a minor  participation in exports.  Nevertheless, it  is important to highlight that the export of  quinoa in these regions constitutes the  main non-traditional export product of the  Andes and of the Bolivian Altiplano, with  a value of up to 153 million USD in 2013. For a good or service to be exported, it  must have comparative advantages. In the  case of quinoa these advantages are  manifested in the nutritional quality of the  grain, the fact that it does not contain  gluten and the uniqueness of the Royal  Quinoa organic production.   Evolution of exports of  Bolivian quinoa   According to data provided by the  Vice-Ministry of Rural Development and    Agriculture (VDRA), export volumes of  quinoa in 2013 have exceeded 35  thousand tons, equivalent to more than  153 million dollars. This represents a rise  of 33 % in volume, in comparison to the  year 2012; and an increase in over 90% of  the export value of quinoa, also in  comparison with the previous year. The  FOB (free on board) price showed a  record high in 2013 (6,000 USD/t in  November) reaching an average of more  than 4,300 USD/t, in comparison to 1,200  USD/t in 2006 (Figure 1). Figure 1 highlights the growing trend of  the export value of quinoa, where the  primary endpoint was the price. This is  generating a significant increase in the  value of domestic exports of quinoa  (Gandarillas  et al., 2014) and driving at   the same time the production of this grain  not only in Bolivia but also in different  countries that see in quinoa a growing  business opportunity because of the  increasing international demand.    Evolution of quinoa  production in Bolivia   The quinoa production in Bolivia has  experienced a significant increase in the  last decade, from a production of 23,000  tons in the year 2000 to above 61,000 tons  in 2013 (Figure 2). Such production volumes have also  implied an increase in the cultivated area,  ranging from almost 36,000 hectares in  2000 to more than 130,000 hectares by  2013 (Gandarillas et al., 2014). This substantial increase in the cultivated  area can be explained through the boom  caused by the appreciation of consumers  worldwide, for a food with the  characteristics of quinoa. In addition to  this, the declaration of the International  Year of Quinoa by the United Nations,  which after a series of national and  international promotional events, has  managed to position it among foods of the  highest culinary standard; causing a sharp    increase in foreign demand for this  product. The quantity of quinoa produced has  increased due to the expansion of the  cultivated area, while yield reflects a clear  downward trend (Figure 2) (Gandarillas et  al., 2014). Agricultural practices, little or no  replacement of soil fertility, the intensity  of the negative effects of climate change,  population dynamics of pests and diseases  and the use of grain as seed, are the  elements that explain the negative trend in  yield. This fact, in addition to the  considerable increase in selling prices, has  driven the generation of technology and  varieties adapted to other regions of the  country with benign climate for quinoa  production. Nevertheless, the Southern  Altiplano of Bolivia continues to be the  major quinoa producing region in the  country, where it is estimated that more  than twenty thousand families live from  the production and marketing of quinoa.   Economic effects of the quinoa  boom   An important outcome of this whole  situation is the economic effect that the  quinoa boom has generated for every  actor in the value chain. Producers,  intermediaries, brokers and exporters,  have benefited from price increases and  from the international demand for quinoa.  In the specific case of quinoa producing  families, although their unitary costs of  production have been increased mainly  due to a downward trend in yield,  sky-high prices in the export market have  allowed their revenues to remain stable or  even increase. This outcome has given  farmer families the opportunity to  implement modern technology to increase  production, and at the same time to  improve their quality of life (Figure 3).   Figure 3 shows an approximation of the  benefits received by different actors from  the quinoa value chain of, and the major  costs they deal with. It can be observed  that the decline in profitability of quinoa  production, during the last years, has had a  considerable effect on the unitary costs of  production per ton, a fact that has led to a  rise in prices in the domestic market as  well as in the export price. This has forced farmers to increase crop  production areas, inputs (mainly  chemical) and general efforts to sustain  production volumes; in order to maintain  their standard of living.  Additionally, the  expansion of cultivated area is detrimental  to other sectors such as live-stock  production (cameloid husbandry),  threatening the balance of the local  ecosystem.   This constitutes a challenge for local  authorities, institutions and quinoa  producer organizations themselves; which  to date are validating crop management  strategies that enable them to maintain  and improve farmer’s living standards and  the conditions of the local ecosystem. According to Avitabile (2013), the rise in  the price of quinoa has enabled farming  families to improve their living standards,  to have greater access to basic services,  and to increase their access to education.  It also indicates that while quinoa  consumption has declined in the Southern  Altiplano, the diet of farm families has  been diversified; now having access to  foods like fruits and vegetables, which  was not possible before mainly due to  economic and geographical problems.  Despite the rise in the price of quinoa,  70% of surveyed households in the study  by Avitabile mentioned that they  consumed quinoa between 2-4 times a  week. Apparently farmers have also social  motives that have privileged other  products in their diets. In many cases,  current quinoa producers, especially those  that hold greater extensions of land and  means of production, have experienced  recent migration processes. Many of them  have returned to their communities thanks  to the quinoa boom, and usually do not  stay to live permanently in the producing  areas, but are now “resident” community  members, meaning sporadic settlers.  Migration processes have played an  important role in changing the eating  habits of “resident” producers, who now  seek a diet similar to the one they had in  the cities (Pacheco et al., 2014).   Moreover, we must consider that quinoa  was the main food in producing areas for a  long time, and many producers at the ease  they currently have to vary their diet,  choose other foods that they previously  could not access. This ease of access to a  variety of foods is quite evident in the  region known as “intersalar” located  between the salt flatlands of Uyuni and  Coipasa. People who have worked in this  area for several years are aware of the  number of stores, small restaurants and  pensions that have opened in the region in  recent years. This along with the  improvement of roads and the enhanced  purchasing power of the population has  greatly increased food supply and its  diversity (including processed foods). An aspect related to the quinoa boom has  been the creation and consolidation of the  export industry. Consequently, in recent  years there has been an increase in legally  established enterprises that contribute to  enhance grain quality (processing) and to  open new and better channels of trade,  facilitating the export of quinoa and  improving conditions of input purchase  and supply for producers. Some  companies have forayed into the  manufacture of products from flour and  quinoa flakes, opening a new marketing  channel to international markets and  generating greater added value. Other  actors who have been added to the value  chain are the bulking intermediaries.  Before, it was the producers who brought  their produce directly to companies, now  there is a specific segment of the  population dedicated to grain bulking  (both on farms and in popular markets).   This has also contributed to the rise in  prices and to an increase of informal trade  for quinoa. This situation has forced    companies to invest more in order to keep  their trade commitments, incurring in  quinoa production of their own and  creating new mechanisms to establish  loyalty relations with primary producers. Up to this point in the analysis, only the  effects of the quinoa boom in the actors  directly linked to the value chain have  been mentioned.  Nevertheless, changes in  the national dynamics of quinoa  consumption have also been observed.   According to the Vice Ministry of Rural  Development and Agriculture (VDRA),  per capita quinoa consumption has  increased from 0.35 kg in 2008 to 1.11  kilograms in 2012 (IBCE, 2013). This fact  is explained by the government’s social  policies, such as maternity and nursing  subsidies, and other policies that promote  consumption of quinoa in cities and in  rural areas. However, a segment of the  population, who has seen how the prices  of quinoa grain increased and how it  moved from popular markets to luxurious  city shelves, remains isolated.   Quinoa’s international market  trends   Quinoa has positioned itself in world  markets. The trend of the international  price of quinoa is reaching unimagined  levels, which can be very encouraging in a  short term perspective and for certain  actors of the value chain. However  questions emerge in terms of what can  happen with the market and, until when  and to what extent will prices continue to  rise. Clearly the expectation generated by a  product of the characteristics of quinoa    along with its high prices, will motivate  producers and governments from various  regions of the world to start promoting  local production. An example of this is the  Anantha Project in India, which will  invest millions of dollars to promote  regional development and boost quinoa  production  (http://www.apard.gov.in/  project-anantha). The increase in quinoa’s global supply is a  matter of time (Zuckerman, 2014),  therefore it is expected that as demand  grows, prices will tend to stabilize. If  prices stabilize at current levels Bolivian  quinoa farmers, particularly organic  quinoa producers, will continue to have  favorable income assuming of course that  efforts to stabilize crop yields are  effective. In parallel, no significant  increases in production costs are  expected. Additionally, the organic  feature of the Bolivian quinoa production  would become the most important  differentiation factor for Bolivia to  maintain productive leadership. The big challenge for Bolivian quinoa  producers and for all actors in the value  chain is to ensure the sustainability of  production, particularly in the case  organic quinoa. The pressure exerted on production  systems, the expansion of the agricultural  frontier, the effects of climate change, and  declining productivity, are the main  causes that can lead Bolivia to lose its  comparative advantages for quinoa  production. Additionally, it should be  considered that more and more countries  are introducing quinoa in their production  systems and therefore are improving their  performance.   On the other hand, if the increase in  international supply causes a significant  drop in the international price of quinoa,  Bolivian producers will still have profit,  because production costs are relatively  low. However, this situation would not be  sustainable due to the factors mentioned  in the preceding paragraph. Obviously, if Bolivia intends to maintain  world leadership in the production and  marketing of quinoa, and to continue  benefiting thousands of farmer families  and other actors from the quinoa value  chain, it is imperative that measures to  promote sustainability and  competitiveness of quinoa are adopted. Much of these measures have to do with  investment in research and technology  development. Without it, it is impossible  to reverse the negative trend in yields, a  key indicator of the loss of  competitiveness. Neither will it be  possible to promote the sustainable  management of production systems and  landscape, nor achieve the agroecological  production of quinoa. Another important  group of measures has to do with the  generation and enforcement of rules and  regulations in relation to the sustainable  production of quinoa. While the Bolivian government is making  efforts to allocate resources to the  development of technology, the historical  moment demands that this investment be  proportional to the importance of quinoa  for human development in the Altiplano  region and for the national economy.   The importance of increasing  quinoa yield   One factor that is making quinoa more  expensive is the gradual yield reduction.  To produce the same amount of quinoa  there is a gradual need for more and more  acreage, which means higher cost, and  therefore the unitary cost tends to rise. If  one also considers the growing demand,  the result of this combination (yield  reduction and increasing demand) is the  expansion of the agricultural frontier,  which brings along a number of other  pro-problems, including social issues  related to land tenure.  Cultivating a hectare of quinoa has an  average cost of 6,044 Bs, considering the  average yield of 0.45 t/ha, it produces a  unitary production cost of 13,430 Bs/t  (1,930 USD/t). If the negative trend of the  quinoa yield could be reverted and the  average yield of 0.6 t/ha restored, the  unitary cost of production would drop to  10,073 Bs/t (1,447 USD/t).  If additionally  policies for the development of quinoa  production are implemented, setting as a  target to increase yield to at least 0.8 t/ha,  the unitary cost would drop to 7,555 Bs/t  (1,085 USD/t), which would allow a  reduction in the selling price without  reducing producers’ profits. Competitiveness, sustainability, afford-  ability and accessibility of quinoa are  possible as long as the production of  quinoa takes an agro-ecological approach  and one of continuous improvement of  productivity. Improve yields of quinoa,  with a focus on agro-ecological  production, must be the premise of all  stakeholders involved directly and    indirectly with the quinoa production  complex.  If this goal is not achieved, the  Altiplano production systems will be in  serious risk of disappearing and with  them, the wellbeing achieved by  thousands of quinoa farming families.   Cited references   Avitabile, E. 2013. The impact of the quinoa   boom on Bolivian family farmers.  Infographic published by FAO. On line.  Available at:  http://www.fao.org/assets/infographics/Q uinoa_Infographic.pdf. Retrieved May 26,  2014.  Gandarillas, A., Rojas, W., Bonifacio, A.,   Ojeda N. 2014. La quinua en Bolivia:  Perspectiva de la Fundación PROINPA.  Chapter 5. In: Bazile, D. “Estado del arte  de la quinua en el mundo”. FAO. (In  press).   Guerra, Z. 2012. Comercio internacional:   Importancia en el desarrollo económico.  Observatorio de la Economía  Latinoamericana, No. 170 (full text in:  http://www.eumed.net/cursecon/ecolat/m x/2012/).  IBCE 2013. La quinua boliviana traspasa   fronteras para el consumo mundial. Nro.  210. Publication of the Instituto Boliviano  de Comercio Exterior (IBCE) in  commemoration of the International Year  of Quinoa.   Pacheco, M., Blajos, J., Rojas, W. 2014.   Estudio de la producción y mercado de la  quinua. Chapter 6. IICA. (forthcoming).  Zuckerman, C. 2014. Quiero quinua. National   Geographic in Spanish. February 2014.  Vol. 34.     ISSN 1998 - 9652   Area: Current National Affairs 8   The economic development of a country  is a necessary but not sufficient condition  for the existence of human development,  understanding the later as a general  development of the individual, in all of its  dimensions (Guerra, 2012). In order to promote economic  development, countries establish policies  that include actions to foster exports. As a  country develops its capacity to export  goods and services, it generates revenue    and strengthens its economic system.   Exports drive demand for production  factors, particularly labor; thus creating  employment. Usually countries classify exports in  traditional and nontraditional, referring to  their history and importance in the  economy. In the case of Bolivia, the  export of food is considered  nontraditional, mainly because it is of  recent inclusion in the context of the  national economy.   Among the nontraditional exports,  soy-bean and its byproducts standout,  with an export value of 685 million per  year. The export statistics of  nontraditional products show that the  Andean region, and particularly the  Altiplano region, both have a minor  participation in exports.  Nevertheless, it  is important to highlight that the export of  quinoa in these regions constitutes the  main non-traditional export product of the  Andes and of the Bolivian Altiplano, with  a value of up to 153 million USD in 2013. For a good or service to be exported, it  must have comparative advantages. In the  case of quinoa these advantages are  manifested in the nutritional quality of the  grain, the fact that it does not contain  gluten and the uniqueness of the Royal  Quinoa organic production.   Evolution of exports of  Bolivian quinoa   According to data provided by the  Vice-Ministry of Rural Development and    Agriculture (VDRA), export volumes of  quinoa in 2013 have exceeded 35  thousand tons, equivalent to more than  153 million dollars. This represents a rise  of 33 % in volume, in comparison to the  year 2012; and an increase in over 90% of  the export value of quinoa, also in  comparison with the previous year. The  FOB (free on board) price showed a  record high in 2013 (6,000 USD/t in  November) reaching an average of more  than 4,300 USD/t, in comparison to 1,200  USD/t in 2006 (Figure 1). Figure 1 highlights the growing trend of  the export value of quinoa, where the  primary endpoint was the price. This is  generating a significant increase in the  value of domestic exports of quinoa  (Gandarillas  et al., 2014) and driving at   the same time the production of this grain  not only in Bolivia but also in different  countries that see in quinoa a growing  business opportunity because of the  increasing international demand.    Evolution of quinoa  production in Bolivia   The quinoa production in Bolivia has  experienced a significant increase in the  last decade, from a production of 23,000  tons in the year 2000 to above 61,000 tons  in 2013 (Figure 2). Such production volumes have also  implied an increase in the cultivated area,  ranging from almost 36,000 hectares in  2000 to more than 130,000 hectares by  2013 (Gandarillas et al., 2014). This substantial increase in the cultivated  area can be explained through the boom  caused by the appreciation of consumers  worldwide, for a food with the  characteristics of quinoa. In addition to  this, the declaration of the International  Year of Quinoa by the United Nations,  which after a series of national and  international promotional events, has  managed to position it among foods of the  highest culinary standard; causing a sharp    increase in foreign demand for this  product. The quantity of quinoa produced has  increased due to the expansion of the  cultivated area, while yield reflects a clear  downward trend (Figure 2) (Gandarillas et  al., 2014). Agricultural practices, little or no  replacement of soil fertility, the intensity  of the negative effects of climate change,  population dynamics of pests and diseases  and the use of grain as seed, are the  elements that explain the negative trend in  yield. This fact, in addition to the  considerable increase in selling prices, has  driven the generation of technology and  varieties adapted to other regions of the  country with benign climate for quinoa  production. Nevertheless, the Southern  Altiplano of Bolivia continues to be the  major quinoa producing region in the  country, where it is estimated that more  than twenty thousand families live from  the production and marketing of quinoa.   Economic effects of the quinoa  boom   An important outcome of this whole  situation is the economic effect that the  quinoa boom has generated for every  actor in the value chain. Producers,  intermediaries, brokers and exporters,  have benefited from price increases and  from the international demand for quinoa.  In the specific case of quinoa producing  families, although their unitary costs of  production have been increased mainly  due to a downward trend in yield,  sky-high prices in the export market have  allowed their revenues to remain stable or  even increase. This outcome has given  farmer families the opportunity to  implement modern technology to increase  production, and at the same time to  improve their quality of life (Figure 3).   Figure 3 shows an approximation of the  benefits received by different actors from  the quinoa value chain of, and the major  costs they deal with. It can be observed  that the decline in profitability of quinoa  production, during the last years, has had a  considerable effect on the unitary costs of  production per ton, a fact that has led to a  rise in prices in the domestic market as  well as in the export price. This has forced farmers to increase crop  production areas, inputs (mainly  chemical) and general efforts to sustain  production volumes; in order to maintain  their standard of living.  Additionally, the  expansion of cultivated area is detrimental  to other sectors such as live-stock  production (cameloid husbandry),  threatening the balance of the local  ecosystem.   This constitutes a challenge for local  authorities, institutions and quinoa  producer organizations themselves; which  to date are validating crop management  strategies that enable them to maintain  and improve farmer’s living standards and  the conditions of the local ecosystem. According to Avitabile (2013), the rise in  the price of quinoa has enabled farming  families to improve their living standards,  to have greater access to basic services,  and to increase their access to education.  It also indicates that while quinoa  consumption has declined in the Southern  Altiplano, the diet of farm families has  been diversified; now having access to  foods like fruits and vegetables, which  was not possible before mainly due to  economic and geographical problems.  Despite the rise in the price of quinoa,  70% of surveyed households in the study  by Avitabile mentioned that they  consumed quinoa between 2-4 times a  week. Apparently farmers have also social  motives that have privileged other  products in their diets. In many cases,  current quinoa producers, especially those  that hold greater extensions of land and  means of production, have experienced  recent migration processes. Many of them  have returned to their communities thanks  to the quinoa boom, and usually do not  stay to live permanently in the producing  areas, but are now “resident” community  members, meaning sporadic settlers.  Migration processes have played an  important role in changing the eating  habits of “resident” producers, who now  seek a diet similar to the one they had in  the cities (Pacheco et al., 2014).   Moreover, we must consider that quinoa  was the main food in producing areas for a  long time, and many producers at the ease  they currently have to vary their diet,  choose other foods that they previously  could not access. This ease of access to a  variety of foods is quite evident in the  region known as “intersalar” located  between the salt flatlands of Uyuni and  Coipasa. People who have worked in this  area for several years are aware of the  number of stores, small restaurants and  pensions that have opened in the region in  recent years. This along with the  improvement of roads and the enhanced  purchasing power of the population has  greatly increased food supply and its  diversity (including processed foods). An aspect related to the quinoa boom has  been the creation and consolidation of the  export industry. Consequently, in recent  years there has been an increase in legally  established enterprises that contribute to  enhance grain quality (processing) and to  open new and better channels of trade,  facilitating the export of quinoa and  improving conditions of input purchase  and supply for producers. Some  companies have forayed into the  manufacture of products from flour and  quinoa flakes, opening a new marketing  channel to international markets and  generating greater added value. Other  actors who have been added to the value  chain are the bulking intermediaries.  Before, it was the producers who brought  their produce directly to companies, now  there is a specific segment of the  population dedicated to grain bulking  (both on farms and in popular markets).   This has also contributed to the rise in  prices and to an increase of informal trade  for quinoa. This situation has forced    companies to invest more in order to keep  their trade commitments, incurring in  quinoa production of their own and  creating new mechanisms to establish  loyalty relations with primary producers. Up to this point in the analysis, only the  effects of the quinoa boom in the actors  directly linked to the value chain have  been mentioned.  Nevertheless, changes in  the national dynamics of quinoa  consumption have also been observed.   According to the Vice Ministry of Rural  Development and Agriculture (VDRA),  per capita quinoa consumption has  increased from 0.35 kg in 2008 to 1.11  kilograms in 2012 (IBCE, 2013). This fact  is explained by the government’s social  policies, such as maternity and nursing  subsidies, and other policies that promote  consumption of quinoa in cities and in  rural areas. However, a segment of the  population, who has seen how the prices  of quinoa grain increased and how it  moved from popular markets to luxurious  city shelves, remains isolated.   Quinoa’s international market  trends   Quinoa has positioned itself in world  markets. The trend of the international  price of quinoa is reaching unimagined  levels, which can be very encouraging in a  short term perspective and for certain  actors of the value chain. However  questions emerge in terms of what can  happen with the market and, until when  and to what extent will prices continue to  rise. Clearly the expectation generated by a  product of the characteristics of quinoa    along with its high prices, will motivate  producers and governments from various  regions of the world to start promoting  local production. An example of this is the  Anantha Project in India, which will  invest millions of dollars to promote  regional development and boost quinoa  production  (http://www.apard.gov.in/  project-anantha). The increase in quinoa’s global supply is a  matter of time (Zuckerman, 2014),  therefore it is expected that as demand  grows, prices will tend to stabilize. If  prices stabilize at current levels Bolivian  quinoa farmers, particularly organic  quinoa producers, will continue to have  favorable income assuming of course that  efforts to stabilize crop yields are  effective. In parallel, no significant  increases in production costs are  expected. Additionally, the organic  feature of the Bolivian quinoa production  would become the most important  differentiation factor for Bolivia to  maintain productive leadership. The big challenge for Bolivian quinoa  producers and for all actors in the value  chain is to ensure the sustainability of  production, particularly in the case  organic quinoa. The pressure exerted on production  systems, the expansion of the agricultural  frontier, the effects of climate change, and  declining productivity, are the main  causes that can lead Bolivia to lose its  comparative advantages for quinoa  production. Additionally, it should be  considered that more and more countries  are introducing quinoa in their production  systems and therefore are improving their  performance.   On the other hand, if the increase in  international supply causes a significant  drop in the international price of quinoa,  Bolivian producers will still have profit,  because production costs are relatively  low. However, this situation would not be  sustainable due to the factors mentioned  in the preceding paragraph. Obviously, if Bolivia intends to maintain  world leadership in the production and  marketing of quinoa, and to continue  benefiting thousands of farmer families  and other actors from the quinoa value  chain, it is imperative that measures to  promote sustainability and  competitiveness of quinoa are adopted. Much of these measures have to do with  investment in research and technology  development. Without it, it is impossible  to reverse the negative trend in yields, a  key indicator of the loss of  competitiveness. Neither will it be  possible to promote the sustainable  management of production systems and  landscape, nor achieve the agroecological  production of quinoa. Another important  group of measures has to do with the  generation and enforcement of rules and  regulations in relation to the sustainable  production of quinoa. While the Bolivian government is making  efforts to allocate resources to the  development of technology, the historical  moment demands that this investment be  proportional to the importance of quinoa  for human development in the Altiplano  region and for the national economy.   The importance of increasing  quinoa yield   One factor that is making quinoa more  expensive is the gradual yield reduction.  To produce the same amount of quinoa  there is a gradual need for more and more  acreage, which means higher cost, and  therefore the unitary cost tends to rise. If  one also considers the growing demand,  the result of this combination (yield  reduction and increasing demand) is the  expansion of the agricultural frontier,  which brings along a number of other  pro-problems, including social issues  related to land tenure.  Cultivating a hectare of quinoa has an  average cost of 6,044 Bs, considering the  average yield of 0.45 t/ha, it produces a  unitary production cost of 13,430 Bs/t  (1,930 USD/t). If the negative trend of the  quinoa yield could be reverted and the  average yield of 0.6 t/ha restored, the  unitary cost of production would drop to  10,073 Bs/t (1,447 USD/t).  If additionally  policies for the development of quinoa  production are implemented, setting as a  target to increase yield to at least 0.8 t/ha,  the unitary cost would drop to 7,555 Bs/t  (1,085 USD/t), which would allow a  reduction in the selling price without  reducing producers’ profits. Competitiveness, sustainability, afford-  ability and accessibility of quinoa are  possible as long as the production of  quinoa takes an agro-ecological approach  and one of continuous improvement of  productivity. Improve yields of quinoa,  with a focus on agro-ecological  production, must be the premise of all  stakeholders involved directly and    indirectly with the quinoa production  complex.  If this goal is not achieved, the  Altiplano production systems will be in  serious risk of disappearing and with  them, the wellbeing achieved by  thousands of quinoa farming families.   Cited references   Avitabile, E. 2013. The impact of the quinoa   boom on Bolivian family farmers.  Infographic published by FAO. On line.  Available at:  http://www.fao.org/assets/infographics/Q uinoa_Infographic.pdf. Retrieved May 26,  2014.  Gandarillas, A., Rojas, W., Bonifacio, A.,   Ojeda N. 2014. La quinua en Bolivia:  Perspectiva de la Fundación PROINPA.  Chapter 5. In: Bazile, D. “Estado del arte  de la quinua en el mundo”. FAO. (In  press).   Guerra, Z. 2012. Comercio internacional:   Importancia en el desarrollo económico.  Observatorio de la Economía  Latinoamericana, No. 170 (full text in:  http://www.eumed.net/cursecon/ecolat/m x/2012/).  IBCE 2013. La quinua boliviana traspasa   fronteras para el consumo mundial. Nro.  210. Publication of the Instituto Boliviano  de Comercio Exterior (IBCE) in  commemoration of the International Year  of Quinoa.   Pacheco, M., Blajos, J., Rojas, W. 2014.   Estudio de la producción y mercado de la  quinua. Chapter 6. IICA. (forthcoming).  Zuckerman, C. 2014. Quiero quinua. National   Geographic in Spanish. February 2014.  Vol. 34.     Revista de Agricultura, Nro. 54 - Julio de 2014   Area: Current National Affairs 9   The economic development of a country  is a necessary but not sufficient condition  for the existence of human development,  understanding the later as a general  development of the individual, in all of its  dimensions (Guerra, 2012). In order to promote economic  development, countries establish policies  that include actions to foster exports. As a  country develops its capacity to export  goods and services, it generates revenue    and strengthens its economic system.   Exports drive demand for production  factors, particularly labor; thus creating  employment. Usually countries classify exports in  traditional and nontraditional, referring to  their history and importance in the  economy. In the case of Bolivia, the  export of food is considered  nontraditional, mainly because it is of  recent inclusion in the context of the  national economy.   Among the nontraditional exports,  soy-bean and its byproducts standout,  with an export value of 685 million per  year. The export statistics of  nontraditional products show that the  Andean region, and particularly the  Altiplano region, both have a minor  participation in exports.  Nevertheless, it  is important to highlight that the export of  quinoa in these regions constitutes the  main non-traditional export product of the  Andes and of the Bolivian Altiplano, with  a value of up to 153 million USD in 2013. For a good or service to be exported, it  must have comparative advantages. In the  case of quinoa these advantages are  manifested in the nutritional quality of the  grain, the fact that it does not contain  gluten and the uniqueness of the Royal  Quinoa organic production.   Evolution of exports of  Bolivian quinoa   According to data provided by the  Vice-Ministry of Rural Development and    Agriculture (VDRA), export volumes of  quinoa in 2013 have exceeded 35  thousand tons, equivalent to more than  153 million dollars. This represents a rise  of 33 % in volume, in comparison to the  year 2012; and an increase in over 90% of  the export value of quinoa, also in  comparison with the previous year. The  FOB (free on board) price showed a  record high in 2013 (6,000 USD/t in  November) reaching an average of more  than 4,300 USD/t, in comparison to 1,200  USD/t in 2006 (Figure 1). Figure 1 highlights the growing trend of  the export value of quinoa, where the  primary endpoint was the price. This is  generating a significant increase in the  value of domestic exports of quinoa  (Gandarillas  et al., 2014) and driving at   the same time the production of this grain  not only in Bolivia but also in different  countries that see in quinoa a growing  business opportunity because of the  increasing international demand.    Evolution of quinoa  production in Bolivia   The quinoa production in Bolivia has  experienced a significant increase in the  last decade, from a production of 23,000  tons in the year 2000 to above 61,000 tons  in 2013 (Figure 2). Such production volumes have also  implied an increase in the cultivated area,  ranging from almost 36,000 hectares in  2000 to more than 130,000 hectares by  2013 (Gandarillas et al., 2014). This substantial increase in the cultivated  area can be explained through the boom  caused by the appreciation of consumers  worldwide, for a food with the  characteristics of quinoa. In addition to  this, the declaration of the International  Year of Quinoa by the United Nations,  which after a series of national and  international promotional events, has  managed to position it among foods of the  highest culinary standard; causing a sharp    increase in foreign demand for this  product. The quantity of quinoa produced has  increased due to the expansion of the  cultivated area, while yield reflects a clear  downward trend (Figure 2) (Gandarillas et  al., 2014). Agricultural practices, little or no  replacement of soil fertility, the intensity  of the negative effects of climate change,  population dynamics of pests and diseases  and the use of grain as seed, are the  elements that explain the negative trend in  yield. This fact, in addition to the  considerable increase in selling prices, has  driven the generation of technology and  varieties adapted to other regions of the  country with benign climate for quinoa  production. Nevertheless, the Southern  Altiplano of Bolivia continues to be the  major quinoa producing region in the  country, where it is estimated that more  than twenty thousand families live from  the production and marketing of quinoa.   Economic effects of the quinoa  boom   An important outcome of this whole  situation is the economic effect that the  quinoa boom has generated for every  actor in the value chain. Producers,  intermediaries, brokers and exporters,  have benefited from price increases and  from the international demand for quinoa.  In the specific case of quinoa producing  families, although their unitary costs of  production have been increased mainly  due to a downward trend in yield,  sky-high prices in the export market have  allowed their revenues to remain stable or  even increase. This outcome has given  farmer families the opportunity to  implement modern technology to increase  production, and at the same time to  improve their quality of life (Figure 3).   Figure 3 shows an approximation of the  benefits received by different actors from  the quinoa value chain of, and the major  costs they deal with. It can be observed  that the decline in profitability of quinoa  production, during the last years, has had a  considerable effect on the unitary costs of  production per ton, a fact that has led to a  rise in prices in the domestic market as  well as in the export price. This has forced farmers to increase crop  production areas, inputs (mainly  chemical) and general efforts to sustain  production volumes; in order to maintain  their standard of living.  Additionally, the  expansion of cultivated area is detrimental  to other sectors such as live-stock  production (cameloid husbandry),  threatening the balance of the local  ecosystem.   This constitutes a challenge for local  authorities, institutions and quinoa  producer organizations themselves; which  to date are validating crop management  strategies that enable them to maintain  and improve farmer’s living standards and  the conditions of the local ecosystem. According to Avitabile (2013), the rise in  the price of quinoa has enabled farming  families to improve their living standards,  to have greater access to basic services,  and to increase their access to education.  It also indicates that while quinoa  consumption has declined in the Southern  Altiplano, the diet of farm families has  been diversified; now having access to  foods like fruits and vegetables, which  was not possible before mainly due to  economic and geographical problems.  Despite the rise in the price of quinoa,  70% of surveyed households in the study  by Avitabile mentioned that they  consumed quinoa between 2-4 times a  week. Apparently farmers have also social  motives that have privileged other  products in their diets. In many cases,  current quinoa producers, especially those  that hold greater extensions of land and  means of production, have experienced  recent migration processes. Many of them  have returned to their communities thanks  to the quinoa boom, and usually do not  stay to live permanently in the producing  areas, but are now “resident” community  members, meaning sporadic settlers.  Migration processes have played an  important role in changing the eating  habits of “resident” producers, who now  seek a diet similar to the one they had in  the cities (Pacheco et al., 2014).   Moreover, we must consider that quinoa  was the main food in producing areas for a  long time, and many producers at the ease  they currently have to vary their diet,  choose other foods that they previously  could not access. This ease of access to a  variety of foods is quite evident in the  region known as “intersalar” located  between the salt flatlands of Uyuni and  Coipasa. People who have worked in this  area for several years are aware of the  number of stores, small restaurants and  pensions that have opened in the region in  recent years. This along with the  improvement of roads and the enhanced  purchasing power of the population has  greatly increased food supply and its  diversity (including processed foods). An aspect related to the quinoa boom has  been the creation and consolidation of the  export industry. Consequently, in recent  years there has been an increase in legally  established enterprises that contribute to  enhance grain quality (processing) and to  open new and better channels of trade,  facilitating the export of quinoa and  improving conditions of input purchase  and supply for producers. Some  companies have forayed into the  manufacture of products from flour and  quinoa flakes, opening a new marketing  channel to international markets and  generating greater added value. Other  actors who have been added to the value  chain are the bulking intermediaries.  Before, it was the producers who brought  their produce directly to companies, now  there is a specific segment of the  population dedicated to grain bulking  (both on farms and in popular markets).   This has also contributed to the rise in  prices and to an increase of informal trade  for quinoa. This situation has forced    companies to invest more in order to keep  their trade commitments, incurring in  quinoa production of their own and  creating new mechanisms to establish  loyalty relations with primary producers. Up to this point in the analysis, only the  effects of the quinoa boom in the actors  directly linked to the value chain have  been mentioned.  Nevertheless, changes in  the national dynamics of quinoa  consumption have also been observed.   According to the Vice Ministry of Rural  Development and Agriculture (VDRA),  per capita quinoa consumption has  increased from 0.35 kg in 2008 to 1.11  kilograms in 2012 (IBCE, 2013). This fact  is explained by the government’s social  policies, such as maternity and nursing  subsidies, and other policies that promote  consumption of quinoa in cities and in  rural areas. However, a segment of the  population, who has seen how the prices  of quinoa grain increased and how it  moved from popular markets to luxurious  city shelves, remains isolated.   Quinoa’s international market  trends   Quinoa has positioned itself in world  markets. The trend of the international  price of quinoa is reaching unimagined  levels, which can be very encouraging in a  short term perspective and for certain  actors of the value chain. However  questions emerge in terms of what can  happen with the market and, until when  and to what extent will prices continue to  rise. Clearly the expectation generated by a  product of the characteristics of quinoa    along with its high prices, will motivate  producers and governments from various  regions of the world to start promoting  local production. An example of this is the  Anantha Project in India, which will  invest millions of dollars to promote  regional development and boost quinoa  production  (http://www.apard.gov.in/  project-anantha). The increase in quinoa’s global supply is a  matter of time (Zuckerman, 2014),  therefore it is expected that as demand  grows, prices will tend to stabilize. If  prices stabilize at current levels Bolivian  quinoa farmers, particularly organic  quinoa producers, will continue to have  favorable income assuming of course that  efforts to stabilize crop yields are  effective. In parallel, no significant  increases in production costs are  expected. Additionally, the organic  feature of the Bolivian quinoa production  would become the most important  differentiation factor for Bolivia to  maintain productive leadership. The big challenge for Bolivian quinoa  producers and for all actors in the value  chain is to ensure the sustainability of  production, particularly in the case  organic quinoa. The pressure exerted on production  systems, the expansion of the agricultural  frontier, the effects of climate change, and  declining productivity, are the main  causes that can lead Bolivia to lose its  comparative advantages for quinoa  production. Additionally, it should be  considered that more and more countries  are introducing quinoa in their production  systems and therefore are improving their  performance.   On the other hand, if the increase in  international supply causes a significant  drop in the international price of quinoa,  Bolivian producers will still have profit,  because production costs are relatively  low. However, this situation would not be  sustainable due to the factors mentioned  in the preceding paragraph. Obviously, if Bolivia intends to maintain  world leadership in the production and  marketing of quinoa, and to continue  benefiting thousands of farmer families  and other actors from the quinoa value  chain, it is imperative that measures to  promote sustainability and  competitiveness of quinoa are adopted. Much of these measures have to do with  investment in research and technology  development. Without it, it is impossible  to reverse the negative trend in yields, a  key indicator of the loss of  competitiveness. Neither will it be  possible to promote the sustainable  management of production systems and  landscape, nor achieve the agroecological  production of quinoa. Another important  group of measures has to do with the  generation and enforcement of rules and  regulations in relation to the sustainable  production of quinoa. While the Bolivian government is making  efforts to allocate resources to the  development of technology, the historical  moment demands that this investment be  proportional to the importance of quinoa  for human development in the Altiplano  region and for the national economy.   The importance of increasing  quinoa yield   One factor that is making quinoa more  expensive is the gradual yield reduction.  To produce the same amount of quinoa  there is a gradual need for more and more  acreage, which means higher cost, and  therefore the unitary cost tends to rise. If  one also considers the growing demand,  the result of this combination (yield  reduction and increasing demand) is the  expansion of the agricultural frontier,  which brings along a number of other  pro-problems, including social issues  related to land tenure.  Cultivating a hectare of quinoa has an  average cost of 6,044 Bs, considering the  average yield of 0.45 t/ha, it produces a  unitary production cost of 13,430 Bs/t  (1,930 USD/t). If the negative trend of the  quinoa yield could be reverted and the  average yield of 0.6 t/ha restored, the  unitary cost of production would drop to  10,073 Bs/t (1,447 USD/t).  If additionally  policies for the development of quinoa  production are implemented, setting as a  target to increase yield to at least 0.8 t/ha,  the unitary cost would drop to 7,555 Bs/t  (1,085 USD/t), which would allow a  reduction in the selling price without  reducing producers’ profits. Competitiveness, sustainability, afford-  ability and accessibility of quinoa are  possible as long as the production of  quinoa takes an agro-ecological approach  and one of continuous improvement of  productivity. Improve yields of quinoa,  with a focus on agro-ecological  production, must be the premise of all  stakeholders involved directly and    indirectly with the quinoa production  complex.  If this goal is not achieved, the  Altiplano production systems will be in  serious risk of disappearing and with  them, the wellbeing achieved by  thousands of quinoa farming families.   Cited references   Avitabile, E. 2013. The impact of the quinoa   boom on Bolivian family farmers.  Infographic published by FAO. On line.  Available at:  http://www.fao.org/assets/infographics/Q uinoa_Infographic.pdf. Retrieved May 26,  2014.  Gandarillas, A., Rojas, W., Bonifacio, A.,   Ojeda N. 2014. La quinua en Bolivia:  Perspectiva de la Fundación PROINPA.  Chapter 5. In: Bazile, D. “Estado del arte  de la quinua en el mundo”. FAO. (In  press).   Guerra, Z. 2012. Comercio internacional:   Importancia en el desarrollo económico.  Observatorio de la Economía  Latinoamericana, No. 170 (full text in:  http://www.eumed.net/cursecon/ecolat/m x/2012/).  IBCE 2013. La quinua boliviana traspasa   fronteras para el consumo mundial. Nro.  210. Publication of the Instituto Boliviano  de Comercio Exterior (IBCE) in  commemoration of the International Year  of Quinoa.   Pacheco, M., Blajos, J., Rojas, W. 2014.   Estudio de la producción y mercado de la  quinua. Chapter 6. IICA. (forthcoming).  Zuckerman, C. 2014. Quiero quinua. National   Geographic in Spanish. February 2014.  Vol. 34.     ISSN 1998 - 9652   Area: Current National Affairs 10   Article received on June 18, 2014 - Article accepted on July 3, 2014   Plantas de calidad sanitaria y pureza varietal  garantizadas producidas en laboratorio bajo  condiciones controladas libres de virus y  enfermedades que aseguran una máxima  productividad incrementando el rendimiento y la  calidad de las frutas cosechadas. ESPECIES • Banano (Williams, Grand Nanie, Jaffa y Gal) • Piña (Champaka, Pucallpa, MD2) • Manzano (Pie de Injerto variedad Maruba) • Duraznero (Pie de injerto variedad GxN) CONTACTOS Fundación PROINPA: Av. E. Meneces s/n Km 4 zona El Paso –  Cochabamba Telf.: (591-4) 4319595 int 144   Plantas de Alta Calidad   The economic development of a country  is a necessary but not sufficient condition  for the existence of human development,  understanding the later as a general  development of the individual, in all of its  dimensions (Guerra, 2012). In order to promote economic  development, countries establish policies  that include actions to foster exports. As a  country develops its capacity to export  goods and services, it generates revenue    and strengthens its economic system.   Exports drive demand for production  factors, particularly labor; thus creating  employment. Usually countries classify exports in  traditional and nontraditional, referring to  their history and importance in the  economy. In the case of Bolivia, the  export of food is considered  nontraditional, mainly because it is of  recent inclusion in the context of the  national economy.   Among the nontraditional exports,  soy-bean and its byproducts standout,  with an export value of 685 million per  year. The export statistics of  nontraditional products show that the  Andean region, and particularly the  Altiplano region, both have a minor  participation in exports.  Nevertheless, it  is important to highlight that the export of  quinoa in these regions constitutes the  main non-traditional export product of the  Andes and of the Bolivian Altiplano, with  a value of up to 153 million USD in 2013. For a good or service to be exported, it  must have comparative advantages. In the  case of quinoa these advantages are  manifested in the nutritional quality of the  grain, the fact that it does not contain  gluten and the uniqueness of the Royal  Quinoa organic production.   Evolution of exports of  Bolivian quinoa   According to data provided by the  Vice-Ministry of Rural Development and    Agriculture (VDRA), export volumes of  quinoa in 2013 have exceeded 35  thousand tons, equivalent to more than  153 million dollars. This represents a rise  of 33 % in volume, in comparison to the  year 2012; and an increase in over 90% of  the export value of quinoa, also in  comparison with the previous year. The  FOB (free on board) price showed a  record high in 2013 (6,000 USD/t in  November) reaching an average of more  than 4,300 USD/t, in comparison to 1,200  USD/t in 2006 (Figure 1). Figure 1 highlights the growing trend of  the export value of quinoa, where the  primary endpoint was the price. This is  generating a significant increase in the  value of domestic exports of quinoa  (Gandarillas  et al., 2014) and driving at   the same time the production of this grain  not only in Bolivia but also in different  countries that see in quinoa a growing  business opportunity because of the  increasing international demand.    Evolution of quinoa  production in Bolivia   The quinoa production in Bolivia has  experienced a significant increase in the  last decade, from a production of 23,000  tons in the year 2000 to above 61,000 tons  in 2013 (Figure 2). Such production volumes have also  implied an increase in the cultivated area,  ranging from almost 36,000 hectares in  2000 to more than 130,000 hectares by  2013 (Gandarillas et al., 2014). This substantial increase in the cultivated  area can be explained through the boom  caused by the appreciation of consumers  worldwide, for a food with the  characteristics of quinoa. In addition to  this, the declaration of the International  Year of Quinoa by the United Nations,  which after a series of national and  international promotional events, has  managed to position it among foods of the  highest culinary standard; causing a sharp    increase in foreign demand for this  product. The quantity of quinoa produced has  increased due to the expansion of the  cultivated area, while yield reflects a clear  downward trend (Figure 2) (Gandarillas et  al., 2014). Agricultural practices, little or no  replacement of soil fertility, the intensity  of the negative effects of climate change,  population dynamics of pests and diseases  and the use of grain as seed, are the  elements that explain the negative trend in  yield. This fact, in addition to the  considerable increase in selling prices, has  driven the generation of technology and  varieties adapted to other regions of the  country with benign climate for quinoa  production. Nevertheless, the Southern  Altiplano of Bolivia continues to be the  major quinoa producing region in the  country, where it is estimated that more  than twenty thousand families live from  the production and marketing of quinoa.   Economic effects of the quinoa  boom   An important outcome of this whole  situation is the economic effect that the  quinoa boom has generated for every  actor in the value chain. Producers,  intermediaries, brokers and exporters,  have benefited from price increases and  from the international demand for quinoa.  In the specific case of quinoa producing  families, although their unitary costs of  production have been increased mainly  due to a downward trend in yield,  sky-high prices in the export market have  allowed their revenues to remain stable or  even increase. This outcome has given  farmer families the opportunity to  implement modern technology to increase  production, and at the same time to  improve their quality of life (Figure 3).   Figure 3 shows an approximation of the  benefits received by different actors from  the quinoa value chain of, and the major  costs they deal with. It can be observed  that the decline in profitability of quinoa  production, during the last years, has had a  considerable effect on the unitary costs of  production per ton, a fact that has led to a  rise in prices in the domestic market as  well as in the export price. This has forced farmers to increase crop  production areas, inputs (mainly  chemical) and general efforts to sustain  production volumes; in order to maintain  their standard of living.  Additionally, the  expansion of cultivated area is detrimental  to other sectors such as live-stock  production (cameloid husbandry),  threatening the balance of the local  ecosystem.   This constitutes a challenge for local  authorities, institutions and quinoa  producer organizations themselves; which  to date are validating crop management  strategies that enable them to maintain  and improve farmer’s living standards and  the conditions of the local ecosystem. According to Avitabile (2013), the rise in  the price of quinoa has enabled farming  families to improve their living standards,  to have greater access to basic services,  and to increase their access to education.  It also indicates that while quinoa  consumption has declined in the Southern  Altiplano, the diet of farm families has  been diversified; now having access to  foods like fruits and vegetables, which  was not possible before mainly due to  economic and geographical problems.  Despite the rise in the price of quinoa,  70% of surveyed households in the study  by Avitabile mentioned that they  consumed quinoa between 2-4 times a  week. Apparently farmers have also social  motives that have privileged other  products in their diets. In many cases,  current quinoa producers, especially those  that hold greater extensions of land and  means of production, have experienced  recent migration processes. Many of them  have returned to their communities thanks  to the quinoa boom, and usually do not  stay to live permanently in the producing  areas, but are now “resident” community  members, meaning sporadic settlers.  Migration processes have played an  important role in changing the eating  habits of “resident” producers, who now  seek a diet similar to the one they had in  the cities (Pacheco et al., 2014).   Moreover, we must consider that quinoa  was the main food in producing areas for a  long time, and many producers at the ease  they currently have to vary their diet,  choose other foods that they previously  could not access. This ease of access to a  variety of foods is quite evident in the  region known as “intersalar” located  between the salt flatlands of Uyuni and  Coipasa. People who have worked in this  area for several years are aware of the  number of stores, small restaurants and  pensions that have opened in the region in  recent years. This along with the  improvement of roads and the enhanced  purchasing power of the population has  greatly increased food supply and its  diversity (including processed foods). An aspect related to the quinoa boom has  been the creation and consolidation of the  export industry. Consequently, in recent  years there has been an increase in legally  established enterprises that contribute to  enhance grain quality (processing) and to  open new and better channels of trade,  facilitating the export of quinoa and  improving conditions of input purchase  and supply for producers. Some  companies have forayed into the  manufacture of products from flour and  quinoa flakes, opening a new marketing  channel to international markets and  generating greater added value. Other  actors who have been added to the value  chain are the bulking intermediaries.  Before, it was the producers who brought  their produce directly to companies, now  there is a specific segment of the  population dedicated to grain bulking  (both on farms and in popular markets).   This has also contributed to the rise in  prices and to an increase of informal trade  for quinoa. This situation has forced    companies to invest more in order to keep  their trade commitments, incurring in  quinoa production of their own and  creating new mechanisms to establish  loyalty relations with primary producers. Up to this point in the analysis, only the  effects of the quinoa boom in the actors  directly linked to the value chain have  been mentioned.  Nevertheless, changes in  the national dynamics of quinoa  consumption have also been observed.   According to the Vice Ministry of Rural  Development and Agriculture (VDRA),  per capita quinoa consumption has  increased from 0.35 kg in 2008 to 1.11  kilograms in 2012 (IBCE, 2013). This fact  is explained by the government’s social  policies, such as maternity and nursing  subsidies, and other policies that promote  consumption of quinoa in cities and in  rural areas. However, a segment of the  population, who has seen how the prices  of quinoa grain increased and how it  moved from popular markets to luxurious  city shelves, remains isolated.   Quinoa’s international market  trends   Quinoa has positioned itself in world  markets. The trend of the international  price of quinoa is reaching unimagined  levels, which can be very encouraging in a  short term perspective and for certain  actors of the value chain. However  questions emerge in terms of what can  happen with the market and, until when  and to what extent will prices continue to  rise. Clearly the expectation generated by a  product of the characteristics of quinoa    along with its high prices, will motivate  producers and governments from various  regions of the world to start promoting  local production. An example of this is the  Anantha Project in India, which will  invest millions of dollars to promote  regional development and boost quinoa  production  (http://www.apard.gov.in/  project-anantha). The increase in quinoa’s global supply is a  matter of time (Zuckerman, 2014),  therefore it is expected that as demand  grows, prices will tend to stabilize. If  prices stabilize at current levels Bolivian  quinoa farmers, particularly organic  quinoa producers, will continue to have  favorable income assuming of course that  efforts to stabilize crop yields are  effective. In parallel, no significant  increases in production costs are  expected. Additionally, the organic  feature of the Bolivian quinoa production  would become the most important  differentiation factor for Bolivia to  maintain productive leadership. The big challenge for Bolivian quinoa  producers and for all actors in the value  chain is to ensure the sustainability of  production, particularly in the case  organic quinoa. The pressure exerted on production  systems, the expansion of the agricultural  frontier, the effects of climate change, and  declining productivity, are the main  causes that can lead Bolivia to lose its  comparative advantages for quinoa  production. Additionally, it should be  considered that more and more countries  are introducing quinoa in their production  systems and therefore are improving their  performance.   On the other hand, if the increase in  international supply causes a significant  drop in the international price of quinoa,  Bolivian producers will still have profit,  because production costs are relatively  low. However, this situation would not be  sustainable due to the factors mentioned  in the preceding paragraph. Obviously, if Bolivia intends to maintain  world leadership in the production and  marketing of quinoa, and to continue  benefiting thousands of farmer families  and other actors from the quinoa value  chain, it is imperative that measures to  promote sustainability and  competitiveness of quinoa are adopted. Much of these measures have to do with  investment in research and technology  development. Without it, it is impossible  to reverse the negative trend in yields, a  key indicator of the loss of  competitiveness. Neither will it be  possible to promote the sustainable  management of production systems and  landscape, nor achieve the agroecological  production of quinoa. Another important  group of measures has to do with the  generation and enforcement of rules and  regulations in relation to the sustainable  production of quinoa. While the Bolivian government is making  efforts to allocate resources to the  development of technology, the historical  moment demands that this investment be  proportional to the importance of quinoa  for human development in the Altiplano  region and for the national economy.   The importance of increasing  quinoa yield   One factor that is making quinoa more  expensive is the gradual yield reduction.  To produce the same amount of quinoa  there is a gradual need for more and more  acreage, which means higher cost, and  therefore the unitary cost tends to rise. If  one also considers the growing demand,  the result of this combination (yield  reduction and increasing demand) is the  expansion of the agricultural frontier,  which brings along a number of other  pro-problems, including social issues  related to land tenure.  Cultivating a hectare of quinoa has an  average cost of 6,044 Bs, considering the  average yield of 0.45 t/ha, it produces a  unitary production cost of 13,430 Bs/t  (1,930 USD/t). If the negative trend of the  quinoa yield could be reverted and the  average yield of 0.6 t/ha restored, the  unitary cost of production would drop to  10,073 Bs/t (1,447 USD/t).  If additionally  policies for the development of quinoa  production are implemented, setting as a  target to increase yield to at least 0.8 t/ha,  the unitary cost would drop to 7,555 Bs/t  (1,085 USD/t), which would allow a  reduction in the selling price without  reducing producers’ profits. Competitiveness, sustainability, afford-  ability and accessibility of quinoa are   possible as long as the production of  quinoa takes an agro-ecological approach  and one of continuous improvement of  productivity. Improve yields of quinoa,  with a focus on agro-ecological  production, must be the premise of all  stakeholders involved directly and    indirectly with the quinoa production  complex.  If this goal is not achieved, the  Altiplano production systems will be in  serious risk of disappearing and with  them, the wellbeing achieved by  thousands of quinoa farming families.   Cited references   Avitabile, E. 2013. The impact of the quinoa   boom on Bolivian family farmers.  Infographic published by FAO. On line.  Available at:  http://www.fao.org/assets/infographics/Q uinoa_Infographic.pdf. Retrieved May 26,  2014.  Gandarillas, A., Rojas, W., Bonifacio, A.,   Ojeda N. 2014. La quinua en Bolivia:  Perspectiva de la Fundación PROINPA.  Chapter 5. In: Bazile, D. “Estado del arte  de la quinua en el mundo”. FAO. (In  press).   Guerra, Z. 2012. Comercio internacional:   Importancia en el desarrollo económico.  Observatorio de la Economía  Latinoamericana, No. 170 (full text in:  http://www.eumed.net/cursecon/ecolat/m x/2012/).  IBCE 2013. La quinua boliviana traspasa   fronteras para el consumo mundial. Nro.  210. Publication of the Instituto Boliviano  de Comercio Exterior (IBCE) in  commemoration of the International Year  of Quinoa.   Pacheco, M., Blajos, J., Rojas, W. 2014.   Estudio de la producción y mercado de la  quinua. Chapter 6. IICA. (forthcoming).  Zuckerman, C. 2014. Quiero quinua. National   Geographic in Spanish. February 2014.  Vol. 34.     Revista de Agricultura, Nro. 54 - Julio de 2014   Area: Current National Affairs 11   The current and potential role of q'ila q'ila  (Lupinus spp.) in quinoa sustainable production systems    Alejandro Bonifacio; Genaro Aroni; Milton Villca;   Patricia Ramos; Miriam Alcon; Antonio Gandarillas    Work funded by: DANIDA, McKnight Foundation, and PROINPA Foundation  E mail: a.bonifacio@proinpa.org    Summary. The problem of quinoa in the Southern Altiplano of Bolivia is generally described  emphasizing the risks of unsustainable commercial production, due to environmental and human  factors. The main factors affecting sustainability are erosion, low fertility, limited sources of organic  matter (manure), reduction in the population of llamas, new land clearing for quinoa production,  etc. While it is well recognized that manure is the main source of organic matter in quinoa  production systems, the role of the diversity of species growing in the highlands, particularly that of  wild legumes such as Lupinus spp. or known in Aymara as q'ila q'ila, must also be highlighted.  These species adapted to the highlands have the particularity of germinating in the rainy season  (December and January), growing in winter (dry and cold) and fruiting in the following months of  January and February. This behavior of their life cycle and their ancient adaptation to the area  turns these species into a priority for quinoa production systems. This study suggests that they  should be considered as alternative or complementary to llama manure in quinoa production  systems. This represents a much more feasible option for use in large areas, and with possibilities  of playing a central role in the longed for sustainability of Bolivian quinoa production. Keywords: Wild Legumes; Agricultural Practices; Natural Fertility Resumen.  El rol actual y potencial de las q’ila q’ila (Lupinus  spp) en sistemas de producción   sostenible de quinua. La problemática de la quinua en el Altiplano Sur de Bolivia generalmente se  describe haciendo énfasis en los riesgos de insostenibilidad de la producción comercial, por  efectos ambientales y antrópicos.  Los principales factores que inciden en la sostenibilidad son la  erosión, baja fertilidad, escasez de fuentes de materia orgánica (estiércol), reducción de la  población de llamas, avance de la frontera agrícola de la quinua, etc. Si bien es reconocido que el  estiércol es la principal fuente de materia orgánica en los sistemas productivos de quinua, también  debe resaltarse el rol de la diversidad de especies que crecen en el altiplano, haciendo énfasis a  las leguminosas silvestres como Lupinus spp. o conocidas en Aymara como q’ila q’ila. Estas  especies adaptadas al Altiplano, presentan la particularidad de germinar en la época de lluvias  (diciembre y enero), crecer en invierno (seco y frío) y fructificar en los meses siguientes de enero  y febrero. Este comportamiento de su ciclo biológico y su adaptación milenaria a la zona, las  convierte en especies de interés prioritario en sistemas de producción de quinua. El presente  estudio plantea que deben ser consideradas como fuentes alternativas o complementarias al  estiércol de llama en sistemas de producción de quinua.  Esto representa una opción mucho más  factible para su aplicación en grandes superficies, y con posibilidades de jugar un rol central en la  ansiada sostenibilidad de la producción de quinua boliviana. Palabras clave: Leguminosas Silvestres; Prácticas Agronómicas; Fertilidad Natural   Introduction   The strong international demand for  quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) in  recent years, has led to a significant    increase in cultivated area in a very short  period of time (Gandarillas et al., 2014).  Commercial cultivation has expanded  from the traditional area of the Southern  Altiplano where Royal Quinoa is grown,    to new areas of "expansion" in the Central  and Northern Altiplano, and the  inter-Andean valleys. This situation has  led to face new problems, mainly due to  moisture. In the south, environmental  conditions are very dry, with an annual  average precipitation of 250 mm, while in  the Central and Northern Altiplano there  is an average precipitation of 500  mm/year, and in the valleys it reaches 800  mm/year. This article attempts to update  information on the incidence and  significance of the main fungal diseases  that affect quinoa, with emphasis on the  “expansion” areas, in the new context of  climate change, based on the publication  of Tapia et al., 1979.  The objectives of this work were:  • and the   affecting quinoa cultivars with  emphasis on expansion areas (Central  Altiplano, Northern Altiplano and  inter-Andean Valleys).  •   economic importance.   Materials and methods   This study was based primarily on visits  and sampling to 50 quinoa plots in  different production areas (10 to 12 plots  per area). Samples were taken of the different  diseases that appeared throughout crop  development, considering the weather  conditions at the time of sampling. This  work was carried out from November    2013 to April 2014, with a season  characterized by high precipitation.  Samples of seedlings and plants in various  stages of development, and of different  types of tissues (leaves, stem, roots and  grains) were collected. The samples were collected in plastic  bags and in a refrigerated container to  keep samples fresh, each one being  identified according to the collection site.  The samples were taken to PROINPA’s  laboratories in the shortest time possible,  and immediately processed using routine  techniques, ie direct microscope  observation of signs, humid chamber and  seeding in culture media (Potato Dextrose  Agar). Taxonomic keys developed based  on morphological characteristics of the  different kinds of fungi (Barnett, 1960),  were used to identify the structures.   Results and discussion   The presentation of results is made based  on the appearance of diseases in the crop,  according to the phenological stage at  which they arose: [ Diseases arising from emergence to   the appearance of 6-8 true leaves: At the beginning of the cultivation cycle  samples were taken from dead seedlings  in cotiledoneal phase (emergence); a  constriction at the neck of the plant  (Figure 1) was observed. With no  movement of nutrients and water to the  stem, there was a massive seedling death.  Digging the ground, in places where there  was no emergence of seeds, seedling  death was evident.  This symptom of strangulation was  diagnosed in the Central and Northern  Altiplano, and the inter-Andean valleys.  In the field it appears as an irregular  emergence (Figure 2), little perceived by  farmers, usually attributed to soil  problems, salinity or lack of moisture. The disease occurs in years of excessive  moisture, soils with high clay content,  fertilized with partially decomposed  manure and poor drainage. Once the  disease is present it remains in the soil  attached to the roots and stems of dead  plants, as conservation structures  (chlamydospores in the case of Fusarium  and sclerotia for Rhizoctonia).   Due to several factors that influence the  emergence, it is estimated that the death  of seedlings due to Rhizoctonia and/or  Fusarium, is of up to 10%. [ Diseases that occur in the   phenological phases of branching,  panicle formation, flowering, grain  formation and physiological maturity As the plants continued to develop, in the  branching phase (eight true leaves) and/or  panicle formation (inflorescence begins to  emerge from the apex of the plant), in  some areas of production and depending  on weather conditions; chlorotic spots  appeared on the leaves (Figure 3).  Depending on the variety these spots can  be red, orange, brown or black.   As the disease progresses, the undersides  of leaves present a grayish sporulation  (Figure 4), which corresponds to  Peronospora variabilis 1, causal agent of   the quinoa mildew. Depending on the  humidity, this disease can remain until  harvest. The yellowing of leaves reduces  the photosynthetic capacity and also  causes defoliation of the plants (Figure 5),  thus yields are reduced.   P. variabilis is a pathogen of easy  dispersion (wind and rain). During crop  development dissemination structures are  mainly spores, however at senescence or  absence of crop, the disease is spread by  oospores (sexual reproduction structures)  that may be adhered to the surface of the  grain or inside the stubble that remains in  the field. Therefore dissemination occurs,  at close range by means of spores, and at  long range through oospores. Mildew occurs in all agro-ecological  regions, with varying severity depending  on environmental conditions (high  relative humidity, above 80%). In the  Southern Highlands it only appears when  rainfall is intense and prolonged.  When  the rainy period stops automatically the  mycelium is dried and the disease  progression is interrupted. Varieties of  royal quinoa are susceptible to this  disease. The losses caused by mildew depend on  the phenological phase at which the plant  is attacked and the degree of resistance of  the variety. When susceptible varieties are  grown and favorable weather conditions  are given, especially high relative  humidity, the effects of mildew are  severe. If the attack occurs in early stages  of plant development, production can be  completely lost. In resistant varieties,  losses fluctuate between 20% and 40%  (Danielsen  et al. 2003). Therefore,   economic losses range from 2-5 quintals,  which depending on the price of quinoa  can be very significant. Consequently, for  the year 2014 losses could be equivalent  to 6,000 Bs/ha.   Coinciding with the appearance of  mildew in the panicle formation and  flowering stages, on the chlorotic spots, a  green sporulation was observed on the top  side of leafs (Figure 6). The causal agent  is Cladosporium sp. which depending on   humidity, can cover the entire surface of  the spots (Figure 7) and accelerate the  falling of leaves. Just like mildew this  disease can occur up to harvesting stage.  When there is excessive humidity the  pathogen spreads from the foliage to the  panicle, and it tends to turn it black  (Figure 8). Depending on the stage of the  filling phase, when the attack takes place,  the grains may even remain empty. If the  grains are already formed, they will be  slightly stained. When processing these  grains in the laboratory, it was observed  that  Cladosporium  conidia remain   attached to the surface of the grain, being    its mode of dissemination and survival for  the next planting season. Since this disease is strongly associated  with mildew, when damage occurs in the  panicle, economic losses due to the green  mold would produce at least a 5% loss in  addition to the losses caused by mildew. At the same time, during the development  of plants in places where there is poor  drainage or where water accumulates, a  symptom of wilting and yellowing occurs.   At the beginning wilting is only apical but  later it is widespread, it even causes the  death of plants. Going through the root system, lesions  sunk in the neck of the plant are observed,  similar to those found during the    emergence stage. Taking the full root  system from the soil, necrosis of the main  root and rootlets is observed (Figure 9).  If  winds occur during this condition, plants  fall (Figure 10). Due to excess moisture, the surface  portion (skin) of the root decomposes  quickly, exposing the underlying tissue to  attack by other pathogens. The diagnosis  of these samples shows that the symptom  corresponds to Fusarium  sp. Therefore,   this pathogen appears in pre and  post-emergence, and may manifest again  during crop development. The way to  recognize diseased plants is through their  weak development in comparison to  healthy plants.   This disease has been observed mainly in  areas close to Lake Titicaca (Northern  Altiplano) and to a lesser extent in the  Central Altiplano, in areas with heavy  soils and poor drainage. In the case of inter-Andean valleys,  similar symptoms are observed in adult  plants. Other plants with little  development simply show a pink color on  roots and rootlets (Figure 11). An analysis  of these roots shows that symptoms can  also be attributed to Fusarium sp.  During development, necrotic spots have  also been observed on the foliage.  These  are roughly circular or irregular in shape,  with beige centers and slightly brown  edges (Figure 12), inside which pycnidia  are present (black dots). The size of the  lesions ranges from 5 to 10 mm in  diameter. Work done in the laboratory  evidenced that the causal agent of this  disease is Ascochyta sp. and the common  name of the disease is "leaf spot".   When attacks are severe, intense  defoliation occurs, thus reducing  photosynthetic capacity; and if the panicle  is in formation, the quality of grains is  affected (brown color). Studies of the grains conducted in  laboratory show that the fungus produces  abundant pycnidiospores accompanied by  a mild to severe necrosis in roots and/or  hypocotyl. Severely affected seedlings  die. Therefore, the disease is transmitted  through seeds; pycnidia remain attached  to the surface of the grains and also stay in  the stubble. For a new disease cycle to occur in the  next season a temperature of 18 to 24 °C  and a relative humidity of 80% is  required, the pycnidia germinate and give  rise to pycnidiospores and the infection  initiates again.   The geographical distribution of this  disease is not exactly known and  apparently it is not of major economic  importance (Danielsen et al., 2003). Finally, at the stage of senescence, when  the stem is lignified, ogival shaped lesions  can be observed. These lesions are light  gray in the center with brown edges,  surrounded by an aura of glassy  appearance, inside which you may notice  small black spots (Figure 13) which  correspond to pycnidia of the fungus  Phoma sp. The size of these lesions ranges   from 2 to 3 cm. When conditions are  favorable (especially high relative  humidity) a number of spots can be seen in  a single stem (Figure 14). During severe  attacks these spots grow and reach each  other, covering the entire area of the stem. From season to season, the fungus  survives in the stubble that remains in the  field. This pathogen does not require  mechanical wounds to enter the plant, it  enters through natural openings. This disease has been observed in the  Central and Northern Altiplano, and in the  inter-Andean valleys, and basically its    occurrence depends on the presence of  inoculum and high relative humidity.  In general, in all production areas of  Bolivia plants from all stages of  development (from emergence until  harvest), with virus infection symptoms,  have been observed. The causal agents  have not been determined, yet what is  known is that quinoa is used as universal    plant (indicator plant) for the detection of  various viruses. The most frequent  symptoms observed in quinoa are:  yellowing, shortening of internodes  (rosetting), leathery leaves, etc. (Figure  15).   Conclusions   • most disease the   "quinoa mildew", caused by  Peronospora variabilis, followed by  "green mold" and "seedling death."  These three diseases occur in different  agro-ecological regions of Bolivia.  •   the symptoms have been observed in  the Central and Northern Altiplano and  inter-Andean valleys, without causing  significant economic losses.   • "Ogival appears   senescence, affecting the stems and  rachis of the panicle. It has no  incidence in reducing quinoa grain  yield.  •   "mildew", "green mold" and "seedling  death".  •   and "seedling death" can result in  losses of up to 50%.   Cited References    Barnett. H. 1960. Ilustrated genera of imperfect   fungi. 2 ed. Burgess Publishing Company.  225 p.  Danielsen, S., Bonifacio, A., Ames, T. 2003.   Diseases of Quinoa (Chenopodium  quinoa). Food Reviews International. 19(1  y 2): 43-59.  Choi, Y., Denchev, C., Shin, H. 2008.   Morphological and molecular analyses  support existence of hostspecific  Peronospora species infecting  Chenopodium. Mycopathology. No.  165:155-164.  Choi, Y., Danielsen, S., Lubeck, M., Hong, S.,   Delhey, R., Shin, H. 2010. Morphological    and molecular characterization of the  causal agent of downy mildew on quinoa  (Chenopodium quinoa). Mycopathology.   No. 169:403-412.  Gandarillas, A., Rojas, W., Bonifacio, A.,   Ojeda, N. 2014. La quinua en Bolivia:  Perspectiva de la Fundación PROINPA.  Chapter 5. In: Bazile Didier “Estado del  Arte de la Quinua en el Mundo”. FAO (in  press).  Tapia, M., Gandarillas, H., Alandia, S.,   Cardozo, A., Otazú, V., Ortiz, R., Rea, J.,  Salas, B., Zanabria, E., Mujica, A. 1979. La  Quinua y la Kañiwa: Cultivos Andinos.  IICA/CIID, Oficina Regional para América   Latina. Bogotá, Colombia. pp. 142-147.     ISSN 1998 - 9652   Area: Current National Affairs 12   Background   The most important area of quinoa  (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) production  in Bolivia is the Southern Altiplano, so  when the issue of organic Royal Quinoa is  addressed, many authors (Jaldín, 2010;  Medrano, 2010; Puschiasi, 2009) focus on  the “intersalar” region (strip between the  salt flats of Uyuni and Coipasa).  However, quinoa production has  surpassed the intersalar region and is  cultivated throughout the Southern  Altiplano, including the Central  Altiplano, where environmental problems  are already visible. According to Soraide (2011) and Orsag et  al. (2013), soils in the Souther Altiplano  are coarse textured (sand content above  70% and gravel > 30%), especially in  lower strata. Due to the predominance of sand in the  soil and the low content of organic matter  (less than 1%), they do not form stable  aggregates and have a weak or null degree  of structuration. This situation favors their  high susceptibility to wind and water  erosion, particularly under excessive  tillage (use of agricultural equipment). The great international demand for  quinoa, along with high prices, creates a  great opportunity for thousands of  families who have lived in poverty for  generations. This has led to  overexploitation of soils and expansion of  the agricultural frontier, so that the area  under cultivation has increased from  35,907 ha in the year 2000 to 131,192 ha  in 2013, with a negative trend in yields  (Gandarillas et al., 2014).   With the quinoa boom, in the late nineties,  agroecological imbalances arise (VSF /  CICDA, 2009). The expansion of the  agricultural frontier in the Southern  Altiplano has had implications in the  reduction of areas for grazing of llamas; in  addition, the irregularity and reduction of  rainfall results also in shortage of pasture. It is important to note that llama’s  husbandry is not competitive with quinoa  production.  This leads to changes in the  land use of the Southern Altiplano, from  its livestock farming aptitude to  agricultural use. In addition, grazing  llamas (plots are distributed erratically) is  inconsistent with quinoa production, since  animals enter the fields and consume  growing plants, generating serious  disputes between producers. Under these  conditions, grazing involves more  herdsmen of the appropriate age to  manage the herd. Soil management has many deficiencies,  being the most crucial poor incorporation  of organic matter and lack of crop rotation  options. Fallow periods for the recovery  of soil fertility last several years, but due  to low humidity and low average  temperature in the region, the  repopulation of native species is slow.  Thereby, restoration of nutrients and  organic matter is slow, taking in some  cases over 10 years for the recovery of  biomass and the replacement of soil  microbial activity. Farmers do not add organic matter or if  they do it is in small quantities, because  there is not enough availability in the area.  The conservation and improvement of soil  fertility depends on the actions of man on  his environment, or more precisely on the  actions on soil and plants; highlighting the    interaction plant-environment-man  -society (Puschiasi, 2009). In summary, the pressure on soils  degrades them and makes them  unproductive. The lack of organic matter  makes them more susceptible to erosion  and limits the increase in productivity. The highest production and export  volumes registered in recent years, are  achieved based on the incorporation of  new areas of production and not on the  increase in yield per unitary area. This  situation can lead to an unprofitable and  uncompetitive agriculture, boosting  rural-urban migration again, resulting in  thousands of farm families returning to  poverty; thus losing the country the  unique opportunity of generating an  income of more than 150 million dollars. The solution or mitigation of the  unsustainability of quinoa production is  concurrently addressed by public entities,  development projects and producer  organizations. Among the existing  alternatives is an increased use of manure  through the repopulation of cameloids,  protection of grazing areas,  implementation barriers both physical and  biological, etc. However, no proposal  includes native legume species that can  become part of a sustainable production  system. This is the case of q'ila q'ila that  grows in the highlands and whose  importance has not been assessed in  quinoa production systems. Taking advantage of these promising  native and wild species requires  knowledge of their reproductive  characteristics, physiology of their seeds,  their ecological adaptation, the amount of  organic matter they produce, the    symbiosis generated with nitrogen-fixing  bacteria, etc. Faced with the problem of sustainability  of quinoa based production systems on the  Southern Altiplano, researchers from  PROINPA Foundation have explored the  current and potential role of native  species, giving priority to native and wild  legumes. For this purpose prospections and  collections of several species of Lupinus  spp. have been conducted in different  localities of the Southern Altiplano,  transition areas of the South-Central  Altiplano, Central and Northern  Altiplano. The genetic diversity of species  was examined through their growth habit,  ecological adaptation, seed formation,  seed viability, symbiosis with Rhizobium  and experimental planting. The adaptation  of species has been studied in relation to  micro-areas within the South and Central  Altiplano, taking into account the  topography and landscape of the areas;  differentiating flatlands, hillside, foothills  and steep hills.   Alternatives to increase  organic matter in the soils of  the Southern Altiplano   The most promoted alternative to increase  the availability of manure in the Southern  Altiplano is the reestablishment of the  balance between the population of llamas  and the acreage of quinoa. In this sense, it  is proposed that for every hectare of  quinoa seven llamas are kept (Anze,  2010). It is unquestionable that traditional  grazing areas should be protected to raise  llamas along with the management of    pasture and forages. However, in practice  it is very difficult to implement and to  achieve the desired result. For example, in  the year 2010 a total of 63,010 ha were  harvested and in 2013 the acreage  increased to 131,192 ha (Gandarillas et  al., 2014). This would mean that the  population of llamas should be increased  by about 477,000 animals, which is  difficult to achieve. According to the knowledge of  researchers and decision makers, the  Altiplano is characterized as an altitude  ecoregion, dry, cold and semiarid; where  quinoa is grown and where few native  species develop. However, a careful  examination, can demonstrate the  presence of a large diversity of native and  naturalized species.  To date their adaptive  characteristics are not valued and neither  are their potential benefits for quinoa  production systems. Among the native and naturalized species  existent, there are shrubs: Parastrephia  lepidophylla (Weddell) Cabrera,  P.   quadrangulare Meyen Cabrera, P. lucida,  (Meyen) Cabrera, Baccharis tola Phil., B.   tricuneata (L.f.), Lamphapa castellani  Mold.; pastures: Nassella pubiflora (Trin   & Rupr), N. nardoides Phil., Festuca  ortophilla Pilg., F. dolychophilla J. Prsi.,  Chondrosum simplex (Lagasca Kunth);  legumes: Lupinus ottobutchini C.P. Sm.,   L. montanus C.P. Sm., L. chilensis C.P.  Sm  L. cuzcensis, C.P. Sm., etc.; whose   ancient adaptation allows its validity, but  human activity is reducing their  populations.   The native legume q'ila q'ila   Q'ila q'ila (pronounced as qela qela) is a  generic name in Aymara language, which  refers to several legume species used as  forage in green and dry state (Lupinus  chilensis CP Sm., L. otto -butchini CP  Sm.), and others used as forage only when  dry or cured (Lupinus montanus CP Sm.).  These features should be complemented  with research on anti-nutritional  principles that some species usually  contain. In the literature studied, the scientific  names do not include a detail of the  collection areas, let alone mention the  native names of the species. Therefore, for  now, it is better to name them as plural  species (Lupinus spp.).  Species from the  Altiplano are known with native names  q'ila q'ila, salqa or salqiri. The plants  usually grow in colonies, depending on  the natural seed dispersal and favorable  conditions for colonization, ranging from  small areas of 100 m 2 to 200 m 2 or even   areas of up to 1 km2.  While the taxonomic classification of  species is not clear, the diversity of  species and the genetic diversity within  each species or ecotype are evident.  Jacobsen et al. (2006) listed 83 species for   the area of the Andes. Meanwhile Barney  (2011) cites 85 wild species for South  America. The adaptation of species is large;  however, some ecotypes prefer specific  environmental conditions such as sandy or  stony soils, loamy soils, gravelly or stony  soils, or otherwise flatlands, slopes,  foothills and mountains.   The biology of the species of Lupinus  presents several differential biologic  processes in comparison to other plant  species, among them seed dormancy, high  tolerance to frost, abundant nodulation (N  fixation), broad ecological adaptation and  high capacity for diversification. The seed of wild lupines is viable and can  germinate when it reaches physiological  maturity, before drying. However, as it  dries, it enters a prolonged dormancy of  three to four years, after that time the  dormancy ends and it can germinate  naturally. This means that prior to a  directed sowing process seeds must be  pretreated. Q'ila q'ila seedlings emerge in late  December and January, are established in  the field between January and February,    grow slowly in winter, bloom in  November and December, and fructify  from December to January, according to  the different areas and ecotypes. What  stands out is their adaptation to highlands,  their tolerance to winter frost (-18 ° C  from May to September) and their  resistance to prolonged droughts (from  March to December). By staying alive  during the winter, they provide ground  cover, develop abundant green material  and fix nitrogen. All of these beneficial  processes take place in the period when  quinoa is not being produced, that is, in  the fallow period. These characteristics  give guidelines for the use of these species  for enhanced management of fallow  periods, ground cover and atmospheric  nitrogen fixation. Their ability to grow on  marginal periods, their pluri-seasonal and  even multi-year cycle, makes them very  appealing species for their use in quinoa  production systems in the Southern  Altiplano. Currently  q'ila q'ilas are not valued for   their adaptive qualities, organic matter  production and nitrogen fixation. Some  farmers do recognize their contributions  for soil management, because when they  clear land previously populated by these  species, quinoa grows and yields well.  The possible explanation for the lack of  interest in these species is their erratic  growth due to seed dormancy.  In natural  conditions, plants are born every three to  four years at the same site. This  characteristic of the species makes them  difficult to manage without prior  application of seed treatment techniques.  Therefore, the current role of wild species  from the genus Lupinus in the Altiplano is  of little or no importance for quinoa  production systems.   Perspectives of wild lupines  for the sustainability of quinoa  production systems in the  Southern Altiplano    Wild legumes produce considerable  amounts of dry matter.  It is estimated that  on average they can produce the  equivalent of eight tons of dry matter per  hectare, without considering nitrogen  fixation estimated at over 100 kg/ha. The  benefits of legumes in cropping systems  are widely documented (Prager et al,  2012; Céspedes, 2005), which supports  the proposal of using wild legumes in  quinoa production systems. The proposal of guided usage of these  lupin species involves planting in late  December and early January. Plants grow  in autumn, winter and summer (cold and  dry seasons) and produce seed during the  rainy season. It is important to highlight  that the conclusion of the life cycle of the  q'ila q'ila matches the period of soil  preparation in the Altiplano. It therefore  becomes a valuable local source of green  matter to incorporate in the soil, with the  advantage of not being a woody plant,  which makes its decomposition easier. In    this case, wild legumes are another source  of organic matter in quinoa production  systems. An alternative option for the  management of q'ila q'ila is to harvest  seed before incorporating the complete  plant into the soil. The sustainable production approach  involves the management and utilization  of soil to achieve high productivity per  unitary area, maintaining soil health, and  including legume species in rotation  systems and improved fallow  management practices. In the case of the Southern Altiplano,  where conditions for agriculture are so  hard, wild legumes are an excellent  alternative to establish rotation systems,  improve fallow management practices,  produce green manures and establish crop  tandem systems with quinoa. These  practices offer numerous benefits:  reducing erosion and improving soil  fertility, improved yields, reduced  sediment transport and diversification in  production. In this line of analysis, eight  tons of dry matter incorporated by q'ila  q'ila to the soil may be sufficient to  achieve a yield of quinoa of twenty  quintals per hectare.   For crop rotation purposes, after quinoa  harvest,  q'ila q'ila should be sown; and   after two growing seasons the soil will  again be available to grow quinoa. For  improved fallow management practices,  q'ila q'ila can be planted in any sequence  of fallow years, provided planting is made  at the appropriate time (late December  and early January). For intercropping in tandem, in a field set  with quinoa plants in panicle phase, q'ila  q'ila  should be planted interspersed or   between rows or lines. This involves  planting interlayer on deferred date  (tandem or in posts).   Due to all that is known so far about the  q'ila q'ila, productivity, sustainability and  competitiveness of Bolivian quinoa can be  seen optimistically. The challenge posed  by the Bolivian government of increasing  the area of cultivated quinoa, may be  feasible with the use of wild legumes as  alternative and complementary to the use  of llama dung.   Challenges and limitations in  the management of wild lupine   There are several limitations that must be  addressed to achieve the commercial  cultivation of wild lupines, which in the  field of agronomy are essentially: the  gradual fruiting, dehiscence of seed and  seed dormancy. Other issues to be addressed are: seed  production on a commercial scale,  isolation and inoculation of seeds with  nitrogen-fixing bacteria, weevil control  Apion  sp., the use of equipment and   machinery for planting and harvesting,  and mechanized incorporation of organic  fertilizer, among others.   In addition, research programs should be  established on agronomic management,  multiple use (coverage, organic matter,  forage), microbiology, etc. A first task to  undertake, given the great diversity of  species and morphotypes, is the  establishment of a working collection, for  the purpose of characterization, selection  and targeted use. For the efficient use of q'ila q'ila a vital  challenge is the participation of producers  in the maintenance of natural areas where  these species grow, timely seed collection,  directed planting, appropriate   incorporation in the soil, and other  practices.   Cited references   Anze, G. 2010. Normas básicas para una   producción sostenible de la Quinua Real  del Altiplano Sur de Bolivia.  PROQUINAT/ANAPQUI.    On line. Available at:  http://www.infoquinua.bo   Retrieved on June 6, 2014. Barney, M. 2011. Biodiversidad y ecogeografía   del género Lupinus L. (Leguminosae) en  Colombia. MSc. Thesis, Universidad  Nacional de Colombia, Palmira Colombia.  69 p.  Céspedes, M. (ed) 2005. Agricultura orgánica,   principio y prácticas de producción. INIA.  Bulletin No 131. Chillan, Chile.  Gandarillas, A., Rojas, W., Bonifacio, A., Ojeda   N. 2014. La quinua en Bolivia: Perspectiva  de la Fundación PROINPA. Chapter 5. In:  Bazile Didier “Estado del arte de la quinua  en el mundo”. FAO (in press).  Jacobsen, S., Mujica, A. 2006. El tarwi   (Lupinus mutabilis Sweet.) y sus parientes    silvestres. In: Botánica Económica de los  Andes Centrales. M. Moraes R., B.  Øllgaard, L. P. Kvist, F. Borchsenius & H.  Balslev, eds.) UMSA. La Paz, Bolivia. pp.  458-462.  Jaldín R. 2010. Producción de quinua en Oruro   y Potosí. La Paz, Bolivia. PIEB. No. 3. 100  p.  Medrano, A. 2010. Expansión del cultivo de   quinua (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) y  calidad de suelos. Análisis en un contexto  de sostenibilidad en el intersalar boliviano.  MSc.Thesis, Universidad Autónoma San  Luis Potosí. México. 138 p.  Orsag, V., León, L., Pacosaca, O., Castro, E.   2013. Evaluación de la fertilidad de los  suelos para la producción sostenible de  quinua. T’inkazos. 33: 89-112.  Prager, M., Sanclemente, O., Sánchez, M.   2012. Abonos verdes: tecnología para el  manejo agroecológico de los cultivos.  Agroecología 7:53-62.  Puschiasi, O. 2009. La fertilidad: un recurso   "cuchicheado". Análisis de la valorización  del recurso territorial fertilidad por las  familias de la zona Intersalar. On line.  Available at: http://www.ird.fr Retrieved on  May 27, 2014.  Soraide, D. 2011. La Quinua Real en el   Altiplano Sur de Bolivia. Documento  técnico para la denominación de origen.  FAUTAPO-Educación para el Desarrollo.  108 p.  VSF-CICDA. 2009. Quinua y territorio.   RURALTER, IRD, VSF-CICDA y  comunidades del intersalar. Agronomes y  Veterinaires sin frontera. Plural, La Paz,  Bolivia. 156 p.  Williams, B. 1995. Revegetation for   ecologically sustainable dryland farming.  Department of the parliamentary library,  Commonwealth of Australia. Research  paper No.1. 39 p.   Introduction   The strong international demand for  quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) in  recent years, has led to a significant    increase in cultivated area in a very short  period of time (Gandarillas et al., 2014).  Commercial cultivation has expanded  from the traditional area of the Southern  Altiplano where Royal Quinoa is grown,    to new areas of "expansion" in the Central  and Northern Altiplano, and the  inter-Andean valleys. This situation has  led to face new problems, mainly due to  moisture. In the south, environmental  conditions are very dry, with an annual  average precipitation of 250 mm, while in  the Central and Northern Altiplano there  is an average precipitation of 500  mm/year, and in the valleys it reaches 800  mm/year. This article attempts to update  information on the incidence and  significance of the main fungal diseases  that affect quinoa, with emphasis on the  “expansion” areas, in the new context of  climate change, based on the publication  of Tapia et al., 1979.  The objectives of this work were:  • and the   affecting quinoa cultivars with  emphasis on expansion areas (Central  Altiplano, Northern Altiplano and  inter-Andean Valleys).  •   economic importance.   Materials and methods   This study was based primarily on visits  and sampling to 50 quinoa plots in  different production areas (10 to 12 plots  per area). Samples were taken of the different  diseases that appeared throughout crop  development, considering the weather  conditions at the time of sampling. This  work was carried out from November    2013 to April 2014, with a season  characterized by high precipitation.  Samples of seedlings and plants in various  stages of development, and of different  types of tissues (leaves, stem, roots and  grains) were collected. The samples were collected in plastic  bags and in a refrigerated container to  keep samples fresh, each one being  identified according to the collection site.  The samples were taken to PROINPA’s  laboratories in the shortest time possible,  and immediately processed using routine  techniques, ie direct microscope  observation of signs, humid chamber and  seeding in culture media (Potato Dextrose  Agar). Taxonomic keys developed based  on morphological characteristics of the  different kinds of fungi (Barnett, 1960),  were used to identify the structures.   Results and discussion   The presentation of results is made based  on the appearance of diseases in the crop,  according to the phenological stage at  which they arose: [ Diseases arising from emergence to   the appearance of 6-8 true leaves: At the beginning of the cultivation cycle  samples were taken from dead seedlings  in cotiledoneal phase (emergence); a  constriction at the neck of the plant  (Figure 1) was observed. With no  movement of nutrients and water to the  stem, there was a massive seedling death.  Digging the ground, in places where there  was no emergence of seeds, seedling  death was evident.  This symptom of strangulation was  diagnosed in the Central and Northern  Altiplano, and the inter-Andean valleys.  In the field it appears as an irregular  emergence (Figure 2), little perceived by  farmers, usually attributed to soil  problems, salinity or lack of moisture. The disease occurs in years of excessive  moisture, soils with high clay content,  fertilized with partially decomposed  manure and poor drainage. Once the  disease is present it remains in the soil  attached to the roots and stems of dead  plants, as conservation structures  (chlamydospores in the case of Fusarium  and sclerotia for Rhizoctonia).   Due to several factors that influence the  emergence, it is estimated that the death  of seedlings due to Rhizoctonia and/or  Fusarium, is of up to 10%. [ Diseases that occur in the   phenological phases of branching,  panicle formation, flowering, grain  formation and physiological maturity As the plants continued to develop, in the  branching phase (eight true leaves) and/or  panicle formation (inflorescence begins to  emerge from the apex of the plant), in  some areas of production and depending  on weather conditions; chlorotic spots  appeared on the leaves (Figure 3).  Depending on the variety these spots can  be red, orange, brown or black.   As the disease progresses, the undersides  of leaves present a grayish sporulation  (Figure 4), which corresponds to  Peronospora variabilis 1, causal agent of   the quinoa mildew. Depending on the  humidity, this disease can remain until  harvest. The yellowing of leaves reduces  the photosynthetic capacity and also  causes defoliation of the plants (Figure 5),  thus yields are reduced.   P. variabilis is a pathogen of easy  dispersion (wind and rain). During crop  development dissemination structures are  mainly spores, however at senescence or  absence of crop, the disease is spread by  oospores (sexual reproduction structures)  that may be adhered to the surface of the  grain or inside the stubble that remains in  the field. Therefore dissemination occurs,  at close range by means of spores, and at  long range through oospores. Mildew occurs in all agro-ecological  regions, with varying severity depending  on environmental conditions (high  relative humidity, above 80%). In the  Southern Highlands it only appears when  rainfall is intense and prolonged.  When  the rainy period stops automatically the  mycelium is dried and the disease  progression is interrupted. Varieties of  royal quinoa are susceptible to this  disease. The losses caused by mildew depend on  the phenological phase at which the plant  is attacked and the degree of resistance of  the variety. When susceptible varieties are  grown and favorable weather conditions  are given, especially high relative  humidity, the effects of mildew are  severe. If the attack occurs in early stages  of plant development, production can be  completely lost. In resistant varieties,  losses fluctuate between 20% and 40%  (Danielsen  et al. 2003). Therefore,   economic losses range from 2-5 quintals,  which depending on the price of quinoa  can be very significant. Consequently, for  the year 2014 losses could be equivalent  to 6,000 Bs/ha.   Coinciding with the appearance of  mildew in the panicle formation and  flowering stages, on the chlorotic spots, a  green sporulation was observed on the top  side of leafs (Figure 6). The causal agent  is Cladosporium sp. which depending on   humidity, can cover the entire surface of  the spots (Figure 7) and accelerate the  falling of leaves. Just like mildew this  disease can occur up to harvesting stage.  When there is excessive humidity the  pathogen spreads from the foliage to the  panicle, and it tends to turn it black  (Figure 8). Depending on the stage of the  filling phase, when the attack takes place,  the grains may even remain empty. If the  grains are already formed, they will be  slightly stained. When processing these  grains in the laboratory, it was observed  that  Cladosporium  conidia remain   attached to the surface of the grain, being    its mode of dissemination and survival for  the next planting season. Since this disease is strongly associated  with mildew, when damage occurs in the  panicle, economic losses due to the green  mold would produce at least a 5% loss in  addition to the losses caused by mildew. At the same time, during the development  of plants in places where there is poor  drainage or where water accumulates, a  symptom of wilting and yellowing occurs.   At the beginning wilting is only apical but  later it is widespread, it even causes the  death of plants. Going through the root system, lesions  sunk in the neck of the plant are observed,  similar to those found during the    emergence stage. Taking the full root  system from the soil, necrosis of the main  root and rootlets is observed (Figure 9).  If  winds occur during this condition, plants  fall (Figure 10). Due to excess moisture, the surface  portion (skin) of the root decomposes  quickly, exposing the underlying tissue to  attack by other pathogens. The diagnosis  of these samples shows that the symptom  corresponds to Fusarium  sp. Therefore,   this pathogen appears in pre and  post-emergence, and may manifest again  during crop development. The way to  recognize diseased plants is through their  weak development in comparison to  healthy plants.   This disease has been observed mainly in  areas close to Lake Titicaca (Northern  Altiplano) and to a lesser extent in the  Central Altiplano, in areas with heavy  soils and poor drainage. In the case of inter-Andean valleys,  similar symptoms are observed in adult  plants. Other plants with little  development simply show a pink color on  roots and rootlets (Figure 11). An analysis  of these roots shows that symptoms can  also be attributed to Fusarium sp.  During development, necrotic spots have  also been observed on the foliage.  These  are roughly circular or irregular in shape,  with beige centers and slightly brown  edges (Figure 12), inside which pycnidia  are present (black dots). The size of the  lesions ranges from 5 to 10 mm in  diameter. Work done in the laboratory  evidenced that the causal agent of this  disease is Ascochyta sp. and the common  name of the disease is "leaf spot".   When attacks are severe, intense  defoliation occurs, thus reducing  photosynthetic capacity; and if the panicle  is in formation, the quality of grains is  affected (brown color). Studies of the grains conducted in  laboratory show that the fungus produces  abundant pycnidiospores accompanied by  a mild to severe necrosis in roots and/or  hypocotyl. Severely affected seedlings  die. Therefore, the disease is transmitted  through seeds; pycnidia remain attached  to the surface of the grains and also stay in  the stubble. For a new disease cycle to occur in the  next season a temperature of 18 to 24 °C  and a relative humidity of 80% is  required, the pycnidia germinate and give  rise to pycnidiospores and the infection  initiates again.   The geographical distribution of this  disease is not exactly known and  apparently it is not of major economic  importance (Danielsen et al., 2003). Finally, at the stage of senescence, when  the stem is lignified, ogival shaped lesions  can be observed. These lesions are light  gray in the center with brown edges,  surrounded by an aura of glassy  appearance, inside which you may notice  small black spots (Figure 13) which  correspond to pycnidia of the fungus  Phoma sp. The size of these lesions ranges   from 2 to 3 cm. When conditions are  favorable (especially high relative  humidity) a number of spots can be seen in  a single stem (Figure 14). During severe  attacks these spots grow and reach each  other, covering the entire area of the stem. From season to season, the fungus  survives in the stubble that remains in the  field. This pathogen does not require  mechanical wounds to enter the plant, it  enters through natural openings. This disease has been observed in the  Central and Northern Altiplano, and in the  inter-Andean valleys, and basically its    occurrence depends on the presence of  inoculum and high relative humidity.  In general, in all production areas of  Bolivia plants from all stages of  development (from emergence until  harvest), with virus infection symptoms,  have been observed. The causal agents  have not been determined, yet what is  known is that quinoa is used as universal    plant (indicator plant) for the detection of  various viruses. The most frequent  symptoms observed in quinoa are:  yellowing, shortening of internodes  (rosetting), leathery leaves, etc. (Figure  15).   Conclusions   • most disease the   "quinoa mildew", caused by  Peronospora variabilis, followed by  "green mold" and "seedling death."  These three diseases occur in different  agro-ecological regions of Bolivia.  •   the symptoms have been observed in  the Central and Northern Altiplano and  inter-Andean valleys, without causing  significant economic losses.   • "Ogival appears   senescence, affecting the stems and  rachis of the panicle. It has no  incidence in reducing quinoa grain  yield.  •   "mildew", "green mold" and "seedling  death".  •   and "seedling death" can result in  losses of up to 50%.   Cited References    Barnett. H. 1960. Ilustrated genera of imperfect   fungi. 2 ed. Burgess Publishing Company.  225 p.  Danielsen, S., Bonifacio, A., Ames, T. 2003.   Diseases of Quinoa (Chenopodium  quinoa). Food Reviews International. 19(1  y 2): 43-59.  Choi, Y., Denchev, C., Shin, H. 2008.   Morphological and molecular analyses  support existence of hostspecific  Peronospora species infecting  Chenopodium. Mycopathology. No.  165:155-164.  Choi, Y., Danielsen, S., Lubeck, M., Hong, S.,   Delhey, R., Shin, H. 2010. Morphological    and molecular characterization of the  causal agent of downy mildew on quinoa  (Chenopodium quinoa). Mycopathology.   No. 169:403-412.  Gandarillas, A., Rojas, W., Bonifacio, A.,   Ojeda, N. 2014. La quinua en Bolivia:  Perspectiva de la Fundación PROINPA.  Chapter 5. In: Bazile Didier “Estado del  Arte de la Quinua en el Mundo”. FAO (in  press).  Tapia, M., Gandarillas, H., Alandia, S.,   Cardozo, A., Otazú, V., Ortiz, R., Rea, J.,  Salas, B., Zanabria, E., Mujica, A. 1979. La  Quinua y la Kañiwa: Cultivos Andinos.  IICA/CIID, Oficina Regional para América  Latina. Bogotá, Colombia. pp. 142-147.     Revista de Agricultura, Nro. 54 - Julio de 2014   Area: Current National Affairs 13   Background   The most important area of quinoa  (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) production  in Bolivia is the Southern Altiplano, so  when the issue of organic Royal Quinoa is  addressed, many authors (Jaldín, 2010;  Medrano, 2010; Puschiasi, 2009) focus on  the “intersalar” region (strip between the  salt flats of Uyuni and Coipasa).  However, quinoa production has  surpassed the intersalar region and is  cultivated throughout the Southern  Altiplano, including the Central  Altiplano, where environmental problems  are already visible. According to Soraide (2011) and Orsag et  al. (2013), soils in the Souther Altiplano  are coarse textured (sand content above  70% and gravel > 30%), especially in  lower strata. Due to the predominance of sand in the  soil and the low content of organic matter  (less than 1%), they do not form stable  aggregates and have a weak or null degree  of structuration. This situation favors their  high susceptibility to wind and water  erosion, particularly under excessive  tillage (use of agricultural equipment). The great international demand for  quinoa, along with high prices, creates a  great opportunity for thousands of  families who have lived in poverty for  generations. This has led to  overexploitation of soils and expansion of  the agricultural frontier, so that the area  under cultivation has increased from  35,907 ha in the year 2000 to 131,192 ha  in 2013, with a negative trend in yields  (Gandarillas et al., 2014).   With the quinoa boom, in the late nineties,  agroecological imbalances arise (VSF /  CICDA, 2009). The expansion of the  agricultural frontier in the Southern  Altiplano has had implications in the  reduction of areas for grazing of llamas; in  addition, the irregularity and reduction of  rainfall results also in shortage of pasture. It is important to note that llama’s  husbandry is not competitive with quinoa  production.  This leads to changes in the  land use of the Southern Altiplano, from  its livestock farming aptitude to  agricultural use. In addition, grazing  llamas (plots are distributed erratically) is  inconsistent with quinoa production, since  animals enter the fields and consume  growing plants, generating serious  disputes between producers. Under these  conditions, grazing involves more  herdsmen of the appropriate age to  manage the herd. Soil management has many deficiencies,  being the most crucial poor incorporation  of organic matter and lack of crop rotation  options. Fallow periods for the recovery  of soil fertility last several years, but due  to low humidity and low average  temperature in the region, the  repopulation of native species is slow.  Thereby, restoration of nutrients and  organic matter is slow, taking in some  cases over 10 years for the recovery of  biomass and the replacement of soil  microbial activity. Farmers do not add organic matter or if  they do it is in small quantities, because  there is not enough availability in the area.  The conservation and improvement of soil  fertility depends on the actions of man on  his environment, or more precisely on the  actions on soil and plants; highlighting the    interaction plant-environment-man  -society (Puschiasi, 2009). In summary, the pressure on soils  degrades them and makes them  unproductive. The lack of organic matter  makes them more susceptible to erosion  and limits the increase in productivity. The highest production and export  volumes registered in recent years, are  achieved based on the incorporation of  new areas of production and not on the  increase in yield per unitary area. This  situation can lead to an unprofitable and  uncompetitive agriculture, boosting  rural-urban migration again, resulting in  thousands of farm families returning to  poverty; thus losing the country the  unique opportunity of generating an  income of more than 150 million dollars. The solution or mitigation of the  unsustainability of quinoa production is  concurrently addressed by public entities,  development projects and producer  organizations. Among the existing  alternatives is an increased use of manure  through the repopulation of cameloids,  protection of grazing areas,  implementation barriers both physical and  biological, etc. However, no proposal  includes native legume species that can  become part of a sustainable production  system. This is the case of q'ila q'ila that  grows in the highlands and whose  importance has not been assessed in  quinoa production systems. Taking advantage of these promising  native and wild species requires  knowledge of their reproductive  characteristics, physiology of their seeds,  their ecological adaptation, the amount of  organic matter they produce, the    symbiosis generated with nitrogen-fixing  bacteria, etc. Faced with the problem of sustainability  of quinoa based production systems on the  Southern Altiplano, researchers from  PROINPA Foundation have explored the  current and potential role of native  species, giving priority to native and wild  legumes. For this purpose prospections and  collections of several species of Lupinus  spp. have been conducted in different  localities of the Southern Altiplano,  transition areas of the South-Central  Altiplano, Central and Northern  Altiplano. The genetic diversity of species  was examined through their growth habit,  ecological adaptation, seed formation,  seed viability, symbiosis with Rhizobium  and experimental planting. The adaptation  of species has been studied in relation to  micro-areas within the South and Central  Altiplano, taking into account the  topography and landscape of the areas;  differentiating flatlands, hillside, foothills  and steep hills.   Alternatives to increase  organic matter in the soils of  the Southern Altiplano   The most promoted alternative to increase  the availability of manure in the Southern  Altiplano is the reestablishment of the  balance between the population of llamas  and the acreage of quinoa. In this sense, it  is proposed that for every hectare of  quinoa seven llamas are kept (Anze,  2010). It is unquestionable that traditional  grazing areas should be protected to raise  llamas along with the management of    pasture and forages. However, in practice  it is very difficult to implement and to  achieve the desired result. For example, in  the year 2010 a total of 63,010 ha were  harvested and in 2013 the acreage  increased to 131,192 ha (Gandarillas et  al., 2014). This would mean that the  population of llamas should be increased  by about 477,000 animals, which is  difficult to achieve. According to the knowledge of  researchers and decision makers, the  Altiplano is characterized as an altitude  ecoregion, dry, cold and semiarid; where  quinoa is grown and where few native  species develop. However, a careful  examination, can demonstrate the  presence of a large diversity of native and  naturalized species.  To date their adaptive  characteristics are not valued and neither  are their potential benefits for quinoa  production systems. Among the native and naturalized species  existent, there are shrubs: Parastrephia  lepidophylla (Weddell) Cabrera,  P.   quadrangulare Meyen Cabrera, P. lucida,  (Meyen) Cabrera, Baccharis tola Phil., B.   tricuneata (L.f.), Lamphapa castellani  Mold.; pastures: Nassella pubiflora (Trin   & Rupr), N. nardoides Phil., Festuca  ortophilla Pilg., F. dolychophilla J. Prsi.,  Chondrosum simplex (Lagasca Kunth);  legumes: Lupinus ottobutchini C.P. Sm.,   L. montanus C.P. Sm., L. chilensis C.P.  Sm  L. cuzcensis, C.P. Sm., etc.; whose   ancient adaptation allows its validity, but  human activity is reducing their  populations.   The native legume q'ila q'ila   Q'ila q'ila (pronounced as qela qela) is a  generic name in Aymara language, which  refers to several legume species used as  forage in green and dry state (Lupinus  chilensis CP Sm., L. otto -butchini CP  Sm.), and others used as forage only when  dry or cured (Lupinus montanus CP Sm.).  These features should be complemented  with research on anti-nutritional  principles that some species usually  contain. In the literature studied, the scientific  names do not include a detail of the  collection areas, let alone mention the  native names of the species. Therefore, for  now, it is better to name them as plural  species (Lupinus spp.).  Species from the  Altiplano are known with native names  q'ila q'ila, salqa or salqiri. The plants  usually grow in colonies, depending on  the natural seed dispersal and favorable  conditions for colonization, ranging from  small areas of 100 m 2 to 200 m 2 or even   areas of up to 1 km2.  While the taxonomic classification of  species is not clear, the diversity of  species and the genetic diversity within  each species or ecotype are evident.  Jacobsen et al. (2006) listed 83 species for   the area of the Andes. Meanwhile Barney  (2011) cites 85 wild species for South  America. The adaptation of species is large;  however, some ecotypes prefer specific  environmental conditions such as sandy or  stony soils, loamy soils, gravelly or stony  soils, or otherwise flatlands, slopes,  foothills and mountains.   The biology of the species of Lupinus  presents several differential biologic  processes in comparison to other plant  species, among them seed dormancy, high  tolerance to frost, abundant nodulation (N  fixation), broad ecological adaptation and  high capacity for diversification. The seed of wild lupines is viable and can  germinate when it reaches physiological  maturity, before drying. However, as it  dries, it enters a prolonged dormancy of  three to four years, after that time the  dormancy ends and it can germinate  naturally. This means that prior to a  directed sowing process seeds must be  pretreated. Q'ila q'ila seedlings emerge in late  December and January, are established in  the field between January and February,    grow slowly in winter, bloom in  November and December, and fructify  from December to January, according to  the different areas and ecotypes. What  stands out is their adaptation to highlands,  their tolerance to winter frost (-18 ° C  from May to September) and their  resistance to prolonged droughts (from  March to December). By staying alive  during the winter, they provide ground  cover, develop abundant green material  and fix nitrogen. All of these beneficial  processes take place in the period when  quinoa is not being produced, that is, in  the fallow period. These characteristics  give guidelines for the use of these species  for enhanced management of fallow  periods, ground cover and atmospheric  nitrogen fixation. Their ability to grow on  marginal periods, their pluri-seasonal and  even multi-year cycle, makes them very  appealing species for their use in quinoa  production systems in the Southern  Altiplano. Currently  q'ila q'ilas are not valued for   their adaptive qualities, organic matter  production and nitrogen fixation. Some  farmers do recognize their contributions  for soil management, because when they  clear land previously populated by these  species, quinoa grows and yields well.  The possible explanation for the lack of  interest in these species is their erratic  growth due to seed dormancy.  In natural  conditions, plants are born every three to  four years at the same site. This  characteristic of the species makes them  difficult to manage without prior  application of seed treatment techniques.  Therefore, the current role of wild species  from the genus Lupinus in the Altiplano is  of little or no importance for quinoa  production systems.   Perspectives of wild lupines  for the sustainability of quinoa  production systems in the  Southern Altiplano    Wild legumes produce considerable  amounts of dry matter.  It is estimated that  on average they can produce the  equivalent of eight tons of dry matter per  hectare, without considering nitrogen  fixation estimated at over 100 kg/ha. The  benefits of legumes in cropping systems  are widely documented (Prager et al,  2012; Céspedes, 2005), which supports  the proposal of using wild legumes in  quinoa production systems. The proposal of guided usage of these  lupin species involves planting in late  December and early January. Plants grow  in autumn, winter and summer (cold and  dry seasons) and produce seed during the  rainy season. It is important to highlight  that the conclusion of the life cycle of the  q'ila q'ila matches the period of soil  preparation in the Altiplano. It therefore  becomes a valuable local source of green  matter to incorporate in the soil, with the  advantage of not being a woody plant,  which makes its decomposition easier. In    this case, wild legumes are another source  of organic matter in quinoa production  systems. An alternative option for the  management of q'ila q'ila is to harvest  seed before incorporating the complete  plant into the soil. The sustainable production approach  involves the management and utilization  of soil to achieve high productivity per  unitary area, maintaining soil health, and  including legume species in rotation  systems and improved fallow  management practices. In the case of the Southern Altiplano,  where conditions for agriculture are so  hard, wild legumes are an excellent  alternative to establish rotation systems,  improve fallow management practices,  produce green manures and establish crop  tandem systems with quinoa. These  practices offer numerous benefits:  reducing erosion and improving soil  fertility, improved yields, reduced  sediment transport and diversification in  production. In this line of analysis, eight  tons of dry matter incorporated by q'ila  q'ila to the soil may be sufficient to  achieve a yield of quinoa of twenty  quintals per hectare.   For crop rotation purposes, after quinoa  harvest,  q'ila q'ila should be sown; and   after two growing seasons the soil will  again be available to grow quinoa. For  improved fallow management practices,  q'ila q'ila can be planted in any sequence  of fallow years, provided planting is made  at the appropriate time (late December  and early January). For intercropping in tandem, in a field set  with quinoa plants in panicle phase, q'ila  q'ila  should be planted interspersed or   between rows or lines. This involves  planting interlayer on deferred date  (tandem or in posts).   Due to all that is known so far about the  q'ila q'ila, productivity, sustainability and  competitiveness of Bolivian quinoa can be  seen optimistically. The challenge posed  by the Bolivian government of increasing  the area of cultivated quinoa, may be  feasible with the use of wild legumes as  alternative and complementary to the use  of llama dung.   Challenges and limitations in  the management of wild lupine   There are several limitations that must be  addressed to achieve the commercial  cultivation of wild lupines, which in the  field of agronomy are essentially: the  gradual fruiting, dehiscence of seed and  seed dormancy. Other issues to be addressed are: seed  production on a commercial scale,  isolation and inoculation of seeds with  nitrogen-fixing bacteria, weevil control  Apion  sp., the use of equipment and   machinery for planting and harvesting,  and mechanized incorporation of organic  fertilizer, among others.   In addition, research programs should be  established on agronomic management,  multiple use (coverage, organic matter,  forage), microbiology, etc. A first task to  undertake, given the great diversity of  species and morphotypes, is the  establishment of a working collection, for  the purpose of characterization, selection  and targeted use. For the efficient use of q'ila q'ila a vital  challenge is the participation of producers  in the maintenance of natural areas where  these species grow, timely seed collection,  directed planting, appropriate  incorporation in the soil, and other  practices.   Cited references   Anze, G. 2010. Normas básicas para una   producción sostenible de la Quinua Real  del Altiplano Sur de Bolivia.  PROQUINAT/ANAPQUI.    On line. Available at:  http://www.infoquinua.bo   Retrieved on June 6, 2014. Barney, M. 2011. Biodiversidad y ecogeografía   del género Lupinus L. (Leguminosae) en  Colombia. MSc. Thesis, Universidad  Nacional de Colombia, Palmira Colombia.  69 p.  Céspedes, M. (ed) 2005. Agricultura orgánica,   principio y prácticas de producción. INIA.  Bulletin No 131. Chillan, Chile.  Gandarillas, A., Rojas, W., Bonifacio, A., Ojeda   N. 2014. La quinua en Bolivia: Perspectiva  de la Fundación PROINPA. Chapter 5. In:  Bazile Didier “Estado del arte de la quinua  en el mundo”. FAO (in press).  Jacobsen, S., Mujica, A. 2006. El tarwi   (Lupinus mutabilis Sweet.) y sus parientes    silvestres. In: Botánica Económica de los  Andes Centrales. M. Moraes R., B.  Øllgaard, L. P. Kvist, F. Borchsenius & H.  Balslev, eds.) UMSA. La Paz, Bolivia. pp.  458-462.  Jaldín R. 2010. Producción de quinua en Oruro   y Potosí. La Paz, Bolivia. PIEB. No. 3. 100  p.  Medrano, A. 2010. Expansión del cultivo de   quinua (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) y  calidad de suelos. Análisis en un contexto  de sostenibilidad en el intersalar boliviano.  MSc.Thesis, Universidad Autónoma San  Luis Potosí. México. 138 p.  Orsag, V., León, L., Pacosaca, O., Castro, E.   2013. Evaluación de la fertilidad de los  suelos para la producción sostenible de  quinua. T’inkazos. 33: 89-112.  Prager, M., Sanclemente, O., Sánchez, M.   2012. Abonos verdes: tecnología para el  manejo agroecológico de los cultivos.  Agroecología 7:53-62.  Puschiasi, O. 2009. La fertilidad: un recurso   "cuchicheado". Análisis de la valorización  del recurso territorial fertilidad por las  familias de la zona Intersalar. On line.  Available at: http://www.ird.fr Retrieved on  May 27, 2014.  Soraide, D. 2011. La Quinua Real en el   Altiplano Sur de Bolivia. Documento  técnico para la denominación de origen.  FAUTAPO-Educación para el Desarrollo.  108 p.  VSF-CICDA. 2009. Quinua y territorio.   RURALTER, IRD, VSF-CICDA y  comunidades del intersalar. Agronomes y  Veterinaires sin frontera. Plural, La Paz,  Bolivia. 156 p.  Williams, B. 1995. Revegetation for   ecologically sustainable dryland farming.  Department of the parliamentary library,  Commonwealth of Australia. Research  paper No.1. 39 p.   Introduction   The strong international demand for  quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) in  recent years, has led to a significant    increase in cultivated area in a very short  period of time (Gandarillas et al., 2014).   Commercial cultivation has expanded  from the traditional area of the Southern  Altiplano where Royal Quinoa is grown,    to new areas of "expansion" in the Central  and Northern Altiplano, and the  inter-Andean valleys. This situation has  led to face new problems, mainly due to  moisture. In the south, environmental  conditions are very dry, with an annual  average precipitation of 250 mm, while in  the Central and Northern Altiplano there  is an average precipitation of 500  mm/year, and in the valleys it reaches 800  mm/year. This article attempts to update  information on the incidence and  significance of the main fungal diseases  that affect quinoa, with emphasis on the  “expansion” areas, in the new context of  climate change, based on the publication  of Tapia et al., 1979.  The objectives of this work were:  • and the   affecting quinoa cultivars with  emphasis on expansion areas (Central  Altiplano, Northern Altiplano and  inter-Andean Valleys).  •   economic importance.   Materials and methods   This study was based primarily on visits  and sampling to 50 quinoa plots in  different production areas (10 to 12 plots  per area). Samples were taken of the different  diseases that appeared throughout crop  development, considering the weather  conditions at the time of sampling. This  work was carried out from November    2013 to April 2014, with a season  characterized by high precipitation.  Samples of seedlings and plants in various  stages of development, and of different  types of tissues (leaves, stem, roots and  grains) were collected. The samples were collected in plastic  bags and in a refrigerated container to  keep samples fresh, each one being  identified according to the collection site.  The samples were taken to PROINPA’s  laboratories in the shortest time possible,  and immediately processed using routine  techniques, ie direct microscope  observation of signs, humid chamber and  seeding in culture media (Potato Dextrose  Agar). Taxonomic keys developed based  on morphological characteristics of the  different kinds of fungi (Barnett, 1960),  were used to identify the structures.   Results and discussion   The presentation of results is made based  on the appearance of diseases in the crop,  according to the phenological stage at  which they arose: [ Diseases arising from emergence to   the appearance of 6-8 true leaves: At the beginning of the cultivation cycle  samples were taken from dead seedlings  in cotiledoneal phase (emergence); a  constriction at the neck of the plant  (Figure 1) was observed. With no  movement of nutrients and water to the  stem, there was a massive seedling death.  Digging the ground, in places where there  was no emergence of seeds, seedling  death was evident.  This symptom of strangulation was  diagnosed in the Central and Northern  Altiplano, and the inter-Andean valleys.  In the field it appears as an irregular  emergence (Figure 2), little perceived by  farmers, usually attributed to soil  problems, salinity or lack of moisture. The disease occurs in years of excessive  moisture, soils with high clay content,  fertilized with partially decomposed  manure and poor drainage. Once the  disease is present it remains in the soil  attached to the roots and stems of dead  plants, as conservation structures  (chlamydospores in the case of Fusarium  and sclerotia for Rhizoctonia).   Due to several factors that influence the  emergence, it is estimated that the death  of seedlings due to Rhizoctonia and/or  Fusarium, is of up to 10%. [ Diseases that occur in the   phenological phases of branching,  panicle formation, flowering, grain  formation and physiological maturity As the plants continued to develop, in the  branching phase (eight true leaves) and/or  panicle formation (inflorescence begins to  emerge from the apex of the plant), in  some areas of production and depending  on weather conditions; chlorotic spots  appeared on the leaves (Figure 3).  Depending on the variety these spots can  be red, orange, brown or black.   As the disease progresses, the undersides  of leaves present a grayish sporulation  (Figure 4), which corresponds to  Peronospora variabilis 1, causal agent of   the quinoa mildew. Depending on the  humidity, this disease can remain until  harvest. The yellowing of leaves reduces  the photosynthetic capacity and also  causes defoliation of the plants (Figure 5),  thus yields are reduced.   P. variabilis is a pathogen of easy  dispersion (wind and rain). During crop  development dissemination structures are  mainly spores, however at senescence or  absence of crop, the disease is spread by  oospores (sexual reproduction structures)  that may be adhered to the surface of the  grain or inside the stubble that remains in  the field. Therefore dissemination occurs,  at close range by means of spores, and at  long range through oospores. Mildew occurs in all agro-ecological  regions, with varying severity depending  on environmental conditions (high  relative humidity, above 80%). In the  Southern Highlands it only appears when  rainfall is intense and prolonged.  When  the rainy period stops automatically the  mycelium is dried and the disease  progression is interrupted. Varieties of  royal quinoa are susceptible to this  disease. The losses caused by mildew depend on  the phenological phase at which the plant  is attacked and the degree of resistance of  the variety. When susceptible varieties are  grown and favorable weather conditions  are given, especially high relative  humidity, the effects of mildew are  severe. If the attack occurs in early stages  of plant development, production can be  completely lost. In resistant varieties,  losses fluctuate between 20% and 40%  (Danielsen  et al. 2003). Therefore,   economic losses range from 2-5 quintals,  which depending on the price of quinoa  can be very significant. Consequently, for  the year 2014 losses could be equivalent  to 6,000 Bs/ha.   Coinciding with the appearance of  mildew in the panicle formation and  flowering stages, on the chlorotic spots, a  green sporulation was observed on the top  side of leafs (Figure 6). The causal agent  is Cladosporium sp. which depending on   humidity, can cover the entire surface of  the spots (Figure 7) and accelerate the  falling of leaves. Just like mildew this  disease can occur up to harvesting stage.  When there is excessive humidity the  pathogen spreads from the foliage to the  panicle, and it tends to turn it black  (Figure 8). Depending on the stage of the  filling phase, when the attack takes place,  the grains may even remain empty. If the  grains are already formed, they will be  slightly stained. When processing these  grains in the laboratory, it was observed  that  Cladosporium  conidia remain   attached to the surface of the grain, being    its mode of dissemination and survival for  the next planting season. Since this disease is strongly associated  with mildew, when damage occurs in the  panicle, economic losses due to the green  mold would produce at least a 5% loss in  addition to the losses caused by mildew. At the same time, during the development  of plants in places where there is poor  drainage or where water accumulates, a  symptom of wilting and yellowing occurs.   At the beginning wilting is only apical but  later it is widespread, it even causes the  death of plants. Going through the root system, lesions  sunk in the neck of the plant are observed,  similar to those found during the    emergence stage. Taking the full root  system from the soil, necrosis of the main  root and rootlets is observed (Figure 9).  If  winds occur during this condition, plants  fall (Figure 10). Due to excess moisture, the surface  portion (skin) of the root decomposes  quickly, exposing the underlying tissue to  attack by other pathogens. The diagnosis  of these samples shows that the symptom  corresponds to Fusarium  sp. Therefore,   this pathogen appears in pre and  post-emergence, and may manifest again  during crop development. The way to  recognize diseased plants is through their  weak development in comparison to  healthy plants.   This disease has been observed mainly in  areas close to Lake Titicaca (Northern  Altiplano) and to a lesser extent in the  Central Altiplano, in areas with heavy  soils and poor drainage. In the case of inter-Andean valleys,  similar symptoms are observed in adult  plants. Other plants with little  development simply show a pink color on  roots and rootlets (Figure 11). An analysis  of these roots shows that symptoms can  also be attributed to Fusarium sp.  During development, necrotic spots have  also been observed on the foliage.  These  are roughly circular or irregular in shape,  with beige centers and slightly brown  edges (Figure 12), inside which pycnidia  are present (black dots). The size of the  lesions ranges from 5 to 10 mm in  diameter. Work done in the laboratory  evidenced that the causal agent of this  disease is Ascochyta sp. and the common  name of the disease is "leaf spot".   When attacks are severe, intense  defoliation occurs, thus reducing  photosynthetic capacity; and if the panicle  is in formation, the quality of grains is  affected (brown color). Studies of the grains conducted in  laboratory show that the fungus produces  abundant pycnidiospores accompanied by  a mild to severe necrosis in roots and/or  hypocotyl. Severely affected seedlings  die. Therefore, the disease is transmitted  through seeds; pycnidia remain attached  to the surface of the grains and also stay in  the stubble. For a new disease cycle to occur in the  next season a temperature of 18 to 24 °C  and a relative humidity of 80% is  required, the pycnidia germinate and give  rise to pycnidiospores and the infection  initiates again.   The geographical distribution of this  disease is not exactly known and  apparently it is not of major economic  importance (Danielsen et al., 2003). Finally, at the stage of senescence, when  the stem is lignified, ogival shaped lesions  can be observed. These lesions are light  gray in the center with brown edges,  surrounded by an aura of glassy  appearance, inside which you may notice  small black spots (Figure 13) which  correspond to pycnidia of the fungus  Phoma sp. The size of these lesions ranges   from 2 to 3 cm. When conditions are  favorable (especially high relative  humidity) a number of spots can be seen in  a single stem (Figure 14). During severe  attacks these spots grow and reach each  other, covering the entire area of the stem. From season to season, the fungus  survives in the stubble that remains in the  field. This pathogen does not require  mechanical wounds to enter the plant, it  enters through natural openings. This disease has been observed in the  Central and Northern Altiplano, and in the  inter-Andean valleys, and basically its    occurrence depends on the presence of  inoculum and high relative humidity.  In general, in all production areas of  Bolivia plants from all stages of  development (from emergence until  harvest), with virus infection symptoms,  have been observed. The causal agents  have not been determined, yet what is  known is that quinoa is used as universal    plant (indicator plant) for the detection of  various viruses. The most frequent  symptoms observed in quinoa are:  yellowing, shortening of internodes  (rosetting), leathery leaves, etc. (Figure  15).   Conclusions   • most disease the   "quinoa mildew", caused by  Peronospora variabilis, followed by  "green mold" and "seedling death."  These three diseases occur in different  agro-ecological regions of Bolivia.  •   the symptoms have been observed in  the Central and Northern Altiplano and  inter-Andean valleys, without causing  significant economic losses.   • "Ogival appears   senescence, affecting the stems and  rachis of the panicle. It has no  incidence in reducing quinoa grain  yield.  •   "mildew", "green mold" and "seedling  death".  •   and "seedling death" can result in  losses of up to 50%.   Cited References    Barnett. H. 1960. Ilustrated genera of imperfect   fungi. 2 ed. Burgess Publishing Company.  225 p.  Danielsen, S., Bonifacio, A., Ames, T. 2003.   Diseases of Quinoa (Chenopodium  quinoa). Food Reviews International. 19(1  y 2): 43-59.  Choi, Y., Denchev, C., Shin, H. 2008.   Morphological and molecular analyses  support existence of hostspecific  Peronospora species infecting  Chenopodium. Mycopathology. No.  165:155-164.  Choi, Y., Danielsen, S., Lubeck, M., Hong, S.,   Delhey, R., Shin, H. 2010. Morphological    and molecular characterization of the  causal agent of downy mildew on quinoa  (Chenopodium quinoa). Mycopathology.   No. 169:403-412.  Gandarillas, A., Rojas, W., Bonifacio, A.,   Ojeda, N. 2014. La quinua en Bolivia:  Perspectiva de la Fundación PROINPA.  Chapter 5. In: Bazile Didier “Estado del  Arte de la Quinua en el Mundo”. FAO (in  press).  Tapia, M., Gandarillas, H., Alandia, S.,   Cardozo, A., Otazú, V., Ortiz, R., Rea, J.,  Salas, B., Zanabria, E., Mujica, A. 1979. La  Quinua y la Kañiwa: Cultivos Andinos.  IICA/CIID, Oficina Regional para América  Latina. Bogotá, Colombia. pp. 142-147.     ISSN 1998 - 9652   Area: Current National Affairs 14   Background   The most important area of quinoa  (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) production  in Bolivia is the Southern Altiplano, so  when the issue of organic Royal Quinoa is  addressed, many authors (Jaldín, 2010;  Medrano, 2010; Puschiasi, 2009) focus on  the “intersalar” region (strip between the  salt flats of Uyuni and Coipasa).  However, quinoa production has  surpassed the intersalar region and is  cultivated throughout the Southern  Altiplano, including the Central  Altiplano, where environmental problems  are already visible. According to Soraide (2011) and Orsag et  al. (2013), soils in the Souther Altiplano  are coarse textured (sand content above  70% and gravel > 30%), especially in  lower strata. Due to the predominance of sand in the  soil and the low content of organic matter  (less than 1%), they do not form stable  aggregates and have a weak or null degree  of structuration. This situation favors their  high susceptibility to wind and water  erosion, particularly under excessive  tillage (use of agricultural equipment). The great international demand for  quinoa, along with high prices, creates a  great opportunity for thousands of  families who have lived in poverty for  generations. This has led to  overexploitation of soils and expansion of  the agricultural frontier, so that the area  under cultivation has increased from  35,907 ha in the year 2000 to 131,192 ha  in 2013, with a negative trend in yields  (Gandarillas et al., 2014).   With the quinoa boom, in the late nineties,  agroecological imbalances arise (VSF /  CICDA, 2009). The expansion of the  agricultural frontier in the Southern  Altiplano has had implications in the  reduction of areas for grazing of llamas; in  addition, the irregularity and reduction of  rainfall results also in shortage of pasture. It is important to note that llama’s  husbandry is not competitive with quinoa  production.  This leads to changes in the  land use of the Southern Altiplano, from  its livestock farming aptitude to  agricultural use. In addition, grazing  llamas (plots are distributed erratically) is  inconsistent with quinoa production, since  animals enter the fields and consume  growing plants, generating serious  disputes between producers. Under these  conditions, grazing involves more  herdsmen of the appropriate age to  manage the herd. Soil management has many deficiencies,  being the most crucial poor incorporation  of organic matter and lack of crop rotation  options. Fallow periods for the recovery  of soil fertility last several years, but due  to low humidity and low average  temperature in the region, the  repopulation of native species is slow.  Thereby, restoration of nutrients and  organic matter is slow, taking in some  cases over 10 years for the recovery of  biomass and the replacement of soil  microbial activity. Farmers do not add organic matter or if  they do it is in small quantities, because  there is not enough availability in the area.  The conservation and improvement of soil  fertility depends on the actions of man on  his environment, or more precisely on the  actions on soil and plants; highlighting the    interaction plant-environment-man  -society (Puschiasi, 2009). In summary, the pressure on soils  degrades them and makes them  unproductive. The lack of organic matter  makes them more susceptible to erosion  and limits the increase in productivity. The highest production and export  volumes registered in recent years, are  achieved based on the incorporation of  new areas of production and not on the  increase in yield per unitary area. This  situation can lead to an unprofitable and  uncompetitive agriculture, boosting  rural-urban migration again, resulting in  thousands of farm families returning to  poverty; thus losing the country the  unique opportunity of generating an  income of more than 150 million dollars. The solution or mitigation of the  unsustainability of quinoa production is  concurrently addressed by public entities,  development projects and producer  organizations. Among the existing  alternatives is an increased use of manure  through the repopulation of cameloids,  protection of grazing areas,  implementation barriers both physical and  biological, etc. However, no proposal  includes native legume species that can  become part of a sustainable production  system. This is the case of q'ila q'ila that  grows in the highlands and whose  importance has not been assessed in  quinoa production systems. Taking advantage of these promising  native and wild species requires  knowledge of their reproductive  characteristics, physiology of their seeds,  their ecological adaptation, the amount of  organic matter they produce, the    symbiosis generated with nitrogen-fixing  bacteria, etc. Faced with the problem of sustainability  of quinoa based production systems on the  Southern Altiplano, researchers from  PROINPA Foundation have explored the  current and potential role of native  species, giving priority to native and wild  legumes. For this purpose prospections and  collections of several species of Lupinus  spp. have been conducted in different  localities of the Southern Altiplano,  transition areas of the South-Central  Altiplano, Central and Northern  Altiplano. The genetic diversity of species  was examined through their growth habit,  ecological adaptation, seed formation,  seed viability, symbiosis with Rhizobium  and experimental planting. The adaptation  of species has been studied in relation to  micro-areas within the South and Central  Altiplano, taking into account the  topography and landscape of the areas;  differentiating flatlands, hillside, foothills  and steep hills.   Alternatives to increase  organic matter in the soils of  the Southern Altiplano   The most promoted alternative to increase  the availability of manure in the Southern  Altiplano is the reestablishment of the  balance between the population of llamas  and the acreage of quinoa. In this sense, it  is proposed that for every hectare of  quinoa seven llamas are kept (Anze,  2010). It is unquestionable that traditional  grazing areas should be protected to raise  llamas along with the management of    pasture and forages. However, in practice  it is very difficult to implement and to  achieve the desired result. For example, in  the year 2010 a total of 63,010 ha were  harvested and in 2013 the acreage  increased to 131,192 ha (Gandarillas et  al., 2014). This would mean that the  population of llamas should be increased  by about 477,000 animals, which is  difficult to achieve. According to the knowledge of  researchers and decision makers, the  Altiplano is characterized as an altitude  ecoregion, dry, cold and semiarid; where  quinoa is grown and where few native  species develop. However, a careful  examination, can demonstrate the  presence of a large diversity of native and  naturalized species.  To date their adaptive  characteristics are not valued and neither  are their potential benefits for quinoa  production systems. Among the native and naturalized species  existent, there are shrubs: Parastrephia  lepidophylla (Weddell) Cabrera,  P.   quadrangulare Meyen Cabrera, P. lucida,  (Meyen) Cabrera, Baccharis tola Phil., B.   tricuneata (L.f.), Lamphapa castellani  Mold.; pastures: Nassella pubiflora (Trin   & Rupr), N. nardoides Phil., Festuca  ortophilla Pilg., F. dolychophilla J. Prsi.,  Chondrosum simplex (Lagasca Kunth);  legumes: Lupinus ottobutchini C.P. Sm.,   L. montanus C.P. Sm., L. chilensis C.P.  Sm  L. cuzcensis, C.P. Sm., etc.; whose   ancient adaptation allows its validity, but  human activity is reducing their  populations.   The native legume q'ila q'ila   Q'ila q'ila (pronounced as qela qela) is a  generic name in Aymara language, which  refers to several legume species used as  forage in green and dry state (Lupinus  chilensis CP Sm., L. otto -butchini CP  Sm.), and others used as forage only when  dry or cured (Lupinus montanus CP Sm.).  These features should be complemented  with research on anti-nutritional  principles that some species usually  contain. In the literature studied, the scientific  names do not include a detail of the  collection areas, let alone mention the  native names of the species. Therefore, for  now, it is better to name them as plural  species (Lupinus spp.).  Species from the  Altiplano are known with native names  q'ila q'ila, salqa or salqiri. The plants  usually grow in colonies, depending on  the natural seed dispersal and favorable  conditions for colonization, ranging from  small areas of 100 m 2 to 200 m 2 or even   areas of up to 1 km2.  While the taxonomic classification of  species is not clear, the diversity of  species and the genetic diversity within  each species or ecotype are evident.  Jacobsen et al. (2006) listed 83 species for   the area of the Andes. Meanwhile Barney  (2011) cites 85 wild species for South  America. The adaptation of species is large;  however, some ecotypes prefer specific  environmental conditions such as sandy or  stony soils, loamy soils, gravelly or stony  soils, or otherwise flatlands, slopes,  foothills and mountains.   The biology of the species of Lupinus  presents several differential biologic  processes in comparison to other plant  species, among them seed dormancy, high  tolerance to frost, abundant nodulation (N  fixation), broad ecological adaptation and  high capacity for diversification. The seed of wild lupines is viable and can  germinate when it reaches physiological  maturity, before drying. However, as it  dries, it enters a prolonged dormancy of  three to four years, after that time the  dormancy ends and it can germinate  naturally. This means that prior to a  directed sowing process seeds must be  pretreated. Q'ila q'ila seedlings emerge in late  December and January, are established in  the field between January and February,    grow slowly in winter, bloom in  November and December, and fructify  from December to January, according to  the different areas and ecotypes. What  stands out is their adaptation to highlands,  their tolerance to winter frost (-18 ° C  from May to September) and their  resistance to prolonged droughts (from  March to December). By staying alive  during the winter, they provide ground  cover, develop abundant green material  and fix nitrogen. All of these beneficial  processes take place in the period when  quinoa is not being produced, that is, in  the fallow period. These characteristics  give guidelines for the use of these species  for enhanced management of fallow  periods, ground cover and atmospheric  nitrogen fixation. Their ability to grow on  marginal periods, their pluri-seasonal and  even multi-year cycle, makes them very  appealing species for their use in quinoa  production systems in the Southern  Altiplano. Currently  q'ila q'ilas are not valued for   their adaptive qualities, organic matter  production and nitrogen fixation. Some  farmers do recognize their contributions  for soil management, because when they  clear land previously populated by these  species, quinoa grows and yields well.  The possible explanation for the lack of  interest in these species is their erratic  growth due to seed dormancy.  In natural  conditions, plants are born every three to  four years at the same site. This  characteristic of the species makes them  difficult to manage without prior  application of seed treatment techniques.  Therefore, the current role of wild species  from the genus Lupinus in the Altiplano is  of little or no importance for quinoa  production systems.   Perspectives of wild lupines  for the sustainability of quinoa  production systems in the  Southern Altiplano    Wild legumes produce considerable  amounts of dry matter.  It is estimated that  on average they can produce the  equivalent of eight tons of dry matter per  hectare, without considering nitrogen  fixation estimated at over 100 kg/ha. The  benefits of legumes in cropping systems  are widely documented (Prager et al,  2012; Céspedes, 2005), which supports  the proposal of using wild legumes in  quinoa production systems. The proposal of guided usage of these  lupin species involves planting in late  December and early January. Plants grow  in autumn, winter and summer (cold and  dry seasons) and produce seed during the  rainy season. It is important to highlight  that the conclusion of the life cycle of the  q'ila q'ila matches the period of soil  preparation in the Altiplano. It therefore  becomes a valuable local source of green  matter to incorporate in the soil, with the  advantage of not being a woody plant,  which makes its decomposition easier. In    this case, wild legumes are another source  of organic matter in quinoa production  systems. An alternative option for the  management of q'ila q'ila is to harvest  seed before incorporating the complete  plant into the soil. The sustainable production approach  involves the management and utilization  of soil to achieve high productivity per  unitary area, maintaining soil health, and  including legume species in rotation  systems and improved fallow  management practices. In the case of the Southern Altiplano,  where conditions for agriculture are so  hard, wild legumes are an excellent  alternative to establish rotation systems,  improve fallow management practices,  produce green manures and establish crop  tandem systems with quinoa. These  practices offer numerous benefits:  reducing erosion and improving soil  fertility, improved yields, reduced  sediment transport and diversification in  production. In this line of analysis, eight  tons of dry matter incorporated by q'ila  q'ila to the soil may be sufficient to  achieve a yield of quinoa of twenty  quintals per hectare.   For crop rotation purposes, after quinoa  harvest,  q'ila q'ila should be sown; and   after two growing seasons the soil will  again be available to grow quinoa. For  improved fallow management practices,  q'ila q'ila can be planted in any sequence  of fallow years, provided planting is made  at the appropriate time (late December  and early January). For intercropping in tandem, in a field set  with quinoa plants in panicle phase, q'ila  q'ila  should be planted interspersed or   between rows or lines. This involves  planting interlayer on deferred date  (tandem or in posts).   Due to all that is known so far about the  q'ila q'ila, productivity, sustainability and  competitiveness of Bolivian quinoa can be  seen optimistically. The challenge posed  by the Bolivian government of increasing  the area of cultivated quinoa, may be  feasible with the use of wild legumes as  alternative and complementary to the use  of llama dung.   Challenges and limitations in  the management of wild lupine   There are several limitations that must be  addressed to achieve the commercial  cultivation of wild lupines, which in the  field of agronomy are essentially: the  gradual fruiting, dehiscence of seed and  seed dormancy. Other issues to be addressed are: seed  production on a commercial scale,  isolation and inoculation of seeds with  nitrogen-fixing bacteria, weevil control  Apion  sp., the use of equipment and   machinery for planting and harvesting,  and mechanized incorporation of organic  fertilizer, among others.   In addition, research programs should be  established on agronomic management,  multiple use (coverage, organic matter,  forage), microbiology, etc. A first task to  undertake, given the great diversity of  species and morphotypes, is the  establishment of a working collection, for  the purpose of characterization, selection  and targeted use. For the efficient use of q'ila q'ila a vital  challenge is the participation of producers  in the maintenance of natural areas where  these species grow, timely seed collection,  directed planting, appropriate  incorporation in the soil, and other  practices.   Cited references   Anze, G. 2010. Normas básicas para una   producción sostenible de la Quinua Real  del Altiplano Sur de Bolivia.  PROQUINAT/ANAPQUI.    On line. Available at:  http://www.infoquinua.bo   Retrieved on June 6, 2014. Barney, M. 2011. Biodiversidad y ecogeografía   del género Lupinus L. (Leguminosae) en  Colombia. MSc. Thesis, Universidad  Nacional de Colombia, Palmira Colombia.  69 p.  Céspedes, M. (ed) 2005. Agricultura orgánica,   principio y prácticas de producción. INIA.  Bulletin No 131. Chillan, Chile.  Gandarillas, A., Rojas, W., Bonifacio, A., Ojeda   N. 2014. La quinua en Bolivia: Perspectiva  de la Fundación PROINPA. Chapter 5. In:  Bazile Didier “Estado del arte de la quinua  en el mundo”. FAO (in press).  Jacobsen, S., Mujica, A. 2006. El tarwi   (Lupinus mutabilis Sweet.) y sus parientes    silvestres. In: Botánica Económica de los  Andes Centrales. M. Moraes R., B.  Øllgaard, L. P. Kvist, F. Borchsenius & H.  Balslev, eds.) UMSA. La Paz, Bolivia. pp.  458-462.  Jaldín R. 2010. Producción de quinua en Oruro   y Potosí. La Paz, Bolivia. PIEB. No. 3. 100  p.  Medrano, A. 2010. Expansión del cultivo de   quinua (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) y  calidad de suelos. Análisis en un contexto  de sostenibilidad en el intersalar boliviano.  MSc.Thesis, Universidad Autónoma San  Luis Potosí. México. 138 p.  Orsag, V., León, L., Pacosaca, O., Castro, E.   2013. Evaluación de la fertilidad de los  suelos para la producción sostenible de  quinua. T’inkazos. 33: 89-112.  Prager, M., Sanclemente, O., Sánchez, M.   2012. Abonos verdes: tecnología para el  manejo agroecológico de los cultivos.  Agroecología 7:53-62.  Puschiasi, O. 2009. La fertilidad: un recurso   "cuchicheado". Análisis de la valorización  del recurso territorial fertilidad por las  familias de la zona Intersalar. On line.  Available at: http://www.ird.fr Retrieved on  May 27, 2014.  Soraide, D. 2011. La Quinua Real en el   Altiplano Sur de Bolivia. Documento  técnico para la denominación de origen.  FAUTAPO-Educación para el Desarrollo.  108 p.  VSF-CICDA. 2009. Quinua y territorio.   RURALTER, IRD, VSF-CICDA y  comunidades del intersalar. Agronomes y  Veterinaires sin frontera. Plural, La Paz,  Bolivia. 156 p.  Williams, B. 1995. Revegetation for   ecologically sustainable dryland farming.  Department of the parliamentary library,  Commonwealth of Australia. Research  paper No.1. 39 p.   Introduction   The strong international demand for  quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) in  recent years, has led to a significant    increase in cultivated area in a very short  period of time (Gandarillas et al., 2014).  Commercial cultivation has expanded  from the traditional area of the Southern  Altiplano where Royal Quinoa is grown,    to new areas of "expansion" in the Central  and Northern Altiplano, and the  inter-Andean valleys. This situation has  led to face new problems, mainly due to  moisture. In the south, environmental  conditions are very dry, with an annual  average precipitation of 250 mm, while in  the Central and Northern Altiplano there  is an average precipitation of 500  mm/year, and in the valleys it reaches 800  mm/year. This article attempts to update  information on the incidence and  significance of the main fungal diseases  that affect quinoa, with emphasis on the  “expansion” areas, in the new context of  climate change, based on the publication  of Tapia et al., 1979.  The objectives of this work were:  • and the   affecting quinoa cultivars with  emphasis on expansion areas (Central  Altiplano, Northern Altiplano and  inter-Andean Valleys).  •   economic importance.   Materials and methods   This study was based primarily on visits  and sampling to 50 quinoa plots in  different production areas (10 to 12 plots  per area). Samples were taken of the different  diseases that appeared throughout crop  development, considering the weather  conditions at the time of sampling. This  work was carried out from November    2013 to April 2014, with a season  characterized by high precipitation.  Samples of seedlings and plants in various  stages of development, and of different  types of tissues (leaves, stem, roots and  grains) were collected. The samples were collected in plastic  bags and in a refrigerated container to  keep samples fresh, each one being  identified according to the collection site.  The samples were taken to PROINPA’s  laboratories in the shortest time possible,  and immediately processed using routine  techniques, ie direct microscope  observation of signs, humid chamber and  seeding in culture media (Potato Dextrose  Agar). Taxonomic keys developed based  on morphological characteristics of the  different kinds of fungi (Barnett, 1960),  were used to identify the structures.   Results and discussion   The presentation of results is made based  on the appearance of diseases in the crop,  according to the phenological stage at  which they arose: [ Diseases arising from emergence to   the appearance of 6-8 true leaves: At the beginning of the cultivation cycle  samples were taken from dead seedlings  in cotiledoneal phase (emergence); a  constriction at the neck of the plant  (Figure 1) was observed. With no  movement of nutrients and water to the  stem, there was a massive seedling death.  Digging the ground, in places where there  was no emergence of seeds, seedling  death was evident.  This symptom of strangulation was  diagnosed in the Central and Northern  Altiplano, and the inter-Andean valleys.  In the field it appears as an irregular  emergence (Figure 2), little perceived by  farmers, usually attributed to soil  problems, salinity or lack of moisture. The disease occurs in years of excessive  moisture, soils with high clay content,  fertilized with partially decomposed  manure and poor drainage. Once the  disease is present it remains in the soil  attached to the roots and stems of dead  plants, as conservation structures  (chlamydospores in the case of Fusarium  and sclerotia for Rhizoctonia).   Due to several factors that influence the  emergence, it is estimated that the death  of seedlings due to Rhizoctonia and/or  Fusarium, is of up to 10%. [ Diseases that occur in the   phenological phases of branching,  panicle formation, flowering, grain  formation and physiological maturity As the plants continued to develop, in the  branching phase (eight true leaves) and/or  panicle formation (inflorescence begins to  emerge from the apex of the plant), in  some areas of production and depending  on weather conditions; chlorotic spots  appeared on the leaves (Figure 3).  Depending on the variety these spots can  be red, orange, brown or black.   As the disease progresses, the undersides  of leaves present a grayish sporulation  (Figure 4), which corresponds to  Peronospora variabilis 1, causal agent of   the quinoa mildew. Depending on the  humidity, this disease can remain until  harvest. The yellowing of leaves reduces   the photosynthetic capacity and also  causes defoliation of the plants (Figure 5),  thus yields are reduced.   P. variabilis is a pathogen of easy  dispersion (wind and rain). During crop  development dissemination structures are  mainly spores, however at senescence or  absence of crop, the disease is spread by  oospores (sexual reproduction structures)  that may be adhered to the surface of the  grain or inside the stubble that remains in  the field. Therefore dissemination occurs,  at close range by means of spores, and at  long range through oospores. Mildew occurs in all agro-ecological  regions, with varying severity depending  on environmental conditions (high  relative humidity, above 80%). In the  Southern Highlands it only appears when  rainfall is intense and prolonged.  When  the rainy period stops automatically the  mycelium is dried and the disease  progression is interrupted. Varieties of  royal quinoa are susceptible to this  disease. The losses caused by mildew depend on  the phenological phase at which the plant  is attacked and the degree of resistance of  the variety. When susceptible varieties are  grown and favorable weather conditions  are given, especially high relative  humidity, the effects of mildew are  severe. If the attack occurs in early stages  of plant development, production can be  completely lost. In resistant varieties,  losses fluctuate between 20% and 40%  (Danielsen  et al. 2003). Therefore,   economic losses range from 2-5 quintals,  which depending on the price of quinoa  can be very significant. Consequently, for  the year 2014 losses could be equivalent  to 6,000 Bs/ha.   Coinciding with the appearance of  mildew in the panicle formation and  flowering stages, on the chlorotic spots, a  green sporulation was observed on the top  side of leafs (Figure 6). The causal agent  is Cladosporium sp. which depending on   humidity, can cover the entire surface of  the spots (Figure 7) and accelerate the  falling of leaves. Just like mildew this  disease can occur up to harvesting stage.  When there is excessive humidity the  pathogen spreads from the foliage to the  panicle, and it tends to turn it black  (Figure 8). Depending on the stage of the  filling phase, when the attack takes place,  the grains may even remain empty. If the  grains are already formed, they will be  slightly stained. When processing these  grains in the laboratory, it was observed  that  Cladosporium  conidia remain   attached to the surface of the grain, being    its mode of dissemination and survival for  the next planting season. Since this disease is strongly associated  with mildew, when damage occurs in the  panicle, economic losses due to the green  mold would produce at least a 5% loss in  addition to the losses caused by mildew. At the same time, during the development  of plants in places where there is poor  drainage or where water accumulates, a  symptom of wilting and yellowing occurs.   At the beginning wilting is only apical but  later it is widespread, it even causes the  death of plants. Going through the root system, lesions  sunk in the neck of the plant are observed,  similar to those found during the    emergence stage. Taking the full root  system from the soil, necrosis of the main  root and rootlets is observed (Figure 9).  If  winds occur during this condition, plants  fall (Figure 10). Due to excess moisture, the surface  portion (skin) of the root decomposes  quickly, exposing the underlying tissue to  attack by other pathogens. The diagnosis  of these samples shows that the symptom  corresponds to Fusarium  sp. Therefore,   this pathogen appears in pre and  post-emergence, and may manifest again  during crop development. The way to  recognize diseased plants is through their  weak development in comparison to  healthy plants.   This disease has been observed mainly in  areas close to Lake Titicaca (Northern  Altiplano) and to a lesser extent in the  Central Altiplano, in areas with heavy  soils and poor drainage. In the case of inter-Andean valleys,  similar symptoms are observed in adult  plants. Other plants with little  development simply show a pink color on  roots and rootlets (Figure 11). An analysis  of these roots shows that symptoms can  also be attributed to Fusarium sp.  During development, necrotic spots have  also been observed on the foliage.  These  are roughly circular or irregular in shape,  with beige centers and slightly brown  edges (Figure 12), inside which pycnidia  are present (black dots). The size of the  lesions ranges from 5 to 10 mm in  diameter. Work done in the laboratory  evidenced that the causal agent of this  disease is Ascochyta sp. and the common  name of the disease is "leaf spot".   When attacks are severe, intense  defoliation occurs, thus reducing  photosynthetic capacity; and if the panicle  is in formation, the quality of grains is  affected (brown color). Studies of the grains conducted in  laboratory show that the fungus produces  abundant pycnidiospores accompanied by  a mild to severe necrosis in roots and/or  hypocotyl. Severely affected seedlings  die. Therefore, the disease is transmitted  through seeds; pycnidia remain attached  to the surface of the grains and also stay in  the stubble. For a new disease cycle to occur in the  next season a temperature of 18 to 24 °C  and a relative humidity of 80% is  required, the pycnidia germinate and give  rise to pycnidiospores and the infection  initiates again.   The geographical distribution of this  disease is not exactly known and  apparently it is not of major economic  importance (Danielsen et al., 2003). Finally, at the stage of senescence, when  the stem is lignified, ogival shaped lesions  can be observed. These lesions are light  gray in the center with brown edges,  surrounded by an aura of glassy  appearance, inside which you may notice  small black spots (Figure 13) which  correspond to pycnidia of the fungus  Phoma sp. The size of these lesions ranges   from 2 to 3 cm. When conditions are  favorable (especially high relative  humidity) a number of spots can be seen in  a single stem (Figure 14). During severe  attacks these spots grow and reach each  other, covering the entire area of the stem. From season to season, the fungus  survives in the stubble that remains in the  field. This pathogen does not require  mechanical wounds to enter the plant, it  enters through natural openings. This disease has been observed in the  Central and Northern Altiplano, and in the  inter-Andean valleys, and basically its    occurrence depends on the presence of  inoculum and high relative humidity.  In general, in all production areas of  Bolivia plants from all stages of  development (from emergence until  harvest), with virus infection symptoms,  have been observed. The causal agents  have not been determined, yet what is  known is that quinoa is used as universal    plant (indicator plant) for the detection of  various viruses. The most frequent  symptoms observed in quinoa are:  yellowing, shortening of internodes  (rosetting), leathery leaves, etc. (Figure  15).   Conclusions   • most disease the   "quinoa mildew", caused by  Peronospora variabilis, followed by  "green mold" and "seedling death."  These three diseases occur in different  agro-ecological regions of Bolivia.  •   the symptoms have been observed in  the Central and Northern Altiplano and  inter-Andean valleys, without causing  significant economic losses.   • "Ogival appears   senescence, affecting the stems and  rachis of the panicle. It has no  incidence in reducing quinoa grain  yield.  •   "mildew", "green mold" and "seedling  death".  •   and "seedling death" can result in  losses of up to 50%.   Cited References    Barnett. H. 1960. Ilustrated genera of imperfect   fungi. 2 ed. Burgess Publishing Company.  225 p.  Danielsen, S., Bonifacio, A., Ames, T. 2003.   Diseases of Quinoa (Chenopodium  quinoa). Food Reviews International. 19(1  y 2): 43-59.  Choi, Y., Denchev, C., Shin, H. 2008.   Morphological and molecular analyses  support existence of hostspecific  Peronospora species infecting  Chenopodium. Mycopathology. No.  165:155-164.  Choi, Y., Danielsen, S., Lubeck, M., Hong, S.,   Delhey, R., Shin, H. 2010. Morphological    and molecular characterization of the  causal agent of downy mildew on quinoa  (Chenopodium quinoa). Mycopathology.   No. 169:403-412.  Gandarillas, A., Rojas, W., Bonifacio, A.,   Ojeda, N. 2014. La quinua en Bolivia:  Perspectiva de la Fundación PROINPA.  Chapter 5. In: Bazile Didier “Estado del  Arte de la Quinua en el Mundo”. FAO (in  press).  Tapia, M., Gandarillas, H., Alandia, S.,   Cardozo, A., Otazú, V., Ortiz, R., Rea, J.,  Salas, B., Zanabria, E., Mujica, A. 1979. La  Quinua y la Kañiwa: Cultivos Andinos.  IICA/CIID, Oficina Regional para América  Latina. Bogotá, Colombia. pp. 142-147.     Revista de Agricultura, Nro. 54 - Julio de 2014   Area: Current National Affairs 15   Lupinus sp. on slope   Lupinus sp. in flatlands   Background   The most important area of quinoa  (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) production  in Bolivia is the Southern Altiplano, so  when the issue of organic Royal Quinoa is  addressed, many authors (Jaldín, 2010;  Medrano, 2010; Puschiasi, 2009) focus on  the “intersalar” region (strip between the  salt flats of Uyuni and Coipasa).  However, quinoa production has  surpassed the intersalar region and is  cultivated throughout the Southern  Altiplano, including the Central  Altiplano, where environmental problems  are already visible. According to Soraide (2011) and Orsag et  al. (2013), soils in the Souther Altiplano  are coarse textured (sand content above  70% and gravel > 30%), especially in  lower strata. Due to the predominance of sand in the  soil and the low content of organic matter  (less than 1%), they do not form stable  aggregates and have a weak or null degree  of structuration. This situation favors their  high susceptibility to wind and water  erosion, particularly under excessive  tillage (use of agricultural equipment). The great international demand for  quinoa, along with high prices, creates a  great opportunity for thousands of  families who have lived in poverty for  generations. This has led to  overexploitation of soils and expansion of  the agricultural frontier, so that the area  under cultivation has increased from  35,907 ha in the year 2000 to 131,192 ha  in 2013, with a negative trend in yields  (Gandarillas et al., 2014).   With the quinoa boom, in the late nineties,  agroecological imbalances arise (VSF /  CICDA, 2009). The expansion of the  agricultural frontier in the Southern  Altiplano has had implications in the  reduction of areas for grazing of llamas; in  addition, the irregularity and reduction of  rainfall results also in shortage of pasture. It is important to note that llama’s  husbandry is not competitive with quinoa  production.  This leads to changes in the  land use of the Southern Altiplano, from  its livestock farming aptitude to  agricultural use. In addition, grazing  llamas (plots are distributed erratically) is  inconsistent with quinoa production, since  animals enter the fields and consume  growing plants, generating serious  disputes between producers. Under these  conditions, grazing involves more  herdsmen of the appropriate age to  manage the herd. Soil management has many deficiencies,  being the most crucial poor incorporation  of organic matter and lack of crop rotation  options. Fallow periods for the recovery  of soil fertility last several years, but due  to low humidity and low average  temperature in the region, the  repopulation of native species is slow.  Thereby, restoration of nutrients and  organic matter is slow, taking in some  cases over 10 years for the recovery of  biomass and the replacement of soil  microbial activity. Farmers do not add organic matter or if  they do it is in small quantities, because  there is not enough availability in the area.  The conservation and improvement of soil  fertility depends on the actions of man on  his environment, or more precisely on the  actions on soil and plants; highlighting the    interaction plant-environment-man  -society (Puschiasi, 2009). In summary, the pressure on soils  degrades them and makes them  unproductive. The lack of organic matter  makes them more susceptible to erosion  and limits the increase in productivity. The highest production and export  volumes registered in recent years, are  achieved based on the incorporation of  new areas of production and not on the  increase in yield per unitary area. This  situation can lead to an unprofitable and  uncompetitive agriculture, boosting  rural-urban migration again, resulting in  thousands of farm families returning to  poverty; thus losing the country the  unique opportunity of generating an  income of more than 150 million dollars. The solution or mitigation of the  unsustainability of quinoa production is  concurrently addressed by public entities,  development projects and producer  organizations. Among the existing  alternatives is an increased use of manure  through the repopulation of cameloids,  protection of grazing areas,  implementation barriers both physical and  biological, etc. However, no proposal  includes native legume species that can  become part of a sustainable production  system. This is the case of q'ila q'ila that  grows in the highlands and whose  importance has not been assessed in  quinoa production systems. Taking advantage of these promising  native and wild species requires  knowledge of their reproductive  characteristics, physiology of their seeds,  their ecological adaptation, the amount of  organic matter they produce, the    symbiosis generated with nitrogen-fixing  bacteria, etc. Faced with the problem of sustainability  of quinoa based production systems on the  Southern Altiplano, researchers from  PROINPA Foundation have explored the  current and potential role of native  species, giving priority to native and wild  legumes. For this purpose prospections and  collections of several species of Lupinus  spp. have been conducted in different  localities of the Southern Altiplano,  transition areas of the South-Central  Altiplano, Central and Northern  Altiplano. The genetic diversity of species  was examined through their growth habit,  ecological adaptation, seed formation,  seed viability, symbiosis with Rhizobium  and experimental planting. The adaptation  of species has been studied in relation to  micro-areas within the South and Central  Altiplano, taking into account the  topography and landscape of the areas;  differentiating flatlands, hillside, foothills  and steep hills.   Alternatives to increase  organic matter in the soils of  the Southern Altiplano   The most promoted alternative to increase  the availability of manure in the Southern  Altiplano is the reestablishment of the  balance between the population of llamas  and the acreage of quinoa. In this sense, it  is proposed that for every hectare of  quinoa seven llamas are kept (Anze,  2010). It is unquestionable that traditional  grazing areas should be protected to raise  llamas along with the management of    pasture and forages. However, in practice  it is very difficult to implement and to  achieve the desired result. For example, in  the year 2010 a total of 63,010 ha were  harvested and in 2013 the acreage  increased to 131,192 ha (Gandarillas et  al., 2014). This would mean that the  population of llamas should be increased  by about 477,000 animals, which is  difficult to achieve. According to the knowledge of  researchers and decision makers, the  Altiplano is characterized as an altitude  ecoregion, dry, cold and semiarid; where  quinoa is grown and where few native  species develop. However, a careful  examination, can demonstrate the  presence of a large diversity of native and  naturalized species.  To date their adaptive  characteristics are not valued and neither  are their potential benefits for quinoa  production systems. Among the native and naturalized species  existent, there are shrubs: Parastrephia  lepidophylla (Weddell) Cabrera,  P.   quadrangulare Meyen Cabrera, P. lucida,  (Meyen) Cabrera, Baccharis tola Phil., B.   tricuneata (L.f.), Lamphapa castellani  Mold.; pastures: Nassella pubiflora (Trin   & Rupr), N. nardoides Phil., Festuca  ortophilla Pilg., F. dolychophilla J. Prsi.,  Chondrosum simplex (Lagasca Kunth);  legumes: Lupinus ottobutchini C.P. Sm.,   L. montanus C.P. Sm., L. chilensis C.P.  Sm  L. cuzcensis, C.P. Sm., etc.; whose   ancient adaptation allows its validity, but  human activity is reducing their  populations.   The native legume q'ila q'ila   Q'ila q'ila (pronounced as qela qela) is a  generic name in Aymara language, which  refers to several legume species used as  forage in green and dry state (Lupinus  chilensis CP Sm., L. otto -butchini CP  Sm.), and others used as forage only when  dry or cured (Lupinus montanus CP Sm.).  These features should be complemented  with research on anti-nutritional  principles that some species usually  contain. In the literature studied, the scientific  names do not include a detail of the  collection areas, let alone mention the  native names of the species. Therefore, for  now, it is better to name them as plural  species (Lupinus spp.).  Species from the  Altiplano are known with native names  q'ila q'ila, salqa or salqiri. The plants  usually grow in colonies, depending on  the natural seed dispersal and favorable  conditions for colonization, ranging from  small areas of 100 m 2 to 200 m 2 or even   areas of up to 1 km2.  While the taxonomic classification of  species is not clear, the diversity of  species and the genetic diversity within  each species or ecotype are evident.  Jacobsen et al. (2006) listed 83 species for   the area of the Andes. Meanwhile Barney  (2011) cites 85 wild species for South  America. The adaptation of species is large;  however, some ecotypes prefer specific  environmental conditions such as sandy or  stony soils, loamy soils, gravelly or stony  soils, or otherwise flatlands, slopes,  foothills and mountains.   The biology of the species of Lupinus  presents several differential biologic  processes in comparison to other plant  species, among them seed dormancy, high  tolerance to frost, abundant nodulation (N  fixation), broad ecological adaptation and  high capacity for diversification. The seed of wild lupines is viable and can  germinate when it reaches physiological  maturity, before drying. However, as it  dries, it enters a prolonged dormancy of  three to four years, after that time the  dormancy ends and it can germinate  naturally. This means that prior to a  directed sowing process seeds must be  pretreated. Q'ila q'ila seedlings emerge in late  December and January, are established in  the field between January and February,    grow slowly in winter, bloom in  November and December, and fructify  from December to January, according to  the different areas and ecotypes. What  stands out is their adaptation to highlands,  their tolerance to winter frost (-18 ° C  from May to September) and their  resistance to prolonged droughts (from  March to December). By staying alive  during the winter, they provide ground  cover, develop abundant green material  and fix nitrogen. All of these beneficial  processes take place in the period when  quinoa is not being produced, that is, in  the fallow period. These characteristics  give guidelines for the use of these species  for enhanced management of fallow  periods, ground cover and atmospheric  nitrogen fixation. Their ability to grow on  marginal periods, their pluri-seasonal and  even multi-year cycle, makes them very  appealing species for their use in quinoa  production systems in the Southern  Altiplano. Currently  q'ila q'ilas are not valued for   their adaptive qualities, organic matter  production and nitrogen fixation. Some  farmers do recognize their contributions  for soil management, because when they  clear land previously populated by these  species, quinoa grows and yields well.  The possible explanation for the lack of  interest in these species is their erratic  growth due to seed dormancy.  In natural  conditions, plants are born every three to  four years at the same site. This  characteristic of the species makes them  difficult to manage without prior  application of seed treatment techniques.  Therefore, the current role of wild species  from the genus Lupinus in the Altiplano is  of little or no importance for quinoa  production systems.   Perspectives of wild lupines  for the sustainability of quinoa  production systems in the  Southern Altiplano    Wild legumes produce considerable  amounts of dry matter.  It is estimated that  on average they can produce the  equivalent of eight tons of dry matter per  hectare, without considering nitrogen  fixation estimated at over 100 kg/ha. The  benefits of legumes in cropping systems  are widely documented (Prager et al,  2012; Céspedes, 2005), which supports  the proposal of using wild legumes in  quinoa production systems. The proposal of guided usage of these  lupin species involves planting in late  December and early January. Plants grow  in autumn, winter and summer (cold and  dry seasons) and produce seed during the  rainy season. It is important to highlight  that the conclusion of the life cycle of the  q'ila q'ila matches the period of soil  preparation in the Altiplano. It therefore  becomes a valuable local source of green  matter to incorporate in the soil, with the  advantage of not being a woody plant,  which makes its decomposition easier. In    this case, wild legumes are another source  of organic matter in quinoa production  systems. An alternative option for the  management of q'ila q'ila is to harvest  seed before incorporating the complete  plant into the soil. The sustainable production approach  involves the management and utilization  of soil to achieve high productivity per  unitary area, maintaining soil health, and  including legume species in rotation  systems and improved fallow  management practices. In the case of the Southern Altiplano,  where conditions for agriculture are so  hard, wild legumes are an excellent  alternative to establish rotation systems,  improve fallow management practices,  produce green manures and establish crop  tandem systems with quinoa. These  practices offer numerous benefits:  reducing erosion and improving soil  fertility, improved yields, reduced  sediment transport and diversification in  production. In this line of analysis, eight  tons of dry matter incorporated by q'ila  q'ila to the soil may be sufficient to  achieve a yield of quinoa of twenty  quintals per hectare.   For crop rotation purposes, after quinoa  harvest,  q'ila q'ila should be sown; and   after two growing seasons the soil will  again be available to grow quinoa. For  improved fallow management practices,  q'ila q'ila can be planted in any sequence  of fallow years, provided planting is made  at the appropriate time (late December  and early January). For intercropping in tandem, in a field set  with quinoa plants in panicle phase, q'ila  q'ila  should be planted interspersed or   between rows or lines. This involves  planting interlayer on deferred date  (tandem or in posts).   Due to all that is known so far about the  q'ila q'ila, productivity, sustainability and  competitiveness of Bolivian quinoa can be  seen optimistically. The challenge posed  by the Bolivian government of increasing  the area of cultivated quinoa, may be  feasible with the use of wild legumes as  alternative and complementary to the use  of llama dung.   Challenges and limitations in  the management of wild lupine   There are several limitations that must be  addressed to achieve the commercial  cultivation of wild lupines, which in the  field of agronomy are essentially: the  gradual fruiting, dehiscence of seed and  seed dormancy. Other issues to be addressed are: seed  production on a commercial scale,  isolation and inoculation of seeds with  nitrogen-fixing bacteria, weevil control  Apion  sp., the use of equipment and   machinery for planting and harvesting,  and mechanized incorporation of organic  fertilizer, among others.   In addition, research programs should be  established on agronomic management,  multiple use (coverage, organic matter,  forage), microbiology, etc. A first task to  undertake, given the great diversity of  species and morphotypes, is the  establishment of a working collection, for  the purpose of characterization, selection  and targeted use. For the efficient use of q'ila q'ila a vital  challenge is the participation of producers  in the maintenance of natural areas where  these species grow, timely seed collection,  directed planting, appropriate  incorporation in the soil, and other  practices.   Cited references   Anze, G. 2010. Normas básicas para una   producción sostenible de la Quinua Real  del Altiplano Sur de Bolivia.  PROQUINAT/ANAPQUI.    On line. Available at:  http://www.infoquinua.bo   Retrieved on June 6, 2014. Barney, M. 2011. Biodiversidad y ecogeografía   del género Lupinus L. (Leguminosae) en  Colombia. MSc. Thesis, Universidad  Nacional de Colombia, Palmira Colombia.  69 p.  Céspedes, M. (ed) 2005. Agricultura orgánica,   principio y prácticas de producción. INIA.  Bulletin No 131. Chillan, Chile.  Gandarillas, A., Rojas, W., Bonifacio, A., Ojeda   N. 2014. La quinua en Bolivia: Perspectiva  de la Fundación PROINPA. Chapter 5. In:  Bazile Didier “Estado del arte de la quinua  en el mundo”. FAO (in press).  Jacobsen, S., Mujica, A. 2006. El tarwi   (Lupinus mutabilis Sweet.) y sus parientes    silvestres. In: Botánica Económica de los  Andes Centrales. M. Moraes R., B.  Øllgaard, L. P. Kvist, F. Borchsenius & H.  Balslev, eds.) UMSA. La Paz, Bolivia. pp.  458-462.  Jaldín R. 2010. Producción de quinua en Oruro   y Potosí. La Paz, Bolivia. PIEB. No. 3. 100  p.  Medrano, A. 2010. Expansión del cultivo de   quinua (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) y  calidad de suelos. Análisis en un contexto  de sostenibilidad en el intersalar boliviano.  MSc.Thesis, Universidad Autónoma San  Luis Potosí. México. 138 p.  Orsag, V., León, L., Pacosaca, O., Castro, E.   2013. Evaluación de la fertilidad de los  suelos para la producción sostenible de  quinua. T’inkazos. 33: 89-112.  Prager, M., Sanclemente, O., Sánchez, M.   2012. Abonos verdes: tecnología para el  manejo agroecológico de los cultivos.  Agroecología 7:53-62.  Puschiasi, O. 2009. La fertilidad: un recurso   "cuchicheado". Análisis de la valorización  del recurso territorial fertilidad por las  familias de la zona Intersalar. On line.  Available at: http://www.ird.fr Retrieved on  May 27, 2014.  Soraide, D. 2011. La Quinua Real en el   Altiplano Sur de Bolivia. Documento  técnico para la denominación de origen.  FAUTAPO-Educación para el Desarrollo.  108 p.  VSF-CICDA. 2009. Quinua y territorio.   RURALTER, IRD, VSF-CICDA y  comunidades del intersalar. Agronomes y  Veterinaires sin frontera. Plural, La Paz,  Bolivia. 156 p.  Williams, B. 1995. Revegetation for   ecologically sustainable dryland farming.  Department of the parliamentary library,  Commonwealth of Australia. Research  paper No.1. 39 p.   Introduction   The strong international demand for  quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) in  recent years, has led to a significant    increase in cultivated area in a very short  period of time (Gandarillas et al., 2014).  Commercial cultivation has expanded  from the traditional area of the Southern  Altiplano where Royal Quinoa is grown,    to new areas of "expansion" in the Central  and Northern Altiplano, and the  inter-Andean valleys. This situation has  led to face new problems, mainly due to  moisture. In the south, environmental  conditions are very dry, with an annual  average precipitation of 250 mm, while in  the Central and Northern Altiplano there  is an average precipitation of 500  mm/year, and in the valleys it reaches 800  mm/year. This article attempts to update  information on the incidence and  significance of the main fungal diseases  that affect quinoa, with emphasis on the  “expansion” areas, in the new context of  climate change, based on the publication  of Tapia et al., 1979.  The objectives of this work were:  • and the   affecting quinoa cultivars with  emphasis on expansion areas (Central  Altiplano, Northern Altiplano and  inter-Andean Valleys).  •   economic importance.   Materials and methods   This study was based primarily on visits  and sampling to 50 quinoa plots in  different production areas (10 to 12 plots  per area). Samples were taken of the different  diseases that appeared throughout crop  development, considering the weather  conditions at the time of sampling. This  work was carried out from November    2013 to April 2014, with a season  characterized by high precipitation.  Samples of seedlings and plants in various  stages of development, and of different  types of tissues (leaves, stem, roots and  grains) were collected. The samples were collected in plastic  bags and in a refrigerated container to  keep samples fresh, each one being  identified according to the collection site.  The samples were taken to PROINPA’s  laboratories in the shortest time possible,  and immediately processed using routine  techniques, ie direct microscope  observation of signs, humid chamber and  seeding in culture media (Potato Dextrose  Agar). Taxonomic keys developed based  on morphological characteristics of the  different kinds of fungi (Barnett, 1960),  were used to identify the structures.   Results and discussion   The presentation of results is made based  on the appearance of diseases in the crop,  according to the phenological stage at  which they arose: [ Diseases arising from emergence to   the appearance of 6-8 true leaves: At the beginning of the cultivation cycle  samples were taken from dead seedlings  in cotiledoneal phase (emergence); a  constriction at the neck of the plant  (Figure 1) was observed. With no  movement of nutrients and water to the  stem, there was a massive seedling death.  Digging the ground, in places where there  was no emergence of seeds, seedling  death was evident.  This symptom of strangulation was  diagnosed in the Central and Northern  Altiplano, and the inter-Andean valleys.  In the field it appears as an irregular  emergence (Figure 2), little perceived by  farmers, usually attributed to soil  problems, salinity or lack of moisture. The disease occurs in years of excessive  moisture, soils with high clay content,  fertilized with partially decomposed  manure and poor drainage. Once the  disease is present it remains in the soil  attached to the roots and stems of dead  plants, as conservation structures  (chlamydospores in the case of Fusarium  and sclerotia for Rhizoctonia).   Due to several factors that influence the  emergence, it is estimated that the death  of seedlings due to Rhizoctonia and/or  Fusarium, is of up to 10%. [ Diseases that occur in the   phenological phases of branching,  panicle formation, flowering, grain  formation and physiological maturity As the plants continued to develop, in the  branching phase (eight true leaves) and/or  panicle formation (inflorescence begins to  emerge from the apex of the plant), in  some areas of production and depending  on weather conditions; chlorotic spots  appeared on the leaves (Figure 3).  Depending on the variety these spots can  be red, orange, brown or black.   As the disease progresses, the undersides  of leaves present a grayish sporulation  (Figure 4), which corresponds to  Peronospora variabilis 1, causal agent of   the quinoa mildew. Depending on the  humidity, this disease can remain until  harvest. The yellowing of leaves reduces  the photosynthetic capacity and also  causes defoliation of the plants (Figure 5),  thus yields are reduced.   P. variabilis is a pathogen of easy  dispersion (wind and rain). During crop  development dissemination structures are  mainly spores, however at senescence or  absence of crop, the disease is spread by  oospores (sexual reproduction structures)  that may be adhered to the surface of the  grain or inside the stubble that remains in  the field. Therefore dissemination occurs,  at close range by means of spores, and at  long range through oospores. Mildew occurs in all agro-ecological  regions, with varying severity depending  on environmental conditions (high  relative humidity, above 80%). In the  Southern Highlands it only appears when  rainfall is intense and prolonged.  When  the rainy period stops automatically the  mycelium is dried and the disease  progression is interrupted. Varieties of  royal quinoa are susceptible to this  disease. The losses caused by mildew depend on  the phenological phase at which the plant  is attacked and the degree of resistance of  the variety. When susceptible varieties are  grown and favorable weather conditions  are given, especially high relative  humidity, the effects of mildew are  severe. If the attack occurs in early stages  of plant development, production can be  completely lost. In resistant varieties,  losses fluctuate between 20% and 40%  (Danielsen  et al. 2003). Therefore,   economic losses range from 2-5 quintals,  which depending on the price of quinoa  can be very significant. Consequently, for  the year 2014 losses could be equivalent  to 6,000 Bs/ha.   Coinciding with the appearance of  mildew in the panicle formation and  flowering stages, on the chlorotic spots, a  green sporulation was observed on the top  side of leafs (Figure 6). The causal agent  is Cladosporium sp. which depending on   humidity, can cover the entire surface of  the spots (Figure 7) and accelerate the  falling of leaves. Just like mildew this  disease can occur up to harvesting stage.  When there is excessive humidity the  pathogen spreads from the foliage to the  panicle, and it tends to turn it black  (Figure 8). Depending on the stage of the  filling phase, when the attack takes place,  the grains may even remain empty. If the  grains are already formed, they will be  slightly stained. When processing these   grains in the laboratory, it was observed  that  Cladosporium  conidia remain   attached to the surface of the grain, being    its mode of dissemination and survival for  the next planting season. Since this disease is strongly associated  with mildew, when damage occurs in the  panicle, economic losses due to the green  mold would produce at least a 5% loss in  addition to the losses caused by mildew. At the same time, during the development  of plants in places where there is poor  drainage or where water accumulates, a  symptom of wilting and yellowing occurs.   At the beginning wilting is only apical but  later it is widespread, it even causes the  death of plants. Going through the root system, lesions  sunk in the neck of the plant are observed,  similar to those found during the    emergence stage. Taking the full root  system from the soil, necrosis of the main  root and rootlets is observed (Figure 9).  If  winds occur during this condition, plants  fall (Figure 10). Due to excess moisture, the surface  portion (skin) of the root decomposes  quickly, exposing the underlying tissue to  attack by other pathogens. The diagnosis  of these samples shows that the symptom  corresponds to Fusarium  sp. Therefore,   this pathogen appears in pre and  post-emergence, and may manifest again  during crop development. The way to  recognize diseased plants is through their  weak development in comparison to  healthy plants.   This disease has been observed mainly in  areas close to Lake Titicaca (Northern  Altiplano) and to a lesser extent in the  Central Altiplano, in areas with heavy  soils and poor drainage. In the case of inter-Andean valleys,  similar symptoms are observed in adult  plants. Other plants with little  development simply show a pink color on  roots and rootlets (Figure 11). An analysis  of these roots shows that symptoms can  also be attributed to Fusarium sp.  During development, necrotic spots have  also been observed on the foliage.  These  are roughly circular or irregular in shape,  with beige centers and slightly brown  edges (Figure 12), inside which pycnidia  are present (black dots). The size of the  lesions ranges from 5 to 10 mm in  diameter. Work done in the laboratory  evidenced that the causal agent of this  disease is Ascochyta sp. and the common  name of the disease is "leaf spot".   When attacks are severe, intense  defoliation occurs, thus reducing  photosynthetic capacity; and if the panicle  is in formation, the quality of grains is  affected (brown color). Studies of the grains conducted in  laboratory show that the fungus produces  abundant pycnidiospores accompanied by  a mild to severe necrosis in roots and/or  hypocotyl. Severely affected seedlings  die. Therefore, the disease is transmitted  through seeds; pycnidia remain attached  to the surface of the grains and also stay in  the stubble. For a new disease cycle to occur in the  next season a temperature of 18 to 24 °C  and a relative humidity of 80% is  required, the pycnidia germinate and give  rise to pycnidiospores and the infection  initiates again.   The geographical distribution of this  disease is not exactly known and  apparently it is not of major economic  importance (Danielsen et al., 2003). Finally, at the stage of senescence, when  the stem is lignified, ogival shaped lesions  can be observed. These lesions are light  gray in the center with brown edges,  surrounded by an aura of glassy  appearance, inside which you may notice  small black spots (Figure 13) which  correspond to pycnidia of the fungus  Phoma sp. The size of these lesions ranges   from 2 to 3 cm. When conditions are  favorable (especially high relative  humidity) a number of spots can be seen in  a single stem (Figure 14). During severe  attacks these spots grow and reach each  other, covering the entire area of the stem. From season to season, the fungus  survives in the stubble that remains in the  field. This pathogen does not require  mechanical wounds to enter the plant, it  enters through natural openings. This disease has been observed in the  Central and Northern Altiplano, and in the  inter-Andean valleys, and basically its    occurrence depends on the presence of  inoculum and high relative humidity.  In general, in all production areas of  Bolivia plants from all stages of  development (from emergence until  harvest), with virus infection symptoms,  have been observed. The causal agents  have not been determined, yet what is  known is that quinoa is used as universal    plant (indicator plant) for the detection of  various viruses. The most frequent  symptoms observed in quinoa are:  yellowing, shortening of internodes  (rosetting), leathery leaves, etc. (Figure  15).   Conclusions   • most disease the   "quinoa mildew", caused by  Peronospora variabilis, followed by  "green mold" and "seedling death."  These three diseases occur in different  agro-ecological regions of Bolivia.  •   the symptoms have been observed in  the Central and Northern Altiplano and  inter-Andean valleys, without causing  significant economic losses.   • "Ogival appears   senescence, affecting the stems and  rachis of the panicle. It has no  incidence in reducing quinoa grain  yield.  •   "mildew", "green mold" and "seedling  death".  •   and "seedling death" can result in  losses of up to 50%.   Cited References    Barnett. H. 1960. Ilustrated genera of imperfect   fungi. 2 ed. Burgess Publishing Company.  225 p.  Danielsen, S., Bonifacio, A., Ames, T. 2003.   Diseases of Quinoa (Chenopodium  quinoa). Food Reviews International. 19(1  y 2): 43-59.  Choi, Y., Denchev, C., Shin, H. 2008.   Morphological and molecular analyses  support existence of hostspecific  Peronospora species infecting  Chenopodium. Mycopathology. No.  165:155-164.  Choi, Y., Danielsen, S., Lubeck, M., Hong, S.,   Delhey, R., Shin, H. 2010. Morphological    and molecular characterization of the  causal agent of downy mildew on quinoa  (Chenopodium quinoa). Mycopathology.   No. 169:403-412.  Gandarillas, A., Rojas, W., Bonifacio, A.,   Ojeda, N. 2014. La quinua en Bolivia:  Perspectiva de la Fundación PROINPA.  Chapter 5. In: Bazile Didier “Estado del  Arte de la Quinua en el Mundo”. FAO (in  press).  Tapia, M., Gandarillas, H., Alandia, S.,   Cardozo, A., Otazú, V., Ortiz, R., Rea, J.,  Salas, B., Zanabria, E., Mujica, A. 1979. La  Quinua y la Kañiwa: Cultivos Andinos.  IICA/CIID, Oficina Regional para América  Latina. Bogotá, Colombia. pp. 142-147.     ISSN 1998 - 9652   Area: Current National Affairs 16   Lupinus sp. in tandem in a  commercial plot quinoa  Lupinus sp. in a seed plot   Background   The most important area of quinoa  (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) production  in Bolivia is the Southern Altiplano, so  when the issue of organic Royal Quinoa is  addressed, many authors (Jaldín, 2010;  Medrano, 2010; Puschiasi, 2009) focus on  the “intersalar” region (strip between the  salt flats of Uyuni and Coipasa).  However, quinoa production has  surpassed the intersalar region and is  cultivated throughout the Southern  Altiplano, including the Central  Altiplano, where environmental problems  are already visible. According to Soraide (2011) and Orsag et  al. (2013), soils in the Souther Altiplano  are coarse textured (sand content above  70% and gravel > 30%), especially in  lower strata. Due to the predominance of sand in the  soil and the low content of organic matter  (less than 1%), they do not form stable  aggregates and have a weak or null degree  of structuration. This situation favors their  high susceptibility to wind and water  erosion, particularly under excessive  tillage (use of agricultural equipment). The great international demand for  quinoa, along with high prices, creates a  great opportunity for thousands of  families who have lived in poverty for  generations. This has led to  overexploitation of soils and expansion of  the agricultural frontier, so that the area  under cultivation has increased from  35,907 ha in the year 2000 to 131,192 ha  in 2013, with a negative trend in yields  (Gandarillas et al., 2014).   With the quinoa boom, in the late nineties,  agroecological imbalances arise (VSF /  CICDA, 2009). The expansion of the  agricultural frontier in the Southern  Altiplano has had implications in the  reduction of areas for grazing of llamas; in  addition, the irregularity and reduction of  rainfall results also in shortage of pasture. It is important to note that llama’s  husbandry is not competitive with quinoa  production.  This leads to changes in the  land use of the Southern Altiplano, from  its livestock farming aptitude to  agricultural use. In addition, grazing  llamas (plots are distributed erratically) is  inconsistent with quinoa production, since  animals enter the fields and consume  growing plants, generating serious  disputes between producers. Under these  conditions, grazing involves more  herdsmen of the appropriate age to  manage the herd. Soil management has many deficiencies,  being the most crucial poor incorporation  of organic matter and lack of crop rotation  options. Fallow periods for the recovery  of soil fertility last several years, but due  to low humidity and low average  temperature in the region, the  repopulation of native species is slow.  Thereby, restoration of nutrients and  organic matter is slow, taking in some  cases over 10 years for the recovery of  biomass and the replacement of soil  microbial activity. Farmers do not add organic matter or if  they do it is in small quantities, because  there is not enough availability in the area.  The conservation and improvement of soil  fertility depends on the actions of man on  his environment, or more precisely on the  actions on soil and plants; highlighting the    interaction plant-environment-man  -society (Puschiasi, 2009). In summary, the pressure on soils  degrades them and makes them  unproductive. The lack of organic matter  makes them more susceptible to erosion  and limits the increase in productivity. The highest production and export  volumes registered in recent years, are  achieved based on the incorporation of  new areas of production and not on the  increase in yield per unitary area. This  situation can lead to an unprofitable and  uncompetitive agriculture, boosting  rural-urban migration again, resulting in  thousands of farm families returning to  poverty; thus losing the country the  unique opportunity of generating an  income of more than 150 million dollars. The solution or mitigation of the  unsustainability of quinoa production is  concurrently addressed by public entities,  development projects and producer  organizations. Among the existing  alternatives is an increased use of manure  through the repopulation of cameloids,  protection of grazing areas,  implementation barriers both physical and  biological, etc. However, no proposal  includes native legume species that can  become part of a sustainable production  system. This is the case of q'ila q'ila that  grows in the highlands and whose  importance has not been assessed in  quinoa production systems. Taking advantage of these promising  native and wild species requires  knowledge of their reproductive  characteristics, physiology of their seeds,  their ecological adaptation, the amount of  organic matter they produce, the    symbiosis generated with nitrogen-fixing  bacteria, etc. Faced with the problem of sustainability  of quinoa based production systems on the  Southern Altiplano, researchers from  PROINPA Foundation have explored the  current and potential role of native  species, giving priority to native and wild  legumes. For this purpose prospections and  collections of several species of Lupinus  spp. have been conducted in different  localities of the Southern Altiplano,  transition areas of the South-Central  Altiplano, Central and Northern  Altiplano. The genetic diversity of species  was examined through their growth habit,  ecological adaptation, seed formation,  seed viability, symbiosis with Rhizobium  and experimental planting. The adaptation  of species has been studied in relation to  micro-areas within the South and Central  Altiplano, taking into account the  topography and landscape of the areas;  differentiating flatlands, hillside, foothills  and steep hills.   Alternatives to increase  organic matter in the soils of  the Southern Altiplano   The most promoted alternative to increase  the availability of manure in the Southern  Altiplano is the reestablishment of the  balance between the population of llamas  and the acreage of quinoa. In this sense, it  is proposed that for every hectare of  quinoa seven llamas are kept (Anze,  2010). It is unquestionable that traditional  grazing areas should be protected to raise  llamas along with the management of    pasture and forages. However, in practice  it is very difficult to implement and to  achieve the desired result. For example, in  the year 2010 a total of 63,010 ha were  harvested and in 2013 the acreage  increased to 131,192 ha (Gandarillas et  al., 2014). This would mean that the  population of llamas should be increased  by about 477,000 animals, which is  difficult to achieve. According to the knowledge of  researchers and decision makers, the  Altiplano is characterized as an altitude  ecoregion, dry, cold and semiarid; where  quinoa is grown and where few native  species develop. However, a careful  examination, can demonstrate the  presence of a large diversity of native and  naturalized species.  To date their adaptive  characteristics are not valued and neither  are their potential benefits for quinoa  production systems. Among the native and naturalized species  existent, there are shrubs: Parastrephia  lepidophylla (Weddell) Cabrera,  P.   quadrangulare Meyen Cabrera, P. lucida,  (Meyen) Cabrera, Baccharis tola Phil., B.   tricuneata (L.f.), Lamphapa castellani  Mold.; pastures: Nassella pubiflora (Trin   & Rupr), N. nardoides Phil., Festuca  ortophilla Pilg., F. dolychophilla J. Prsi.,  Chondrosum simplex (Lagasca Kunth);  legumes: Lupinus ottobutchini C.P. Sm.,   L. montanus C.P. Sm., L. chilensis C.P.  Sm  L. cuzcensis, C.P. Sm., etc.; whose   ancient adaptation allows its validity, but  human activity is reducing their  populations.   The native legume q'ila q'ila   Q'ila q'ila (pronounced as qela qela) is a  generic name in Aymara language, which  refers to several legume species used as  forage in green and dry state (Lupinus  chilensis CP Sm., L. otto -butchini CP  Sm.), and others used as forage only when  dry or cured (Lupinus montanus CP Sm.).  These features should be complemented  with research on anti-nutritional  principles that some species usually  contain. In the literature studied, the scientific  names do not include a detail of the  collection areas, let alone mention the  native names of the species. Therefore, for  now, it is better to name them as plural  species (Lupinus spp.).  Species from the  Altiplano are known with native names  q'ila q'ila, salqa or salqiri. The plants  usually grow in colonies, depending on  the natural seed dispersal and favorable  conditions for colonization, ranging from  small areas of 100 m 2 to 200 m 2 or even   areas of up to 1 km2.  While the taxonomic classification of  species is not clear, the diversity of  species and the genetic diversity within  each species or ecotype are evident.  Jacobsen et al. (2006) listed 83 species for   the area of the Andes. Meanwhile Barney  (2011) cites 85 wild species for South  America. The adaptation of species is large;  however, some ecotypes prefer specific  environmental conditions such as sandy or  stony soils, loamy soils, gravelly or stony  soils, or otherwise flatlands, slopes,  foothills and mountains.   The biology of the species of Lupinus  presents several differential biologic  processes in comparison to other plant  species, among them seed dormancy, high  tolerance to frost, abundant nodulation (N  fixation), broad ecological adaptation and  high capacity for diversification. The seed of wild lupines is viable and can  germinate when it reaches physiological  maturity, before drying. However, as it  dries, it enters a prolonged dormancy of  three to four years, after that time the  dormancy ends and it can germinate  naturally. This means that prior to a  directed sowing process seeds must be  pretreated. Q'ila q'ila seedlings emerge in late  December and January, are established in  the field between January and February,    grow slowly in winter, bloom in  November and December, and fructify  from December to January, according to  the different areas and ecotypes. What  stands out is their adaptation to highlands,  their tolerance to winter frost (-18 ° C  from May to September) and their  resistance to prolonged droughts (from  March to December). By staying alive  during the winter, they provide ground  cover, develop abundant green material  and fix nitrogen. All of these beneficial  processes take place in the period when  quinoa is not being produced, that is, in  the fallow period. These characteristics  give guidelines for the use of these species  for enhanced management of fallow  periods, ground cover and atmospheric  nitrogen fixation. Their ability to grow on  marginal periods, their pluri-seasonal and  even multi-year cycle, makes them very  appealing species for their use in quinoa  production systems in the Southern  Altiplano. Currently  q'ila q'ilas are not valued for   their adaptive qualities, organic matter  production and nitrogen fixation. Some  farmers do recognize their contributions  for soil management, because when they  clear land previously populated by these  species, quinoa grows and yields well.  The possible explanation for the lack of  interest in these species is their erratic  growth due to seed dormancy.  In natural  conditions, plants are born every three to  four years at the same site. This  characteristic of the species makes them  difficult to manage without prior  application of seed treatment techniques.  Therefore, the current role of wild species  from the genus Lupinus in the Altiplano is  of little or no importance for quinoa  production systems.   Perspectives of wild lupines  for the sustainability of quinoa  production systems in the  Southern Altiplano    Wild legumes produce considerable  amounts of dry matter.  It is estimated that  on average they can produce the  equivalent of eight tons of dry matter per  hectare, without considering nitrogen  fixation estimated at over 100 kg/ha. The  benefits of legumes in cropping systems  are widely documented (Prager et al,  2012; Céspedes, 2005), which supports  the proposal of using wild legumes in  quinoa production systems. The proposal of guided usage of these  lupin species involves planting in late  December and early January. Plants grow  in autumn, winter and summer (cold and  dry seasons) and produce seed during the  rainy season. It is important to highlight  that the conclusion of the life cycle of the  q'ila q'ila matches the period of soil  preparation in the Altiplano. It therefore  becomes a valuable local source of green  matter to incorporate in the soil, with the  advantage of not being a woody plant,  which makes its decomposition easier. In    this case, wild legumes are another source  of organic matter in quinoa production  systems. An alternative option for the  management of q'ila q'ila is to harvest  seed before incorporating the complete  plant into the soil. The sustainable production approach  involves the management and utilization  of soil to achieve high productivity per  unitary area, maintaining soil health, and  including legume species in rotation  systems and improved fallow  management practices. In the case of the Southern Altiplano,  where conditions for agriculture are so  hard, wild legumes are an excellent  alternative to establish rotation systems,  improve fallow management practices,  produce green manures and establish crop  tandem systems with quinoa. These  practices offer numerous benefits:  reducing erosion and improving soil  fertility, improved yields, reduced  sediment transport and diversification in  production. In this line of analysis, eight  tons of dry matter incorporated by q'ila  q'ila to the soil may be sufficient to  achieve a yield of quinoa of twenty  quintals per hectare.   For crop rotation purposes, after quinoa  harvest,  q'ila q'ila should be sown; and   after two growing seasons the soil will  again be available to grow quinoa. For  improved fallow management practices,  q'ila q'ila can be planted in any sequence  of fallow years, provided planting is made  at the appropriate time (late December  and early January). For intercropping in tandem, in a field set  with quinoa plants in panicle phase, q'ila  q'ila  should be planted interspersed or   between rows or lines. This involves  planting interlayer on deferred date  (tandem or in posts).   Due to all that is known so far about the  q'ila q'ila, productivity, sustainability and  competitiveness of Bolivian quinoa can be  seen optimistically. The challenge posed  by the Bolivian government of increasing  the area of cultivated quinoa, may be  feasible with the use of wild legumes as  alternative and complementary to the use  of llama dung.   Challenges and limitations in  the management of wild lupine   There are several limitations that must be  addressed to achieve the commercial  cultivation of wild lupines, which in the  field of agronomy are essentially: the  gradual fruiting, dehiscence of seed and  seed dormancy. Other issues to be addressed are: seed  production on a commercial scale,  isolation and inoculation of seeds with  nitrogen-fixing bacteria, weevil control  Apion  sp., the use of equipment and   machinery for planting and harvesting,  and mechanized incorporation of organic  fertilizer, among others.   In addition, research programs should be  established on agronomic management,  multiple use (coverage, organic matter,  forage), microbiology, etc. A first task to  undertake, given the great diversity of  species and morphotypes, is the  establishment of a working collection, for  the purpose of characterization, selection  and targeted use. For the efficient use of q'ila q'ila a vital  challenge is the participation of producers  in the maintenance of natural areas where  these species grow, timely seed collection,  directed planting, appropriate  incorporation in the soil, and other  practices.   Cited references   Anze, G. 2010. Normas básicas para una   producción sostenible de la Quinua Real  del Altiplano Sur de Bolivia.  PROQUINAT/ANAPQUI.    On line. Available at:  http://www.infoquinua.bo   Retrieved on June 6, 2014. Barney, M. 2011. Biodiversidad y ecogeografía   del género Lupinus L. (Leguminosae) en  Colombia. MSc. Thesis, Universidad  Nacional de Colombia, Palmira Colombia.  69 p.  Céspedes, M. (ed) 2005. Agricultura orgánica,   principio y prácticas de producción. INIA.  Bulletin No 131. Chillan, Chile.  Gandarillas, A., Rojas, W., Bonifacio, A., Ojeda   N. 2014. La quinua en Bolivia: Perspectiva  de la Fundación PROINPA. Chapter 5. In:  Bazile Didier “Estado del arte de la quinua  en el mundo”. FAO (in press).  Jacobsen, S., Mujica, A. 2006. El tarwi   (Lupinus mutabilis Sweet.) y sus parientes    silvestres. In: Botánica Económica de los  Andes Centrales. M. Moraes R., B.  Øllgaard, L. P. Kvist, F. Borchsenius & H.  Balslev, eds.) UMSA. La Paz, Bolivia. pp.  458-462.  Jaldín R. 2010. Producción de quinua en Oruro   y Potosí. La Paz, Bolivia. PIEB. No. 3. 100  p.  Medrano, A. 2010. Expansión del cultivo de   quinua (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) y  calidad de suelos. Análisis en un contexto  de sostenibilidad en el intersalar boliviano.  MSc.Thesis, Universidad Autónoma San  Luis Potosí. México. 138 p.  Orsag, V., León, L., Pacosaca, O., Castro, E.   2013. Evaluación de la fertilidad de los  suelos para la producción sostenible de  quinua. T’inkazos. 33: 89-112.  Prager, M., Sanclemente, O., Sánchez, M.   2012. Abonos verdes: tecnología para el  manejo agroecológico de los cultivos.  Agroecología 7:53-62.  Puschiasi, O. 2009. La fertilidad: un recurso   "cuchicheado". Análisis de la valorización  del recurso territorial fertilidad por las  familias de la zona Intersalar. On line.  Available at: http://www.ird.fr Retrieved on  May 27, 2014.  Soraide, D. 2011. La Quinua Real en el   Altiplano Sur de Bolivia. Documento  técnico para la denominación de origen.  FAUTAPO-Educación para el Desarrollo.  108 p.  VSF-CICDA. 2009. Quinua y territorio.   RURALTER, IRD, VSF-CICDA y  comunidades del intersalar. Agronomes y  Veterinaires sin frontera. Plural, La Paz,  Bolivia. 156 p.  Williams, B. 1995. Revegetation for   ecologically sustainable dryland farming.  Department of the parliamentary library,  Commonwealth of Australia. Research  paper No.1. 39 p.   Introduction   The strong international demand for  quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) in  recent years, has led to a significant    increase in cultivated area in a very short  period of time (Gandarillas et al., 2014).  Commercial cultivation has expanded  from the traditional area of the Southern  Altiplano where Royal Quinoa is grown,    to new areas of "expansion" in the Central  and Northern Altiplano, and the  inter-Andean valleys. This situation has  led to face new problems, mainly due to  moisture. In the south, environmental  conditions are very dry, with an annual  average precipitation of 250 mm, while in  the Central and Northern Altiplano there  is an average precipitation of 500  mm/year, and in the valleys it reaches 800  mm/year. This article attempts to update  information on the incidence and  significance of the main fungal diseases  that affect quinoa, with emphasis on the  “expansion” areas, in the new context of  climate change, based on the publication  of Tapia et al., 1979.  The objectives of this work were:  • and the   affecting quinoa cultivars with  emphasis on expansion areas (Central  Altiplano, Northern Altiplano and  inter-Andean Valleys).  •   economic importance.   Materials and methods   This study was based primarily on visits  and sampling to 50 quinoa plots in  different production areas (10 to 12 plots  per area). Samples were taken of the different  diseases that appeared throughout crop  development, considering the weather  conditions at the time of sampling. This  work was carried out from November    2013 to April 2014, with a season  characterized by high precipitation.  Samples of seedlings and plants in various  stages of development, and of different  types of tissues (leaves, stem, roots and  grains) were collected. The samples were collected in plastic  bags and in a refrigerated container to  keep samples fresh, each one being  identified according to the collection site.  The samples were taken to PROINPA’s  laboratories in the shortest time possible,  and immediately processed using routine  techniques, ie direct microscope  observation of signs, humid chamber and  seeding in culture media (Potato Dextrose  Agar). Taxonomic keys developed based  on morphological characteristics of the  different kinds of fungi (Barnett, 1960),  were used to identify the structures.   Results and discussion   The presentation of results is made based  on the appearance of diseases in the crop,  according to the phenological stage at  which they arose: [ Diseases arising from emergence to   the appearance of 6-8 true leaves: At the beginning of the cultivation cycle  samples were taken from dead seedlings  in cotiledoneal phase (emergence); a  constriction at the neck of the plant  (Figure 1) was observed. With no  movement of nutrients and water to the  stem, there was a massive seedling death.  Digging the ground, in places where there  was no emergence of seeds, seedling  death was evident.  This symptom of strangulation was  diagnosed in the Central and Northern  Altiplano, and the inter-Andean valleys.  In the field it appears as an irregular  emergence (Figure 2), little perceived by  farmers, usually attributed to soil  problems, salinity or lack of moisture. The disease occurs in years of excessive  moisture, soils with high clay content,  fertilized with partially decomposed  manure and poor drainage. Once the  disease is present it remains in the soil  attached to the roots and stems of dead  plants, as conservation structures  (chlamydospores in the case of Fusarium  and sclerotia for Rhizoctonia).   Due to several factors that influence the  emergence, it is estimated that the death  of seedlings due to Rhizoctonia and/or  Fusarium, is of up to 10%. [ Diseases that occur in the   phenological phases of branching,  panicle formation, flowering, grain  formation and physiological maturity As the plants continued to develop, in the  branching phase (eight true leaves) and/or  panicle formation (inflorescence begins to  emerge from the apex of the plant), in  some areas of production and depending  on weather conditions; chlorotic spots  appeared on the leaves (Figure 3).  Depending on the variety these spots can  be red, orange, brown or black.   As the disease progresses, the undersides  of leaves present a grayish sporulation  (Figure 4), which corresponds to  Peronospora variabilis 1, causal agent of   the quinoa mildew. Depending on the  humidity, this disease can remain until  harvest. The yellowing of leaves reduces  the photosynthetic capacity and also  causes defoliation of the plants (Figure 5),  thus yields are reduced.   P. variabilis is a pathogen of easy  dispersion (wind and rain). During crop  development dissemination structures are  mainly spores, however at senescence or  absence of crop, the disease is spread by  oospores (sexual reproduction structures)  that may be adhered to the surface of the  grain or inside the stubble that remains in  the field. Therefore dissemination occurs,  at close range by means of spores, and at  long range through oospores. Mildew occurs in all agro-ecological  regions, with varying severity depending  on environmental conditions (high  relative humidity, above 80%). In the  Southern Highlands it only appears when  rainfall is intense and prolonged.  When  the rainy period stops automatically the  mycelium is dried and the disease  progression is interrupted. Varieties of  royal quinoa are susceptible to this  disease. The losses caused by mildew depend on  the phenological phase at which the plant  is attacked and the degree of resistance of  the variety. When susceptible varieties are  grown and favorable weather conditions  are given, especially high relative  humidity, the effects of mildew are  severe. If the attack occurs in early stages  of plant development, production can be  completely lost. In resistant varieties,  losses fluctuate between 20% and 40%  (Danielsen  et al. 2003). Therefore,   economic losses range from 2-5 quintals,  which depending on the price of quinoa  can be very significant. Consequently, for  the year 2014 losses could be equivalent  to 6,000 Bs/ha.   Coinciding with the appearance of  mildew in the panicle formation and  flowering stages, on the chlorotic spots, a  green sporulation was observed on the top  side of leafs (Figure 6). The causal agent  is Cladosporium sp. which depending on   humidity, can cover the entire surface of  the spots (Figure 7) and accelerate the  falling of leaves. Just like mildew this  disease can occur up to harvesting stage.  When there is excessive humidity the  pathogen spreads from the foliage to the  panicle, and it tends to turn it black  (Figure 8). Depending on the stage of the  filling phase, when the attack takes place,  the grains may even remain empty. If the  grains are already formed, they will be  slightly stained. When processing these  grains in the laboratory, it was observed  that  Cladosporium  conidia remain   attached to the surface of the grain, being    its mode of dissemination and survival for  the next planting season. Since this disease is strongly associated  with mildew, when damage occurs in the  panicle, economic losses due to the green  mold would produce at least a 5% loss in  addition to the losses caused by mildew. At the same time, during the development  of plants in places where there is poor  drainage or where water accumulates, a  symptom of wilting and yellowing occurs.   At the beginning wilting is only apical but  later it is widespread, it even causes the  death of plants. Going through the root system, lesions  sunk in the neck of the plant are observed,  similar to those found during the    emergence stage. Taking the full root  system from the soil, necrosis of the main  root and rootlets is observed (Figure 9).  If  winds occur during this condition, plants  fall (Figure 10). Due to excess moisture, the surface  portion (skin) of the root decomposes  quickly, exposing the underlying tissue to  attack by other pathogens. The diagnosis  of these samples shows that the symptom  corresponds to Fusarium  sp. Therefore,   this pathogen appears in pre and  post-emergence, and may manifest again  during crop development. The way to  recognize diseased plants is through their  weak development in comparison to  healthy plants.   This disease has been observed mainly in  areas close to Lake Titicaca (Northern  Altiplano) and to a lesser extent in the  Central Altiplano, in areas with heavy  soils and poor drainage. In the case of inter-Andean valleys,  similar symptoms are observed in adult  plants. Other plants with little  development simply show a pink color on  roots and rootlets (Figure 11). An analysis  of these roots shows that symptoms can  also be attributed to Fusarium sp.  During development, necrotic spots have  also been observed on the foliage.  These  are roughly circular or irregular in shape,  with beige centers and slightly brown  edges (Figure 12), inside which pycnidia   are present (black dots). The size of the  lesions ranges from 5 to 10 mm in  diameter. Work done in the laboratory  evidenced that the causal agent of this  disease is Ascochyta sp. and the common  name of the disease is "leaf spot".   When attacks are severe, intense  defoliation occurs, thus reducing  photosynthetic capacity; and if the panicle  is in formation, the quality of grains is  affected (brown color). Studies of the grains conducted in  laboratory show that the fungus produces  abundant pycnidiospores accompanied by  a mild to severe necrosis in roots and/or  hypocotyl. Severely affected seedlings  die. Therefore, the disease is transmitted  through seeds; pycnidia remain attached  to the surface of the grains and also stay in  the stubble. For a new disease cycle to occur in the  next season a temperature of 18 to 24 °C  and a relative humidity of 80% is  required, the pycnidia germinate and give  rise to pycnidiospores and the infection  initiates again.   The geographical distribution of this  disease is not exactly known and  apparently it is not of major economic  importance (Danielsen et al., 2003). Finally, at the stage of senescence, when  the stem is lignified, ogival shaped lesions  can be observed. These lesions are light  gray in the center with brown edges,  surrounded by an aura of glassy  appearance, inside which you may notice  small black spots (Figure 13) which  correspond to pycnidia of the fungus  Phoma sp. The size of these lesions ranges   from 2 to 3 cm. When conditions are  favorable (especially high relative  humidity) a number of spots can be seen in  a single stem (Figure 14). During severe  attacks these spots grow and reach each  other, covering the entire area of the stem. From season to season, the fungus  survives in the stubble that remains in the  field. This pathogen does not require  mechanical wounds to enter the plant, it  enters through natural openings. This disease has been observed in the  Central and Northern Altiplano, and in the  inter-Andean valleys, and basically its    occurrence depends on the presence of  inoculum and high relative humidity.  In general, in all production areas of  Bolivia plants from all stages of  development (from emergence until  harvest), with virus infection symptoms,  have been observed. The causal agents  have not been determined, yet what is  known is that quinoa is used as universal    plant (indicator plant) for the detection of  various viruses. The most frequent  symptoms observed in quinoa are:  yellowing, shortening of internodes  (rosetting), leathery leaves, etc. (Figure  15).   Conclusions   • most disease the   "quinoa mildew", caused by  Peronospora variabilis, followed by  "green mold" and "seedling death."  These three diseases occur in different  agro-ecological regions of Bolivia.  •   the symptoms have been observed in  the Central and Northern Altiplano and  inter-Andean valleys, without causing  significant economic losses.   • "Ogival appears   senescence, affecting the stems and  rachis of the panicle. It has no  incidence in reducing quinoa grain  yield.  •   "mildew", "green mold" and "seedling  death".  •   and "seedling death" can result in  losses of up to 50%.   Cited References    Barnett. H. 1960. Ilustrated genera of imperfect   fungi. 2 ed. Burgess Publishing Company.  225 p.  Danielsen, S., Bonifacio, A., Ames, T. 2003.   Diseases of Quinoa (Chenopodium  quinoa). Food Reviews International. 19(1  y 2): 43-59.  Choi, Y., Denchev, C., Shin, H. 2008.   Morphological and molecular analyses  support existence of hostspecific  Peronospora species infecting  Chenopodium. Mycopathology. No.  165:155-164.  Choi, Y., Danielsen, S., Lubeck, M., Hong, S.,   Delhey, R., Shin, H. 2010. Morphological    and molecular characterization of the  causal agent of downy mildew on quinoa  (Chenopodium quinoa). Mycopathology.   No. 169:403-412.  Gandarillas, A., Rojas, W., Bonifacio, A.,   Ojeda, N. 2014. La quinua en Bolivia:  Perspectiva de la Fundación PROINPA.  Chapter 5. In: Bazile Didier “Estado del  Arte de la Quinua en el Mundo”. FAO (in  press).  Tapia, M., Gandarillas, H., Alandia, S.,   Cardozo, A., Otazú, V., Ortiz, R., Rea, J.,  Salas, B., Zanabria, E., Mujica, A. 1979. La  Quinua y la Kañiwa: Cultivos Andinos.  IICA/CIID, Oficina Regional para América  Latina. Bogotá, Colombia. pp. 142-147.     Revista de Agricultura, Nro. 54 - Julio de 2014   Area: Current National Affairs 17   Flowering colony of q’ila q’ila   (Llavica at 4230 msnm, August 18, 2014)  Dust covered q’ila q’ila plant  at a time when quinoa is not produced  Sowing in tandem with a   double trench seeder prototype    Background   The most important area of quinoa  (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) production  in Bolivia is the Southern Altiplano, so  when the issue of organic Royal Quinoa is  addressed, many authors (Jaldín, 2010;  Medrano, 2010; Puschiasi, 2009) focus on  the “intersalar” region (strip between the  salt flats of Uyuni and Coipasa).  However, quinoa production has  surpassed the intersalar region and is  cultivated throughout the Southern  Altiplano, including the Central  Altiplano, where environmental problems  are already visible. According to Soraide (2011) and Orsag et  al. (2013), soils in the Souther Altiplano  are coarse textured (sand content above  70% and gravel > 30%), especially in  lower strata. Due to the predominance of sand in the  soil and the low content of organic matter  (less than 1%), they do not form stable  aggregates and have a weak or null degree  of structuration. This situation favors their  high susceptibility to wind and water  erosion, particularly under excessive  tillage (use of agricultural equipment). The great international demand for  quinoa, along with high prices, creates a  great opportunity for thousands of  families who have lived in poverty for  generations. This has led to  overexploitation of soils and expansion of  the agricultural frontier, so that the area  under cultivation has increased from  35,907 ha in the year 2000 to 131,192 ha  in 2013, with a negative trend in yields  (Gandarillas et al., 2014).   With the quinoa boom, in the late nineties,  agroecological imbalances arise (VSF /  CICDA, 2009). The expansion of the  agricultural frontier in the Southern  Altiplano has had implications in the  reduction of areas for grazing of llamas; in  addition, the irregularity and reduction of  rainfall results also in shortage of pasture. It is important to note that llama’s  husbandry is not competitive with quinoa  production.  This leads to changes in the  land use of the Southern Altiplano, from  its livestock farming aptitude to  agricultural use. In addition, grazing  llamas (plots are distributed erratically) is  inconsistent with quinoa production, since  animals enter the fields and consume  growing plants, generating serious  disputes between producers. Under these  conditions, grazing involves more  herdsmen of the appropriate age to  manage the herd. Soil management has many deficiencies,  being the most crucial poor incorporation  of organic matter and lack of crop rotation  options. Fallow periods for the recovery  of soil fertility last several years, but due  to low humidity and low average  temperature in the region, the  repopulation of native species is slow.  Thereby, restoration of nutrients and  organic matter is slow, taking in some  cases over 10 years for the recovery of  biomass and the replacement of soil  microbial activity. Farmers do not add organic matter or if  they do it is in small quantities, because  there is not enough availability in the area.  The conservation and improvement of soil  fertility depends on the actions of man on  his environment, or more precisely on the  actions on soil and plants; highlighting the    interaction plant-environment-man  -society (Puschiasi, 2009). In summary, the pressure on soils  degrades them and makes them  unproductive. The lack of organic matter  makes them more susceptible to erosion  and limits the increase in productivity. The highest production and export  volumes registered in recent years, are  achieved based on the incorporation of  new areas of production and not on the  increase in yield per unitary area. This  situation can lead to an unprofitable and  uncompetitive agriculture, boosting  rural-urban migration again, resulting in  thousands of farm families returning to  poverty; thus losing the country the  unique opportunity of generating an  income of more than 150 million dollars. The solution or mitigation of the  unsustainability of quinoa production is  concurrently addressed by public entities,  development projects and producer  organizations. Among the existing  alternatives is an increased use of manure  through the repopulation of cameloids,  protection of grazing areas,  implementation barriers both physical and  biological, etc. However, no proposal  includes native legume species that can  become part of a sustainable production  system. This is the case of q'ila q'ila that  grows in the highlands and whose  importance has not been assessed in  quinoa production systems. Taking advantage of these promising  native and wild species requires  knowledge of their reproductive  characteristics, physiology of their seeds,  their ecological adaptation, the amount of  organic matter they produce, the    symbiosis generated with nitrogen-fixing  bacteria, etc. Faced with the problem of sustainability  of quinoa based production systems on the  Southern Altiplano, researchers from  PROINPA Foundation have explored the  current and potential role of native  species, giving priority to native and wild  legumes. For this purpose prospections and  collections of several species of Lupinus  spp. have been conducted in different  localities of the Southern Altiplano,  transition areas of the South-Central  Altiplano, Central and Northern  Altiplano. The genetic diversity of species  was examined through their growth habit,  ecological adaptation, seed formation,  seed viability, symbiosis with Rhizobium  and experimental planting. The adaptation  of species has been studied in relation to  micro-areas within the South and Central  Altiplano, taking into account the  topography and landscape of the areas;  differentiating flatlands, hillside, foothills  and steep hills.   Alternatives to increase  organic matter in the soils of  the Southern Altiplano   The most promoted alternative to increase  the availability of manure in the Southern  Altiplano is the reestablishment of the  balance between the population of llamas  and the acreage of quinoa. In this sense, it  is proposed that for every hectare of  quinoa seven llamas are kept (Anze,  2010). It is unquestionable that traditional  grazing areas should be protected to raise  llamas along with the management of    pasture and forages. However, in practice  it is very difficult to implement and to  achieve the desired result. For example, in  the year 2010 a total of 63,010 ha were  harvested and in 2013 the acreage  increased to 131,192 ha (Gandarillas et  al., 2014). This would mean that the  population of llamas should be increased  by about 477,000 animals, which is  difficult to achieve. According to the knowledge of  researchers and decision makers, the  Altiplano is characterized as an altitude  ecoregion, dry, cold and semiarid; where  quinoa is grown and where few native  species develop. However, a careful  examination, can demonstrate the  presence of a large diversity of native and  naturalized species.  To date their adaptive  characteristics are not valued and neither  are their potential benefits for quinoa  production systems. Among the native and naturalized species  existent, there are shrubs: Parastrephia  lepidophylla (Weddell) Cabrera,  P.   quadrangulare Meyen Cabrera, P. lucida,  (Meyen) Cabrera, Baccharis tola Phil., B.   tricuneata (L.f.), Lamphapa castellani  Mold.; pastures: Nassella pubiflora (Trin   & Rupr), N. nardoides Phil., Festuca  ortophilla Pilg., F. dolychophilla J. Prsi.,  Chondrosum simplex (Lagasca Kunth);  legumes: Lupinus ottobutchini C.P. Sm.,   L. montanus C.P. Sm., L. chilensis C.P.  Sm  L. cuzcensis, C.P. Sm., etc.; whose   ancient adaptation allows its validity, but  human activity is reducing their  populations.   The native legume q'ila q'ila   Q'ila q'ila (pronounced as qela qela) is a  generic name in Aymara language, which  refers to several legume species used as  forage in green and dry state (Lupinus  chilensis CP Sm., L. otto -butchini CP  Sm.), and others used as forage only when  dry or cured (Lupinus montanus CP Sm.).  These features should be complemented  with research on anti-nutritional  principles that some species usually  contain. In the literature studied, the scientific  names do not include a detail of the  collection areas, let alone mention the  native names of the species. Therefore, for  now, it is better to name them as plural  species (Lupinus spp.).  Species from the  Altiplano are known with native names  q'ila q'ila, salqa or salqiri. The plants  usually grow in colonies, depending on  the natural seed dispersal and favorable  conditions for colonization, ranging from  small areas of 100 m 2 to 200 m 2 or even   areas of up to 1 km2.  While the taxonomic classification of  species is not clear, the diversity of  species and the genetic diversity within  each species or ecotype are evident.  Jacobsen et al. (2006) listed 83 species for   the area of the Andes. Meanwhile Barney  (2011) cites 85 wild species for South  America. The adaptation of species is large;  however, some ecotypes prefer specific  environmental conditions such as sandy or  stony soils, loamy soils, gravelly or stony  soils, or otherwise flatlands, slopes,  foothills and mountains.   The biology of the species of Lupinus  presents several differential biologic  processes in comparison to other plant  species, among them seed dormancy, high  tolerance to frost, abundant nodulation (N  fixation), broad ecological adaptation and  high capacity for diversification. The seed of wild lupines is viable and can  germinate when it reaches physiological  maturity, before drying. However, as it  dries, it enters a prolonged dormancy of  three to four years, after that time the  dormancy ends and it can germinate  naturally. This means that prior to a  directed sowing process seeds must be  pretreated. Q'ila q'ila seedlings emerge in late  December and January, are established in  the field between January and February,    grow slowly in winter, bloom in  November and December, and fructify  from December to January, according to  the different areas and ecotypes. What  stands out is their adaptation to highlands,  their tolerance to winter frost (-18 ° C  from May to September) and their  resistance to prolonged droughts (from  March to December). By staying alive  during the winter, they provide ground  cover, develop abundant green material  and fix nitrogen. All of these beneficial  processes take place in the period when  quinoa is not being produced, that is, in  the fallow period. These characteristics  give guidelines for the use of these species  for enhanced management of fallow  periods, ground cover and atmospheric  nitrogen fixation. Their ability to grow on  marginal periods, their pluri-seasonal and  even multi-year cycle, makes them very  appealing species for their use in quinoa  production systems in the Southern  Altiplano. Currently  q'ila q'ilas are not valued for   their adaptive qualities, organic matter  production and nitrogen fixation. Some  farmers do recognize their contributions  for soil management, because when they  clear land previously populated by these  species, quinoa grows and yields well.  The possible explanation for the lack of  interest in these species is their erratic  growth due to seed dormancy.  In natural  conditions, plants are born every three to  four years at the same site. This  characteristic of the species makes them  difficult to manage without prior  application of seed treatment techniques.  Therefore, the current role of wild species  from the genus Lupinus in the Altiplano is  of little or no importance for quinoa  production systems.   Perspectives of wild lupines  for the sustainability of quinoa  production systems in the  Southern Altiplano    Wild legumes produce considerable  amounts of dry matter.  It is estimated that  on average they can produce the  equivalent of eight tons of dry matter per  hectare, without considering nitrogen  fixation estimated at over 100 kg/ha. The  benefits of legumes in cropping systems  are widely documented (Prager et al,  2012; Céspedes, 2005), which supports  the proposal of using wild legumes in  quinoa production systems. The proposal of guided usage of these  lupin species involves planting in late  December and early January. Plants grow  in autumn, winter and summer (cold and  dry seasons) and produce seed during the  rainy season. It is important to highlight  that the conclusion of the life cycle of the  q'ila q'ila matches the period of soil  preparation in the Altiplano. It therefore  becomes a valuable local source of green  matter to incorporate in the soil, with the  advantage of not being a woody plant,  which makes its decomposition easier. In    this case, wild legumes are another source  of organic matter in quinoa production  systems. An alternative option for the  management of q'ila q'ila is to harvest  seed before incorporating the complete   plant into the soil. The sustainable production approach  involves the management and utilization  of soil to achieve high productivity per  unitary area, maintaining soil health, and  including legume species in rotation  systems and improved fallow  management practices. In the case of the Southern Altiplano,  where conditions for agriculture are so  hard, wild legumes are an excellent  alternative to establish rotation systems,  improve fallow management practices,  produce green manures and establish crop  tandem systems with quinoa. These  practices offer numerous benefits:  reducing erosion and improving soil  fertility, improved yields, reduced  sediment transport and diversification in  production. In this line of analysis, eight  tons of dry matter incorporated by q'ila  q'ila to the soil may be sufficient to  achieve a yield of quinoa of twenty  quintals per hectare.   For crop rotation purposes, after quinoa  harvest,  q'ila q'ila should be sown; and   after two growing seasons the soil will  again be available to grow quinoa. For  improved fallow management practices,  q'ila q'ila can be planted in any sequence  of fallow years, provided planting is made  at the appropriate time (late December  and early January). For intercropping in tandem, in a field set  with quinoa plants in panicle phase, q'ila  q'ila  should be planted interspersed or   between rows or lines. This involves  planting interlayer on deferred date  (tandem or in posts).   Due to all that is known so far about the  q'ila q'ila, productivity, sustainability and  competitiveness of Bolivian quinoa can be  seen optimistically. The challenge posed  by the Bolivian government of increasing  the area of cultivated quinoa, may be  feasible with the use of wild legumes as  alternative and complementary to the use  of llama dung.   Challenges and limitations in  the management of wild lupine   There are several limitations that must be  addressed to achieve the commercial  cultivation of wild lupines, which in the  field of agronomy are essentially: the  gradual fruiting, dehiscence of seed and  seed dormancy. Other issues to be addressed are: seed  production on a commercial scale,  isolation and inoculation of seeds with  nitrogen-fixing bacteria, weevil control  Apion  sp., the use of equipment and   machinery for planting and harvesting,  and mechanized incorporation of organic  fertilizer, among others.   In addition, research programs should be  established on agronomic management,  multiple use (coverage, organic matter,  forage), microbiology, etc. A first task to  undertake, given the great diversity of  species and morphotypes, is the  establishment of a working collection, for  the purpose of characterization, selection  and targeted use. For the efficient use of q'ila q'ila a vital  challenge is the participation of producers  in the maintenance of natural areas where  these species grow, timely seed collection,  directed planting, appropriate  incorporation in the soil, and other  practices.   Cited references   Anze, G. 2010. Normas básicas para una   producción sostenible de la Quinua Real  del Altiplano Sur de Bolivia.  PROQUINAT/ANAPQUI.    On line. Available at:  http://www.infoquinua.bo   Retrieved on June 6, 2014. Barney, M. 2011. Biodiversidad y ecogeografía   del género Lupinus L. (Leguminosae) en  Colombia. MSc. Thesis, Universidad  Nacional de Colombia, Palmira Colombia.  69 p.  Céspedes, M. (ed) 2005. Agricultura orgánica,   principio y prácticas de producción. INIA.  Bulletin No 131. Chillan, Chile.  Gandarillas, A., Rojas, W., Bonifacio, A., Ojeda   N. 2014. La quinua en Bolivia: Perspectiva  de la Fundación PROINPA. Chapter 5. In:  Bazile Didier “Estado del arte de la quinua  en el mundo”. FAO (in press).  Jacobsen, S., Mujica, A. 2006. El tarwi   (Lupinus mutabilis Sweet.) y sus parientes    silvestres. In: Botánica Económica de los  Andes Centrales. M. Moraes R., B.  Øllgaard, L. P. Kvist, F. Borchsenius & H.  Balslev, eds.) UMSA. La Paz, Bolivia. pp.  458-462.  Jaldín R. 2010. Producción de quinua en Oruro   y Potosí. La Paz, Bolivia. PIEB. No. 3. 100  p.  Medrano, A. 2010. Expansión del cultivo de   quinua (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) y  calidad de suelos. Análisis en un contexto  de sostenibilidad en el intersalar boliviano.  MSc.Thesis, Universidad Autónoma San  Luis Potosí. México. 138 p.  Orsag, V., León, L., Pacosaca, O., Castro, E.   2013. Evaluación de la fertilidad de los  suelos para la producción sostenible de  quinua. T’inkazos. 33: 89-112.  Prager, M., Sanclemente, O., Sánchez, M.   2012. Abonos verdes: tecnología para el  manejo agroecológico de los cultivos.  Agroecología 7:53-62.  Puschiasi, O. 2009. La fertilidad: un recurso   "cuchicheado". Análisis de la valorización  del recurso territorial fertilidad por las  familias de la zona Intersalar. On line.  Available at: http://www.ird.fr Retrieved on  May 27, 2014.  Soraide, D. 2011. La Quinua Real en el   Altiplano Sur de Bolivia. Documento  técnico para la denominación de origen.  FAUTAPO-Educación para el Desarrollo.  108 p.  VSF-CICDA. 2009. Quinua y territorio.   RURALTER, IRD, VSF-CICDA y  comunidades del intersalar. Agronomes y  Veterinaires sin frontera. Plural, La Paz,  Bolivia. 156 p.  Williams, B. 1995. Revegetation for   ecologically sustainable dryland farming.  Department of the parliamentary library,  Commonwealth of Australia. Research  paper No.1. 39 p.   Introduction   The strong international demand for  quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) in  recent years, has led to a significant    increase in cultivated area in a very short  period of time (Gandarillas et al., 2014).  Commercial cultivation has expanded  from the traditional area of the Southern  Altiplano where Royal Quinoa is grown,    to new areas of "expansion" in the Central  and Northern Altiplano, and the  inter-Andean valleys. This situation has  led to face new problems, mainly due to  moisture. In the south, environmental  conditions are very dry, with an annual  average precipitation of 250 mm, while in  the Central and Northern Altiplano there  is an average precipitation of 500  mm/year, and in the valleys it reaches 800  mm/year. This article attempts to update  information on the incidence and  significance of the main fungal diseases  that affect quinoa, with emphasis on the  “expansion” areas, in the new context of  climate change, based on the publication  of Tapia et al., 1979.  The objectives of this work were:  • and the   affecting quinoa cultivars with  emphasis on expansion areas (Central  Altiplano, Northern Altiplano and  inter-Andean Valleys).  •   economic importance.   Materials and methods   This study was based primarily on visits  and sampling to 50 quinoa plots in  different production areas (10 to 12 plots  per area). Samples were taken of the different  diseases that appeared throughout crop  development, considering the weather  conditions at the time of sampling. This  work was carried out from November    2013 to April 2014, with a season  characterized by high precipitation.  Samples of seedlings and plants in various  stages of development, and of different  types of tissues (leaves, stem, roots and  grains) were collected. The samples were collected in plastic  bags and in a refrigerated container to  keep samples fresh, each one being  identified according to the collection site.  The samples were taken to PROINPA’s  laboratories in the shortest time possible,  and immediately processed using routine  techniques, ie direct microscope  observation of signs, humid chamber and  seeding in culture media (Potato Dextrose  Agar). Taxonomic keys developed based  on morphological characteristics of the  different kinds of fungi (Barnett, 1960),  were used to identify the structures.   Results and discussion   The presentation of results is made based  on the appearance of diseases in the crop,  according to the phenological stage at  which they arose: [ Diseases arising from emergence to   the appearance of 6-8 true leaves: At the beginning of the cultivation cycle  samples were taken from dead seedlings  in cotiledoneal phase (emergence); a  constriction at the neck of the plant  (Figure 1) was observed. With no  movement of nutrients and water to the  stem, there was a massive seedling death.  Digging the ground, in places where there  was no emergence of seeds, seedling  death was evident.  This symptom of strangulation was  diagnosed in the Central and Northern  Altiplano, and the inter-Andean valleys.  In the field it appears as an irregular  emergence (Figure 2), little perceived by  farmers, usually attributed to soil  problems, salinity or lack of moisture. The disease occurs in years of excessive  moisture, soils with high clay content,  fertilized with partially decomposed  manure and poor drainage. Once the  disease is present it remains in the soil  attached to the roots and stems of dead  plants, as conservation structures  (chlamydospores in the case of Fusarium  and sclerotia for Rhizoctonia).   Due to several factors that influence the  emergence, it is estimated that the death  of seedlings due to Rhizoctonia and/or  Fusarium, is of up to 10%. [ Diseases that occur in the   phenological phases of branching,  panicle formation, flowering, grain  formation and physiological maturity As the plants continued to develop, in the  branching phase (eight true leaves) and/or  panicle formation (inflorescence begins to  emerge from the apex of the plant), in  some areas of production and depending  on weather conditions; chlorotic spots  appeared on the leaves (Figure 3).  Depending on the variety these spots can  be red, orange, brown or black.   As the disease progresses, the undersides  of leaves present a grayish sporulation  (Figure 4), which corresponds to  Peronospora variabilis 1, causal agent of   the quinoa mildew. Depending on the  humidity, this disease can remain until  harvest. The yellowing of leaves reduces  the photosynthetic capacity and also  causes defoliation of the plants (Figure 5),  thus yields are reduced.   P. variabilis is a pathogen of easy  dispersion (wind and rain). During crop  development dissemination structures are  mainly spores, however at senescence or  absence of crop, the disease is spread by  oospores (sexual reproduction structures)  that may be adhered to the surface of the  grain or inside the stubble that remains in  the field. Therefore dissemination occurs,  at close range by means of spores, and at  long range through oospores. Mildew occurs in all agro-ecological  regions, with varying severity depending  on environmental conditions (high  relative humidity, above 80%). In the  Southern Highlands it only appears when  rainfall is intense and prolonged.  When  the rainy period stops automatically the  mycelium is dried and the disease  progression is interrupted. Varieties of  royal quinoa are susceptible to this  disease. The losses caused by mildew depend on  the phenological phase at which the plant  is attacked and the degree of resistance of  the variety. When susceptible varieties are  grown and favorable weather conditions  are given, especially high relative  humidity, the effects of mildew are  severe. If the attack occurs in early stages  of plant development, production can be  completely lost. In resistant varieties,  losses fluctuate between 20% and 40%  (Danielsen  et al. 2003). Therefore,   economic losses range from 2-5 quintals,  which depending on the price of quinoa  can be very significant. Consequently, for  the year 2014 losses could be equivalent  to 6,000 Bs/ha.   Coinciding with the appearance of  mildew in the panicle formation and  flowering stages, on the chlorotic spots, a  green sporulation was observed on the top  side of leafs (Figure 6). The causal agent  is Cladosporium sp. which depending on   humidity, can cover the entire surface of  the spots (Figure 7) and accelerate the  falling of leaves. Just like mildew this  disease can occur up to harvesting stage.  When there is excessive humidity the  pathogen spreads from the foliage to the  panicle, and it tends to turn it black  (Figure 8). Depending on the stage of the  filling phase, when the attack takes place,  the grains may even remain empty. If the  grains are already formed, they will be  slightly stained. When processing these  grains in the laboratory, it was observed  that  Cladosporium  conidia remain   attached to the surface of the grain, being    its mode of dissemination and survival for  the next planting season. Since this disease is strongly associated  with mildew, when damage occurs in the  panicle, economic losses due to the green  mold would produce at least a 5% loss in  addition to the losses caused by mildew. At the same time, during the development  of plants in places where there is poor  drainage or where water accumulates, a  symptom of wilting and yellowing occurs.   At the beginning wilting is only apical but  later it is widespread, it even causes the  death of plants. Going through the root system, lesions  sunk in the neck of the plant are observed,  similar to those found during the    emergence stage. Taking the full root  system from the soil, necrosis of the main  root and rootlets is observed (Figure 9).  If  winds occur during this condition, plants  fall (Figure 10). Due to excess moisture, the surface  portion (skin) of the root decomposes  quickly, exposing the underlying tissue to  attack by other pathogens. The diagnosis  of these samples shows that the symptom  corresponds to Fusarium  sp. Therefore,   this pathogen appears in pre and  post-emergence, and may manifest again  during crop development. The way to  recognize diseased plants is through their  weak development in comparison to  healthy plants.   This disease has been observed mainly in  areas close to Lake Titicaca (Northern  Altiplano) and to a lesser extent in the  Central Altiplano, in areas with heavy  soils and poor drainage. In the case of inter-Andean valleys,  similar symptoms are observed in adult  plants. Other plants with little  development simply show a pink color on  roots and rootlets (Figure 11). An analysis  of these roots shows that symptoms can  also be attributed to Fusarium sp.  During development, necrotic spots have  also been observed on the foliage.  These  are roughly circular or irregular in shape,  with beige centers and slightly brown  edges (Figure 12), inside which pycnidia  are present (black dots). The size of the  lesions ranges from 5 to 10 mm in  diameter. Work done in the laboratory  evidenced that the causal agent of this  disease is Ascochyta sp. and the common  name of the disease is "leaf spot".   When attacks are severe, intense  defoliation occurs, thus reducing  photosynthetic capacity; and if the panicle  is in formation, the quality of grains is  affected (brown color). Studies of the grains conducted in  laboratory show that the fungus produces  abundant pycnidiospores accompanied by  a mild to severe necrosis in roots and/or  hypocotyl. Severely affected seedlings  die. Therefore, the disease is transmitted  through seeds; pycnidia remain attached  to the surface of the grains and also stay in  the stubble. For a new disease cycle to occur in the  next season a temperature of 18 to 24 °C  and a relative humidity of 80% is  required, the pycnidia germinate and give  rise to pycnidiospores and the infection  initiates again.   The geographical distribution of this  disease is not exactly known and  apparently it is not of major economic  importance (Danielsen et al., 2003). Finally, at the stage of senescence, when  the stem is lignified, ogival shaped lesions  can be observed. These lesions are light  gray in the center with brown edges,  surrounded by an aura of glassy  appearance, inside which you may notice  small black spots (Figure 13) which  correspond to pycnidia of the fungus  Phoma sp. The size of these lesions ranges   from 2 to 3 cm. When conditions are   favorable (especially high relative  humidity) a number of spots can be seen in  a single stem (Figure 14). During severe  attacks these spots grow and reach each  other, covering the entire area of the stem. From season to season, the fungus  survives in the stubble that remains in the  field. This pathogen does not require  mechanical wounds to enter the plant, it  enters through natural openings. This disease has been observed in the  Central and Northern Altiplano, and in the  inter-Andean valleys, and basically its    occurrence depends on the presence of  inoculum and high relative humidity.  In general, in all production areas of  Bolivia plants from all stages of  development (from emergence until  harvest), with virus infection symptoms,  have been observed. The causal agents  have not been determined, yet what is  known is that quinoa is used as universal    plant (indicator plant) for the detection of  various viruses. The most frequent  symptoms observed in quinoa are:  yellowing, shortening of internodes  (rosetting), leathery leaves, etc. (Figure  15).   Conclusions   • most disease the   "quinoa mildew", caused by  Peronospora variabilis, followed by  "green mold" and "seedling death."  These three diseases occur in different  agro-ecological regions of Bolivia.  •   the symptoms have been observed in  the Central and Northern Altiplano and  inter-Andean valleys, without causing  significant economic losses.   • "Ogival appears   senescence, affecting the stems and  rachis of the panicle. It has no  incidence in reducing quinoa grain  yield.  •   "mildew", "green mold" and "seedling  death".  •   and "seedling death" can result in  losses of up to 50%.   Cited References    Barnett. H. 1960. Ilustrated genera of imperfect   fungi. 2 ed. Burgess Publishing Company.  225 p.  Danielsen, S., Bonifacio, A., Ames, T. 2003.   Diseases of Quinoa (Chenopodium  quinoa). Food Reviews International. 19(1  y 2): 43-59.  Choi, Y., Denchev, C., Shin, H. 2008.   Morphological and molecular analyses  support existence of hostspecific  Peronospora species infecting  Chenopodium. Mycopathology. No.  165:155-164.  Choi, Y., Danielsen, S., Lubeck, M., Hong, S.,   Delhey, R., Shin, H. 2010. Morphological    and molecular characterization of the  causal agent of downy mildew on quinoa  (Chenopodium quinoa). Mycopathology.   No. 169:403-412.  Gandarillas, A., Rojas, W., Bonifacio, A.,   Ojeda, N. 2014. La quinua en Bolivia:  Perspectiva de la Fundación PROINPA.  Chapter 5. In: Bazile Didier “Estado del  Arte de la Quinua en el Mundo”. FAO (in  press).  Tapia, M., Gandarillas, H., Alandia, S.,   Cardozo, A., Otazú, V., Ortiz, R., Rea, J.,  Salas, B., Zanabria, E., Mujica, A. 1979. La  Quinua y la Kañiwa: Cultivos Andinos.  IICA/CIID, Oficina Regional para América  Latina. Bogotá, Colombia. pp. 142-147.     ISSN 1998 - 9652   Area: Current National Affairs 18   Article received on June 12, 2014 - Article accepted on June 19, 2014   Background   The most important area of quinoa  (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) production  in Bolivia is the Southern Altiplano, so  when the issue of organic Royal Quinoa is  addressed, many authors (Jaldín, 2010;  Medrano, 2010; Puschiasi, 2009) focus on  the “intersalar” region (strip between the  salt flats of Uyuni and Coipasa).  However, quinoa production has  surpassed the intersalar region and is  cultivated throughout the Southern  Altiplano, including the Central  Altiplano, where environmental problems  are already visible. According to Soraide (2011) and Orsag et  al. (2013), soils in the Souther Altiplano  are coarse textured (sand content above  70% and gravel > 30%), especially in  lower strata. Due to the predominance of sand in the  soil and the low content of organic matter  (less than 1%), they do not form stable  aggregates and have a weak or null degree  of structuration. This situation favors their  high susceptibility to wind and water  erosion, particularly under excessive  tillage (use of agricultural equipment). The great international demand for  quinoa, along with high prices, creates a  great opportunity for thousands of  families who have lived in poverty for  generations. This has led to  overexploitation of soils and expansion of  the agricultural frontier, so that the area  under cultivation has increased from  35,907 ha in the year 2000 to 131,192 ha  in 2013, with a negative trend in yields  (Gandarillas et al., 2014).   With the quinoa boom, in the late nineties,  agroecological imbalances arise (VSF /  CICDA, 2009). The expansion of the  agricultural frontier in the Southern  Altiplano has had implications in the  reduction of areas for grazing of llamas; in  addition, the irregularity and reduction of  rainfall results also in shortage of pasture. It is important to note that llama’s  husbandry is not competitive with quinoa  production.  This leads to changes in the  land use of the Southern Altiplano, from  its livestock farming aptitude to  agricultural use. In addition, grazing  llamas (plots are distributed erratically) is  inconsistent with quinoa production, since  animals enter the fields and consume  growing plants, generating serious  disputes between producers. Under these  conditions, grazing involves more  herdsmen of the appropriate age to  manage the herd. Soil management has many deficiencies,  being the most crucial poor incorporation  of organic matter and lack of crop rotation  options. Fallow periods for the recovery  of soil fertility last several years, but due  to low humidity and low average  temperature in the region, the  repopulation of native species is slow.  Thereby, restoration of nutrients and  organic matter is slow, taking in some  cases over 10 years for the recovery of  biomass and the replacement of soil  microbial activity. Farmers do not add organic matter or if  they do it is in small quantities, because  there is not enough availability in the area.  The conservation and improvement of soil  fertility depends on the actions of man on  his environment, or more precisely on the  actions on soil and plants; highlighting the    interaction plant-environment-man  -society (Puschiasi, 2009). In summary, the pressure on soils  degrades them and makes them  unproductive. The lack of organic matter  makes them more susceptible to erosion  and limits the increase in productivity. The highest production and export  volumes registered in recent years, are  achieved based on the incorporation of  new areas of production and not on the  increase in yield per unitary area. This  situation can lead to an unprofitable and  uncompetitive agriculture, boosting  rural-urban migration again, resulting in  thousands of farm families returning to  poverty; thus losing the country the  unique opportunity of generating an  income of more than 150 million dollars. The solution or mitigation of the  unsustainability of quinoa production is  concurrently addressed by public entities,  development projects and producer  organizations. Among the existing  alternatives is an increased use of manure  through the repopulation of cameloids,  protection of grazing areas,  implementation barriers both physical and  biological, etc. However, no proposal  includes native legume species that can  become part of a sustainable production  system. This is the case of q'ila q'ila that  grows in the highlands and whose  importance has not been assessed in  quinoa production systems. Taking advantage of these promising  native and wild species requires  knowledge of their reproductive  characteristics, physiology of their seeds,  their ecological adaptation, the amount of  organic matter they produce, the    symbiosis generated with nitrogen-fixing  bacteria, etc. Faced with the problem of sustainability  of quinoa based production systems on the  Southern Altiplano, researchers from  PROINPA Foundation have explored the  current and potential role of native  species, giving priority to native and wild  legumes. For this purpose prospections and  collections of several species of Lupinus  spp. have been conducted in different  localities of the Southern Altiplano,  transition areas of the South-Central  Altiplano, Central and Northern  Altiplano. The genetic diversity of species  was examined through their growth habit,  ecological adaptation, seed formation,  seed viability, symbiosis with Rhizobium  and experimental planting. The adaptation  of species has been studied in relation to  micro-areas within the South and Central  Altiplano, taking into account the  topography and landscape of the areas;  differentiating flatlands, hillside, foothills  and steep hills.   Alternatives to increase  organic matter in the soils of  the Southern Altiplano   The most promoted alternative to increase  the availability of manure in the Southern  Altiplano is the reestablishment of the  balance between the population of llamas  and the acreage of quinoa. In this sense, it  is proposed that for every hectare of  quinoa seven llamas are kept (Anze,  2010). It is unquestionable that traditional  grazing areas should be protected to raise  llamas along with the management of    pasture and forages. However, in practice  it is very difficult to implement and to  achieve the desired result. For example, in  the year 2010 a total of 63,010 ha were  harvested and in 2013 the acreage  increased to 131,192 ha (Gandarillas et  al., 2014). This would mean that the  population of llamas should be increased  by about 477,000 animals, which is  difficult to achieve. According to the knowledge of  researchers and decision makers, the  Altiplano is characterized as an altitude  ecoregion, dry, cold and semiarid; where  quinoa is grown and where few native  species develop. However, a careful  examination, can demonstrate the  presence of a large diversity of native and  naturalized species.  To date their adaptive  characteristics are not valued and neither  are their potential benefits for quinoa  production systems. Among the native and naturalized species  existent, there are shrubs: Parastrephia  lepidophylla (Weddell) Cabrera,  P.   quadrangulare Meyen Cabrera, P. lucida,  (Meyen) Cabrera, Baccharis tola Phil., B.   tricuneata (L.f.), Lamphapa castellani  Mold.; pastures: Nassella pubiflora (Trin   & Rupr), N. nardoides Phil., Festuca  ortophilla Pilg., F. dolychophilla J. Prsi.,  Chondrosum simplex (Lagasca Kunth);  legumes: Lupinus ottobutchini C.P. Sm.,   L. montanus C.P. Sm., L. chilensis C.P.  Sm  L. cuzcensis, C.P. Sm., etc.; whose   ancient adaptation allows its validity, but  human activity is reducing their  populations.   The native legume q'ila q'ila   Q'ila q'ila (pronounced as qela qela) is a  generic name in Aymara language, which  refers to several legume species used as  forage in green and dry state (Lupinus  chilensis CP Sm., L. otto -butchini CP  Sm.), and others used as forage only when  dry or cured (Lupinus montanus CP Sm.).  These features should be complemented  with research on anti-nutritional  principles that some species usually  contain. In the literature studied, the scientific  names do not include a detail of the  collection areas, let alone mention the  native names of the species. Therefore, for  now, it is better to name them as plural  species (Lupinus spp.).  Species from the  Altiplano are known with native names  q'ila q'ila, salqa or salqiri. The plants  usually grow in colonies, depending on  the natural seed dispersal and favorable  conditions for colonization, ranging from  small areas of 100 m 2 to 200 m 2 or even   areas of up to 1 km2.  While the taxonomic classification of  species is not clear, the diversity of  species and the genetic diversity within  each species or ecotype are evident.  Jacobsen et al. (2006) listed 83 species for   the area of the Andes. Meanwhile Barney  (2011) cites 85 wild species for South  America. The adaptation of species is large;  however, some ecotypes prefer specific  environmental conditions such as sandy or  stony soils, loamy soils, gravelly or stony  soils, or otherwise flatlands, slopes,  foothills and mountains.   The biology of the species of Lupinus  presents several differential biologic  processes in comparison to other plant  species, among them seed dormancy, high  tolerance to frost, abundant nodulation (N  fixation), broad ecological adaptation and  high capacity for diversification. The seed of wild lupines is viable and can  germinate when it reaches physiological  maturity, before drying. However, as it  dries, it enters a prolonged dormancy of  three to four years, after that time the  dormancy ends and it can germinate  naturally. This means that prior to a  directed sowing process seeds must be  pretreated. Q'ila q'ila seedlings emerge in late  December and January, are established in  the field between January and February,    grow slowly in winter, bloom in  November and December, and fructify  from December to January, according to  the different areas and ecotypes. What  stands out is their adaptation to highlands,  their tolerance to winter frost (-18 ° C  from May to September) and their  resistance to prolonged droughts (from  March to December). By staying alive  during the winter, they provide ground  cover, develop abundant green material  and fix nitrogen. All of these beneficial  processes take place in the period when  quinoa is not being produced, that is, in  the fallow period. These characteristics  give guidelines for the use of these species  for enhanced management of fallow  periods, ground cover and atmospheric  nitrogen fixation. Their ability to grow on  marginal periods, their pluri-seasonal and  even multi-year cycle, makes them very  appealing species for their use in quinoa  production systems in the Southern  Altiplano. Currently  q'ila q'ilas are not valued for   their adaptive qualities, organic matter  production and nitrogen fixation. Some  farmers do recognize their contributions  for soil management, because when they  clear land previously populated by these  species, quinoa grows and yields well.  The possible explanation for the lack of  interest in these species is their erratic  growth due to seed dormancy.  In natural  conditions, plants are born every three to  four years at the same site. This  characteristic of the species makes them  difficult to manage without prior  application of seed treatment techniques.  Therefore, the current role of wild species  from the genus Lupinus in the Altiplano is  of little or no importance for quinoa  production systems.   Perspectives of wild lupines  for the sustainability of quinoa  production systems in the  Southern Altiplano    Wild legumes produce considerable  amounts of dry matter.  It is estimated that  on average they can produce the  equivalent of eight tons of dry matter per  hectare, without considering nitrogen  fixation estimated at over 100 kg/ha. The  benefits of legumes in cropping systems  are widely documented (Prager et al,  2012; Céspedes, 2005), which supports  the proposal of using wild legumes in  quinoa production systems. The proposal of guided usage of these  lupin species involves planting in late  December and early January. Plants grow  in autumn, winter and summer (cold and  dry seasons) and produce seed during the  rainy season. It is important to highlight  that the conclusion of the life cycle of the  q'ila q'ila matches the period of soil  preparation in the Altiplano. It therefore  becomes a valuable local source of green  matter to incorporate in the soil, with the  advantage of not being a woody plant,  which makes its decomposition easier. In    this case, wild legumes are another source  of organic matter in quinoa production  systems. An alternative option for the  management of q'ila q'ila is to harvest  seed before incorporating the complete   plant into the soil. The sustainable production approach  involves the management and utilization  of soil to achieve high productivity per  unitary area, maintaining soil health, and  including legume species in rotation  systems and improved fallow  management practices. In the case of the Southern Altiplano,  where conditions for agriculture are so  hard, wild legumes are an excellent  alternative to establish rotation systems,  improve fallow management practices,  produce green manures and establish crop  tandem systems with quinoa. These  practices offer numerous benefits:  reducing erosion and improving soil  fertility, improved yields, reduced  sediment transport and diversification in  production. In this line of analysis, eight  tons of dry matter incorporated by q'ila  q'ila to the soil may be sufficient to  achieve a yield of quinoa of twenty  quintals per hectare.   For crop rotation purposes, after quinoa  harvest,  q'ila q'ila should be sown; and   after two growing seasons the soil will  again be available to grow quinoa. For  improved fallow management practices,  q'ila q'ila can be planted in any sequence  of fallow years, provided planting is made  at the appropriate time (late December  and early January). For intercropping in tandem, in a field set  with quinoa plants in panicle phase, q'ila  q'ila  should be planted interspersed or   between rows or lines. This involves  planting interlayer on deferred date  (tandem or in posts).   Due to all that is known so far about the  q'ila q'ila, productivity, sustainability and  competitiveness of Bolivian quinoa can be  seen optimistically. The challenge posed  by the Bolivian government of increasing  the area of cultivated quinoa, may be  feasible with the use of wild legumes as  alternative and complementary to the use  of llama dung.   Challenges and limitations in  the management of wild lupine   There are several limitations that must be  addressed to achieve the commercial  cultivation of wild lupines, which in the  field of agronomy are essentially: the  gradual fruiting, dehiscence of seed and  seed dormancy. Other issues to be addressed are: seed  production on a commercial scale,  isolation and inoculation of seeds with  nitrogen-fixing bacteria, weevil control  Apion  sp., the use of equipment and   machinery for planting and harvesting,  and mechanized incorporation of organic  fertilizer, among others.   In addition, research programs should be  established on agronomic management,  multiple use (coverage, organic matter,  forage), microbiology, etc. A first task to  undertake, given the great diversity of  species and morphotypes, is the  establishment of a working collection, for  the purpose of characterization, selection  and targeted use. For the efficient use of q'ila q'ila a vital  challenge is the participation of producers  in the maintenance of natural areas where  these species grow, timely seed collection,  directed planting, appropriate  incorporation in the soil, and other  practices.   Cited references   Anze, G. 2010. Normas básicas para una   producción sostenible de la Quinua Real  del Altiplano Sur de Bolivia.  PROQUINAT/ANAPQUI.    On line. Available at:  http://www.infoquinua.bo   Retrieved on June 6, 2014. Barney, M. 2011. Biodiversidad y ecogeografía   del género Lupinus L. (Leguminosae) en  Colombia. MSc. Thesis, Universidad  Nacional de Colombia, Palmira Colombia.  69 p.  Céspedes, M. (ed) 2005. Agricultura orgánica,   principio y prácticas de producción. INIA.  Bulletin No 131. Chillan, Chile.  Gandarillas, A., Rojas, W., Bonifacio, A., Ojeda   N. 2014. La quinua en Bolivia: Perspectiva  de la Fundación PROINPA. Chapter 5. In:  Bazile Didier “Estado del arte de la quinua  en el mundo”. FAO (in press).  Jacobsen, S., Mujica, A. 2006. El tarwi   (Lupinus mutabilis Sweet.) y sus parientes    silvestres. In: Botánica Económica de los  Andes Centrales. M. Moraes R., B.  Øllgaard, L. P. Kvist, F. Borchsenius & H.  Balslev, eds.) UMSA. La Paz, Bolivia. pp.  458-462.  Jaldín R. 2010. Producción de quinua en Oruro   y Potosí. La Paz, Bolivia. PIEB. No. 3. 100  p.  Medrano, A. 2010. Expansión del cultivo de   quinua (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) y  calidad de suelos. Análisis en un contexto  de sostenibilidad en el intersalar boliviano.  MSc.Thesis, Universidad Autónoma San  Luis Potosí. México. 138 p.  Orsag, V., León, L., Pacosaca, O., Castro, E.   2013. Evaluación de la fertilidad de los  suelos para la producción sostenible de  quinua. T’inkazos. 33: 89-112.  Prager, M., Sanclemente, O., Sánchez, M.   2012. Abonos verdes: tecnología para el  manejo agroecológico de los cultivos.  Agroecología 7:53-62.  Puschiasi, O. 2009. La fertilidad: un recurso   "cuchicheado". Análisis de la valorización  del recurso territorial fertilidad por las  familias de la zona Intersalar. On line.  Available at: http://www.ird.fr Retrieved on  May 27, 2014.  Soraide, D. 2011. La Quinua Real en el   Altiplano Sur de Bolivia. Documento  técnico para la denominación de origen.  FAUTAPO-Educación para el Desarrollo.  108 p.  VSF-CICDA. 2009. Quinua y territorio.   RURALTER, IRD, VSF-CICDA y  comunidades del intersalar. Agronomes y  Veterinaires sin frontera. Plural, La Paz,  Bolivia. 156 p.  Williams, B. 1995. Revegetation for   ecologically sustainable dryland farming.  Department of the parliamentary library,  Commonwealth of Australia. Research  paper No.1. 39 p.   Introduction   The strong international demand for  quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) in  recent years, has led to a significant    increase in cultivated area in a very short  period of time (Gandarillas et al., 2014).  Commercial cultivation has expanded  from the traditional area of the Southern  Altiplano where Royal Quinoa is grown,    to new areas of "expansion" in the Central  and Northern Altiplano, and the  inter-Andean valleys. This situation has  led to face new problems, mainly due to  moisture. In the south, environmental  conditions are very dry, with an annual  average precipitation of 250 mm, while in  the Central and Northern Altiplano there  is an average precipitation of 500  mm/year, and in the valleys it reaches 800  mm/year. This article attempts to update  information on the incidence and  significance of the main fungal diseases  that affect quinoa, with emphasis on the  “expansion” areas, in the new context of  climate change, based on the publication  of Tapia et al., 1979.  The objectives of this work were:  • and the   affecting quinoa cultivars with  emphasis on expansion areas (Central  Altiplano, Northern Altiplano and  inter-Andean Valleys).  •   economic importance.   Materials and methods   This study was based primarily on visits  and sampling to 50 quinoa plots in  different production areas (10 to 12 plots  per area). Samples were taken of the different  diseases that appeared throughout crop  development, considering the weather  conditions at the time of sampling. This  work was carried out from November    2013 to April 2014, with a season  characterized by high precipitation.  Samples of seedlings and plants in various  stages of development, and of different  types of tissues (leaves, stem, roots and  grains) were collected. The samples were collected in plastic  bags and in a refrigerated container to  keep samples fresh, each one being  identified according to the collection site.  The samples were taken to PROINPA’s  laboratories in the shortest time possible,  and immediately processed using routine  techniques, ie direct microscope  observation of signs, humid chamber and  seeding in culture media (Potato Dextrose  Agar). Taxonomic keys developed based  on morphological characteristics of the  different kinds of fungi (Barnett, 1960),  were used to identify the structures.   Results and discussion   The presentation of results is made based  on the appearance of diseases in the crop,  according to the phenological stage at  which they arose: [ Diseases arising from emergence to   the appearance of 6-8 true leaves: At the beginning of the cultivation cycle  samples were taken from dead seedlings  in cotiledoneal phase (emergence); a  constriction at the neck of the plant  (Figure 1) was observed. With no  movement of nutrients and water to the  stem, there was a massive seedling death.  Digging the ground, in places where there  was no emergence of seeds, seedling  death was evident.  This symptom of strangulation was  diagnosed in the Central and Northern  Altiplano, and the inter-Andean valleys.  In the field it appears as an irregular  emergence (Figure 2), little perceived by  farmers, usually attributed to soil  problems, salinity or lack of moisture. The disease occurs in years of excessive  moisture, soils with high clay content,  fertilized with partially decomposed  manure and poor drainage. Once the  disease is present it remains in the soil  attached to the roots and stems of dead  plants, as conservation structures  (chlamydospores in the case of Fusarium  and sclerotia for Rhizoctonia).   Due to several factors that influence the  emergence, it is estimated that the death  of seedlings due to Rhizoctonia and/or  Fusarium, is of up to 10%. [ Diseases that occur in the   phenological phases of branching,  panicle formation, flowering, grain  formation and physiological maturity As the plants continued to develop, in the  branching phase (eight true leaves) and/or  panicle formation (inflorescence begins to  emerge from the apex of the plant), in  some areas of production and depending  on weather conditions; chlorotic spots  appeared on the leaves (Figure 3).  Depending on the variety these spots can  be red, orange, brown or black.   As the disease progresses, the undersides  of leaves present a grayish sporulation  (Figure 4), which corresponds to  Peronospora variabilis 1, causal agent of   the quinoa mildew. Depending on the  humidity, this disease can remain until  harvest. The yellowing of leaves reduces  the photosynthetic capacity and also  causes defoliation of the plants (Figure 5),  thus yields are reduced.   P. variabilis is a pathogen of easy  dispersion (wind and rain). During crop  development dissemination structures are  mainly spores, however at senescence or  absence of crop, the disease is spread by  oospores (sexual reproduction structures)  that may be adhered to the surface of the  grain or inside the stubble that remains in  the field. Therefore dissemination occurs,  at close range by means of spores, and at  long range through oospores. Mildew occurs in all agro-ecological  regions, with varying severity depending  on environmental conditions (high  relative humidity, above 80%). In the  Southern Highlands it only appears when  rainfall is intense and prolonged.  When  the rainy period stops automatically the  mycelium is dried and the disease  progression is interrupted. Varieties of  royal quinoa are susceptible to this  disease. The losses caused by mildew depend on  the phenological phase at which the plant  is attacked and the degree of resistance of  the variety. When susceptible varieties are  grown and favorable weather conditions  are given, especially high relative  humidity, the effects of mildew are  severe. If the attack occurs in early stages  of plant development, production can be  completely lost. In resistant varieties,  losses fluctuate between 20% and 40%  (Danielsen  et al. 2003). Therefore,   economic losses range from 2-5 quintals,  which depending on the price of quinoa  can be very significant. Consequently, for  the year 2014 losses could be equivalent  to 6,000 Bs/ha.   Coinciding with the appearance of  mildew in the panicle formation and  flowering stages, on the chlorotic spots, a  green sporulation was observed on the top  side of leafs (Figure 6). The causal agent  is Cladosporium sp. which depending on   humidity, can cover the entire surface of  the spots (Figure 7) and accelerate the  falling of leaves. Just like mildew this  disease can occur up to harvesting stage.  When there is excessive humidity the  pathogen spreads from the foliage to the  panicle, and it tends to turn it black  (Figure 8). Depending on the stage of the  filling phase, when the attack takes place,  the grains may even remain empty. If the  grains are already formed, they will be  slightly stained. When processing these  grains in the laboratory, it was observed  that  Cladosporium  conidia remain   attached to the surface of the grain, being    its mode of dissemination and survival for  the next planting season. Since this disease is strongly associated  with mildew, when damage occurs in the  panicle, economic losses due to the green  mold would produce at least a 5% loss in  addition to the losses caused by mildew. At the same time, during the development  of plants in places where there is poor  drainage or where water accumulates, a  symptom of wilting and yellowing occurs.   At the beginning wilting is only apical but  later it is widespread, it even causes the  death of plants. Going through the root system, lesions  sunk in the neck of the plant are observed,  similar to those found during the    emergence stage. Taking the full root  system from the soil, necrosis of the main  root and rootlets is observed (Figure 9).  If  winds occur during this condition, plants  fall (Figure 10). Due to excess moisture, the surface  portion (skin) of the root decomposes  quickly, exposing the underlying tissue to  attack by other pathogens. The diagnosis  of these samples shows that the symptom  corresponds to Fusarium  sp. Therefore,   this pathogen appears in pre and  post-emergence, and may manifest again  during crop development. The way to  recognize diseased plants is through their  weak development in comparison to  healthy plants.   This disease has been observed mainly in  areas close to Lake Titicaca (Northern  Altiplano) and to a lesser extent in the  Central Altiplano, in areas with heavy  soils and poor drainage. In the case of inter-Andean valleys,  similar symptoms are observed in adult  plants. Other plants with little  development simply show a pink color on  roots and rootlets (Figure 11). An analysis  of these roots shows that symptoms can  also be attributed to Fusarium sp.  During development, necrotic spots have  also been observed on the foliage.  These  are roughly circular or irregular in shape,  with beige centers and slightly brown  edges (Figure 12), inside which pycnidia  are present (black dots). The size of the  lesions ranges from 5 to 10 mm in  diameter. Work done in the laboratory  evidenced that the causal agent of this  disease is Ascochyta sp. and the common  name of the disease is "leaf spot".   When attacks are severe, intense  defoliation occurs, thus reducing  photosynthetic capacity; and if the panicle  is in formation, the quality of grains is  affected (brown color). Studies of the grains conducted in  laboratory show that the fungus produces  abundant pycnidiospores accompanied by  a mild to severe necrosis in roots and/or  hypocotyl. Severely affected seedlings  die. Therefore, the disease is transmitted  through seeds; pycnidia remain attached  to the surface of the grains and also stay in  the stubble. For a new disease cycle to occur in the  next season a temperature of 18 to 24 °C  and a relative humidity of 80% is  required, the pycnidia germinate and give  rise to pycnidiospores and the infection  initiates again.   The geographical distribution of this  disease is not exactly known and  apparently it is not of major economic  importance (Danielsen et al., 2003). Finally, at the stage of senescence, when  the stem is lignified, ogival shaped lesions  can be observed. These lesions are light  gray in the center with brown edges,  surrounded by an aura of glassy  appearance, inside which you may notice  small black spots (Figure 13) which  correspond to pycnidia of the fungus  Phoma sp. The size of these lesions ranges   from 2 to 3 cm. When conditions are  favorable (especially high relative  humidity) a number of spots can be seen in  a single stem (Figure 14). During severe  attacks these spots grow and reach each  other, covering the entire area of the stem. From season to season, the fungus  survives in the stubble that remains in the  field. This pathogen does not require  mechanical wounds to enter the plant, it  enters through natural openings. This disease has been observed in the  Central and Northern Altiplano, and in the  inter-Andean valleys, and basically its    occurrence depends on the presence of  inoculum and high relative humidity.  In general, in all production areas of  Bolivia plants from all stages of  development (from emergence until  harvest), with virus infection symptoms,  have been observed. The causal agents  have not been determined, yet what is  known is that quinoa is used as universal    plant (indicator plant) for the detection of  various viruses. The most frequent  symptoms observed in quinoa are:  yellowing, shortening of internodes  (rosetting), leathery leaves, etc. (Figure  15).   Conclusions   • most disease the   "quinoa mildew", caused by  Peronospora variabilis, followed by  "green mold" and "seedling death."  These three diseases occur in different  agro-ecological regions of Bolivia.  •   the symptoms have been observed in  the Central and Northern Altiplano and  inter-Andean valleys, without causing  significant economic losses.   • "Ogival appears   senescence, affecting the stems and  rachis of the panicle. It has no  incidence in reducing quinoa grain  yield.  •   "mildew", "green mold" and "seedling  death".  •   and "seedling death" can result in  losses of up to 50%.   Cited References    Barnett. H. 1960. Ilustrated genera of imperfect   fungi. 2 ed. Burgess Publishing Company.  225 p.  Danielsen, S., Bonifacio, A., Ames, T. 2003.   Diseases of Quinoa (Chenopodium  quinoa). Food Reviews International. 19(1  y 2): 43-59.  Choi, Y., Denchev, C., Shin, H. 2008.   Morphological and molecular analyses  support existence of hostspecific  Peronospora species infecting  Chenopodium. Mycopathology. No.  165:155-164.  Choi, Y., Danielsen, S., Lubeck, M., Hong, S.,   Delhey, R., Shin, H. 2010. Morphological    and molecular characterization of the  causal agent of downy mildew on quinoa  (Chenopodium quinoa). Mycopathology.   No. 169:403-412.  Gandarillas, A., Rojas, W., Bonifacio, A.,   Ojeda, N. 2014. La quinua en Bolivia:  Perspectiva de la Fundación PROINPA.  Chapter 5. In: Bazile Didier “Estado del  Arte de la Quinua en el Mundo”. FAO (in  press).  Tapia, M., Gandarillas, H., Alandia, S.,   Cardozo, A., Otazú, V., Ortiz, R., Rea, J.,  Salas, B., Zanabria, E., Mujica, A. 1979. La  Quinua y la Kañiwa: Cultivos Andinos.  IICA/CIID, Oficina Regional para América   Latina. Bogotá, Colombia. pp. 142-147.     Revista de Agricultura, Nro. 54 - Julio de 2014   Area: Current National Affairs 19   The most important diseases affecting   the quinoa crop in Bolivia   Giovanna Plata; Antonio Gandarillas    Work funded by: McKnight Foundation; DANIDA; PROINPA Foundation  E mail: g.plata@proinpa.org    Summary.  The objective of this study was to determine the diseases that affect quinoa in   Bolivia from germination to harvest, in the agro-ecological regions of the Central Altiplano,  Northern Altiplano, and the Inter-Andean Valleys. The most important disease in economic  terms is mildew, caused by Peronospora variabilis. The other diseases that have been detected  are of secondary importance, yet due to the expansion of areas and production systems, they  can turn into problems of primary importance. These problems correspond to the death of plants  (Rhizoctonia solani, Fusarium sp.) a disease that manifests itself during seedlings emergence;  if plants survive this problem it subsequently manifests itself as wilting and is called "Fusarium  wilt". During plant development the "green mold" (Cladosporium  sp.) appears, almost   simultaneous or subsequent to the appearance of mildew and the "leaf spot" (Ascochyta sp.).  At senescence, when tissue is lignified, the "ogival spot" (Phoma sp.) appears. At any stage of  development symptoms caused by viruses (yellowing, shortening of internodes, etc.) can  appear with a low incidence, less than 5%. Keywords: Mildew; Fusarium wilt; Viral Diseases; Phytopathology Resumen. Enfermedades más importantes que afectan al cultivo de la quinua en Bolivia.  El objetivo del presente estudio fue determinar las enfermedades que afectan al cultivo de  quinua en Bolivia, desde la germinación hasta la cosecha en las zonas agroecológicas del  Altiplano Centro, Altiplano Norte y Valles Interandinos. La enfermedad más importante a nivel  económico es el mildiu, ocasionada por Peronospora variabilis; las otras enfermedades que se  han detectado son de importancia secundaria, aunque por la ampliación de las zonas y los  sistemas de producción, pueden tornarse en problemas de importancia primaria. Estas  enfermedades corresponden a la muerte de plantas (Rhizoctonia solani, Fusarium sp.)  enfermedad que se presenta a la emergencia; si las plantas sobreviven a este problema  posteriormente se manifiesta como una marchitez y recibe el nombre de “fusariosis”. Durante  el desarrollo se presenta el “moho verde” (Cladosporium  sp.) casi simultánea o posterior al   mildiu y la “mancha foliar” (Ascochyta sp.). A la senescencia, cuando el tejido está lignificado,   aparece la “mancha ojival” (Phoma sp.). En cualquier fase de desarrollo también pueden  presentarse síntomas ocasionados por virosis (amarillamiento, acortamiento de entrenudos,  etc.) que presentan incidencia baja, menor al 5%. Palabras clave: Mildiu; Fusariosis; Virosis; Fitopatología  Introduction   The strong international demand for  quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) in  recent years, has led to a significant    increase in cultivated area in a very short  period of time (Gandarillas et al., 2014).  Commercial cultivation has expanded  from the traditional area of the Southern  Altiplano where Royal Quinoa is grown,    to new areas of "expansion" in the Central  and Northern Altiplano, and the  inter-Andean valleys. This situation has  led to face new problems, mainly due to  moisture. In the south, environmental  conditions are very dry, with an annual  average precipitation of 250 mm, while in  the Central and Northern Altiplano there  is an average precipitation of 500  mm/year, and in the valleys it reaches 800  mm/year. This article attempts to update  information on the incidence and  significance of the main fungal diseases  that affect quinoa, with emphasis on the  “expansion” areas, in the new context of  climate change, based on the publication  of Tapia et al., 1979.  The objectives of this work were:  • and the   affecting quinoa cultivars with  emphasis on expansion areas (Central  Altiplano, Northern Altiplano and  inter-Andean Valleys).  •   economic importance.   Materials and methods   This study was based primarily on visits  and sampling to 50 quinoa plots in  different production areas (10 to 12 plots  per area). Samples were taken of the different  diseases that appeared throughout crop  development, considering the weather  conditions at the time of sampling. This  work was carried out from November    2013 to April 2014, with a season  characterized by high precipitation.  Samples of seedlings and plants in various  stages of development, and of different  types of tissues (leaves, stem, roots and  grains) were collected. The samples were collected in plastic  bags and in a refrigerated container to  keep samples fresh, each one being  identified according to the collection site.  The samples were taken to PROINPA’s  laboratories in the shortest time possible,  and immediately processed using routine  techniques, ie direct microscope  observation of signs, humid chamber and  seeding in culture media (Potato Dextrose  Agar). Taxonomic keys developed based  on morphological characteristics of the  different kinds of fungi (Barnett, 1960),  were used to identify the structures.   Results and discussion   The presentation of results is made based  on the appearance of diseases in the crop,  according to the phenological stage at  which they arose: [ Diseases arising from emergence to   the appearance of 6-8 true leaves: At the beginning of the cultivation cycle  samples were taken from dead seedlings  in cotiledoneal phase (emergence); a  constriction at the neck of the plant  (Figure 1) was observed. With no  movement of nutrients and water to the  stem, there was a massive seedling death.  Digging the ground, in places where there  was no emergence of seeds, seedling  death was evident.  This symptom of strangulation was  diagnosed in the Central and Northern  Altiplano, and the inter-Andean valleys.  In the field it appears as an irregular  emergence (Figure 2), little perceived by  farmers, usually attributed to soil  problems, salinity or lack of moisture. The disease occurs in years of excessive  moisture, soils with high clay content,  fertilized with partially decomposed  manure and poor drainage. Once the  disease is present it remains in the soil  attached to the roots and stems of dead  plants, as conservation structures  (chlamydospores in the case of Fusarium  and sclerotia for Rhizoctonia).   Due to several factors that influence the  emergence, it is estimated that the death  of seedlings due to Rhizoctonia and/or  Fusarium, is of up to 10%. [ Diseases that occur in the   phenological phases of branching,  panicle formation, flowering, grain  formation and physiological maturity As the plants continued to develop, in the  branching phase (eight true leaves) and/or  panicle formation (inflorescence begins to  emerge from the apex of the plant), in  some areas of production and depending  on weather conditions; chlorotic spots  appeared on the leaves (Figure 3).  Depending on the variety these spots can  be red, orange, brown or black.   As the disease progresses, the undersides  of leaves present a grayish sporulation  (Figure 4), which corresponds to  Peronospora variabilis 1, causal agent of   the quinoa mildew. Depending on the  humidity, this disease can remain until  harvest. The yellowing of leaves reduces  the photosynthetic capacity and also  causes defoliation of the plants (Figure 5),  thus yields are reduced.   P. variabilis is a pathogen of easy  dispersion (wind and rain). During crop  development dissemination structures are  mainly spores, however at senescence or  absence of crop, the disease is spread by  oospores (sexual reproduction structures)  that may be adhered to the surface of the  grain or inside the stubble that remains in  the field. Therefore dissemination occurs,  at close range by means of spores, and at  long range through oospores. Mildew occurs in all agro-ecological  regions, with varying severity depending  on environmental conditions (high  relative humidity, above 80%). In the  Southern Highlands it only appears when  rainfall is intense and prolonged.  When  the rainy period stops automatically the  mycelium is dried and the disease  progression is interrupted. Varieties of  royal quinoa are susceptible to this  disease. The losses caused by mildew depend on  the phenological phase at which the plant  is attacked and the degree of resistance of  the variety. When susceptible varieties are  grown and favorable weather conditions  are given, especially high relative  humidity, the effects of mildew are  severe. If the attack occurs in early stages  of plant development, production can be  completely lost. In resistant varieties,  losses fluctuate between 20% and 40%  (Danielsen  et al. 2003). Therefore,   economic losses range from 2-5 quintals,  which depending on the price of quinoa  can be very significant. Consequently, for  the year 2014 losses could be equivalent  to 6,000 Bs/ha.   Coinciding with the appearance of  mildew in the panicle formation and  flowering stages, on the chlorotic spots, a  green sporulation was observed on the top  side of leafs (Figure 6). The causal agent  is Cladosporium sp. which depending on   humidity, can cover the entire surface of  the spots (Figure 7) and accelerate the  falling of leaves. Just like mildew this  disease can occur up to harvesting stage.  When there is excessive humidity the  pathogen spreads from the foliage to the  panicle, and it tends to turn it black  (Figure 8). Depending on the stage of the  filling phase, when the attack takes place,  the grains may even remain empty. If the  grains are already formed, they will be  slightly stained. When processing these  grains in the laboratory, it was observed  that  Cladosporium  conidia remain   attached to the surface of the grain, being    its mode of dissemination and survival for  the next planting season. Since this disease is strongly associated  with mildew, when damage occurs in the  panicle, economic losses due to the green  mold would produce at least a 5% loss in  addition to the losses caused by mildew. At the same time, during the development  of plants in places where there is poor  drainage or where water accumulates, a  symptom of wilting and yellowing occurs.   At the beginning wilting is only apical but  later it is widespread, it even causes the  death of plants. Going through the root system, lesions  sunk in the neck of the plant are observed,  similar to those found during the    emergence stage. Taking the full root  system from the soil, necrosis of the main  root and rootlets is observed (Figure 9).  If  winds occur during this condition, plants  fall (Figure 10). Due to excess moisture, the surface  portion (skin) of the root decomposes  quickly, exposing the underlying tissue to  attack by other pathogens. The diagnosis  of these samples shows that the symptom  corresponds to Fusarium  sp. Therefore,   this pathogen appears in pre and  post-emergence, and may manifest again  during crop development. The way to  recognize diseased plants is through their  weak development in comparison to  healthy plants.   This disease has been observed mainly in  areas close to Lake Titicaca (Northern  Altiplano) and to a lesser extent in the  Central Altiplano, in areas with heavy  soils and poor drainage. In the case of inter-Andean valleys,  similar symptoms are observed in adult  plants. Other plants with little  development simply show a pink color on  roots and rootlets (Figure 11). An analysis  of these roots shows that symptoms can  also be attributed to Fusarium sp.  During development, necrotic spots have  also been observed on the foliage.  These  are roughly circular or irregular in shape,  with beige centers and slightly brown  edges (Figure 12), inside which pycnidia  are present (black dots). The size of the  lesions ranges from 5 to 10 mm in  diameter. Work done in the laboratory  evidenced that the causal agent of this  disease is Ascochyta sp. and the common  name of the disease is "leaf spot".   When attacks are severe, intense  defoliation occurs, thus reducing  photosynthetic capacity; and if the panicle  is in formation, the quality of grains is  affected (brown color). Studies of the grains conducted in  laboratory show that the fungus produces  abundant pycnidiospores accompanied by  a mild to severe necrosis in roots and/or  hypocotyl. Severely affected seedlings  die. Therefore, the disease is transmitted  through seeds; pycnidia remain attached  to the surface of the grains and also stay in  the stubble. For a new disease cycle to occur in the  next season a temperature of 18 to 24 °C  and a relative humidity of 80% is  required, the pycnidia germinate and give  rise to pycnidiospores and the infection  initiates again.   The geographical distribution of this  disease is not exactly known and  apparently it is not of major economic  importance (Danielsen et al., 2003). Finally, at the stage of senescence, when  the stem is lignified, ogival shaped lesions  can be observed. These lesions are light  gray in the center with brown edges,  surrounded by an aura of glassy  appearance, inside which you may notice  small black spots (Figure 13) which  correspond to pycnidia of the fungus  Phoma sp. The size of these lesions ranges   from 2 to 3 cm. When conditions are  favorable (especially high relative  humidity) a number of spots can be seen in  a single stem (Figure 14). During severe  attacks these spots grow and reach each  other, covering the entire area of the stem. From season to season, the fungus  survives in the stubble that remains in the  field. This pathogen does not require  mechanical wounds to enter the plant, it  enters through natural openings. This disease has been observed in the  Central and Northern Altiplano, and in the  inter-Andean valleys, and basically its    occurrence depends on the presence of  inoculum and high relative humidity.  In general, in all production areas of  Bolivia plants from all stages of  development (from emergence until  harvest), with virus infection symptoms,  have been observed. The causal agents  have not been determined, yet what is  known is that quinoa is used as universal    plant (indicator plant) for the detection of  various viruses. The most frequent  symptoms observed in quinoa are:  yellowing, shortening of internodes  (rosetting), leathery leaves, etc. (Figure  15).   Conclusions   • most disease the   "quinoa mildew", caused by  Peronospora variabilis, followed by  "green mold" and "seedling death."  These three diseases occur in different  agro-ecological regions of Bolivia.  •   the symptoms have been observed in  the Central and Northern Altiplano and  inter-Andean valleys, without causing  significant economic losses.   • "Ogival appears   senescence, affecting the stems and  rachis of the panicle. It has no  incidence in reducing quinoa grain  yield.  •   "mildew", "green mold" and "seedling  death".  •   and "seedling death" can result in  losses of up to 50%.   Cited References    Barnett. H. 1960. Ilustrated genera of imperfect   fungi. 2 ed. Burgess Publishing Company.  225 p.  Danielsen, S., Bonifacio, A., Ames, T. 2003.   Diseases of Quinoa (Chenopodium  quinoa). Food Reviews International. 19(1  y 2): 43-59.  Choi, Y., Denchev, C., Shin, H. 2008.   Morphological and molecular analyses  support existence of hostspecific  Peronospora species infecting  Chenopodium. Mycopathology. No.  165:155-164.  Choi, Y., Danielsen, S., Lubeck, M., Hong, S.,   Delhey, R., Shin, H. 2010. Morphological    and molecular characterization of the  causal agent of downy mildew on quinoa  (Chenopodium quinoa). Mycopathology.   No. 169:403-412.  Gandarillas, A., Rojas, W., Bonifacio, A.,   Ojeda, N. 2014. La quinua en Bolivia:  Perspectiva de la Fundación PROINPA.  Chapter 5. In: Bazile Didier “Estado del  Arte de la Quinua en el Mundo”. FAO (in  press).  Tapia, M., Gandarillas, H., Alandia, S.,   Cardozo, A., Otazú, V., Ortiz, R., Rea, J.,  Salas, B., Zanabria, E., Mujica, A. 1979. La  Quinua y la Kañiwa: Cultivos Andinos.  IICA/CIID, Oficina Regional para América  Latina. Bogotá, Colombia. pp. 142-147.     ISSN 1998 - 9652   Area: Current National Affairs 20   Introduction   The strong international demand for  quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) in  recent years, has led to a significant    increase in cultivated area in a very short  period of time (Gandarillas et al., 2014).  Commercial cultivation has expanded  from the traditional area of the Southern  Altiplano where Royal Quinoa is grown,    to new areas of "expansion" in the Central  and Northern Altiplano, and the  inter-Andean valleys. This situation has  led to face new problems, mainly due to  moisture. In the south, environmental  conditions are very dry, with an annual  average precipitation of 250 mm, while in  the Central and Northern Altiplano there  is an average precipitation of 500  mm/year, and in the valleys it reaches 800  mm/year. This article attempts to update  information on the incidence and  significance of the main fungal diseases  that affect quinoa, with emphasis on the  “expansion” areas, in the new context of  climate change, based on the publication  of Tapia et al., 1979.  The objectives of this work were:  • and the   affecting quinoa cultivars with  emphasis on expansion areas (Central  Altiplano, Northern Altiplano and  inter-Andean Valleys).  •   economic importance.   Materials and methods   This study was based primarily on visits  and sampling to 50 quinoa plots in  different production areas (10 to 12 plots  per area). Samples were taken of the different  diseases that appeared throughout crop  development, considering the weather  conditions at the time of sampling. This  work was carried out from November    2013 to April 2014, with a season  characterized by high precipitation.  Samples of seedlings and plants in various  stages of development, and of different  types of tissues (leaves, stem, roots and  grains) were collected. The samples were collected in plastic  bags and in a refrigerated container to  keep samples fresh, each one being  identified according to the collection site.  The samples were taken to PROINPA’s  laboratories in the shortest time possible,  and immediately processed using routine  techniques, ie direct microscope  observation of signs, humid chamber and  seeding in culture media (Potato Dextrose  Agar). Taxonomic keys developed based  on morphological characteristics of the  different kinds of fungi (Barnett, 1960),  were used to identify the structures.   Results and discussion   The presentation of results is made based  on the appearance of diseases in the crop,  according to the phenological stage at  which they arose: [ Diseases arising from emergence to   the appearance of 6-8 true leaves: At the beginning of the cultivation cycle  samples were taken from dead seedlings  in cotiledoneal phase (emergence); a  constriction at the neck of the plant  (Figure 1) was observed. With no  movement of nutrients and water to the  stem, there was a massive seedling death.  Digging the ground, in places where there  was no emergence of seeds, seedling  death was evident.   This symptom of strangulation was  diagnosed in the Central and Northern  Altiplano, and the inter-Andean valleys.  In the field it appears as an irregular  emergence (Figure 2), little perceived by  farmers, usually attributed to soil  problems, salinity or lack of moisture. The disease occurs in years of excessive  moisture, soils with high clay content,  fertilized with partially decomposed  manure and poor drainage. Once the  disease is present it remains in the soil  attached to the roots and stems of dead  plants, as conservation structures  (chlamydospores in the case of Fusarium  and sclerotia for Rhizoctonia).   Due to several factors that influence the  emergence, it is estimated that the death  of seedlings due to Rhizoctonia and/or  Fusarium, is of up to 10%. [ Diseases that occur in the   phenological phases of branching,  panicle formation, flowering, grain  formation and physiological maturity As the plants continued to develop, in the  branching phase (eight true leaves) and/or  panicle formation (inflorescence begins to  emerge from the apex of the plant), in  some areas of production and depending  on weather conditions; chlorotic spots  appeared on the leaves (Figure 3).  Depending on the variety these spots can  be red, orange, brown or black.   As the disease progresses, the undersides  of leaves present a grayish sporulation  (Figure 4), which corresponds to  Peronospora variabilis 1, causal agent of   the quinoa mildew. Depending on the  humidity, this disease can remain until  harvest. The yellowing of leaves reduces  the photosynthetic capacity and also  causes defoliation of the plants (Figure 5),  thus yields are reduced.   P. variabilis is a pathogen of easy  dispersion (wind and rain). During crop  development dissemination structures are  mainly spores, however at senescence or  absence of crop, the disease is spread by  oospores (sexual reproduction structures)  that may be adhered to the surface of the  grain or inside the stubble that remains in  the field. Therefore dissemination occurs,  at close range by means of spores, and at  long range through oospores. Mildew occurs in all agro-ecological  regions, with varying severity depending  on environmental conditions (high  relative humidity, above 80%). In the  Southern Highlands it only appears when  rainfall is intense and prolonged.  When  the rainy period stops automatically the  mycelium is dried and the disease  progression is interrupted. Varieties of  royal quinoa are susceptible to this  disease. The losses caused by mildew depend on  the phenological phase at which the plant  is attacked and the degree of resistance of  the variety. When susceptible varieties are  grown and favorable weather conditions  are given, especially high relative  humidity, the effects of mildew are  severe. If the attack occurs in early stages  of plant development, production can be  completely lost. In resistant varieties,  losses fluctuate between 20% and 40%  (Danielsen  et al. 2003). Therefore,   economic losses range from 2-5 quintals,  which depending on the price of quinoa  can be very significant. Consequently, for  the year 2014 losses could be equivalent  to 6,000 Bs/ha.   Coinciding with the appearance of  mildew in the panicle formation and  flowering stages, on the chlorotic spots, a  green sporulation was observed on the top  side of leafs (Figure 6). The causal agent  is Cladosporium sp. which depending on   humidity, can cover the entire surface of  the spots (Figure 7) and accelerate the  falling of leaves. Just like mildew this  disease can occur up to harvesting stage.  When there is excessive humidity the  pathogen spreads from the foliage to the  panicle, and it tends to turn it black  (Figure 8). Depending on the stage of the  filling phase, when the attack takes place,  the grains may even remain empty. If the  grains are already formed, they will be  slightly stained. When processing these  grains in the laboratory, it was observed  that  Cladosporium  conidia remain   attached to the surface of the grain, being    its mode of dissemination and survival for  the next planting season. Since this disease is strongly associated  with mildew, when damage occurs in the  panicle, economic losses due to the green  mold would produce at least a 5% loss in  addition to the losses caused by mildew. At the same time, during the development  of plants in places where there is poor  drainage or where water accumulates, a  symptom of wilting and yellowing occurs.   At the beginning wilting is only apical but  later it is widespread, it even causes the  death of plants. Going through the root system, lesions  sunk in the neck of the plant are observed,  similar to those found during the    emergence stage. Taking the full root  system from the soil, necrosis of the main  root and rootlets is observed (Figure 9).  If  winds occur during this condition, plants  fall (Figure 10). Due to excess moisture, the surface  portion (skin) of the root decomposes  quickly, exposing the underlying tissue to  attack by other pathogens. The diagnosis  of these samples shows that the symptom  corresponds to Fusarium  sp. Therefore,   this pathogen appears in pre and  post-emergence, and may manifest again  during crop development. The way to  recognize diseased plants is through their  weak development in comparison to  healthy plants.   This disease has been observed mainly in  areas close to Lake Titicaca (Northern  Altiplano) and to a lesser extent in the  Central Altiplano, in areas with heavy  soils and poor drainage. In the case of inter-Andean valleys,  similar symptoms are observed in adult  plants. Other plants with little  development simply show a pink color on  roots and rootlets (Figure 11). An analysis  of these roots shows that symptoms can  also be attributed to Fusarium sp.  During development, necrotic spots have  also been observed on the foliage.  These  are roughly circular or irregular in shape,  with beige centers and slightly brown  edges (Figure 12), inside which pycnidia  are present (black dots). The size of the  lesions ranges from 5 to 10 mm in  diameter. Work done in the laboratory  evidenced that the causal agent of this  disease is Ascochyta sp. and the common  name of the disease is "leaf spot".   When attacks are severe, intense  defoliation occurs, thus reducing  photosynthetic capacity; and if the panicle  is in formation, the quality of grains is  affected (brown color). Studies of the grains conducted in  laboratory show that the fungus produces  abundant pycnidiospores accompanied by  a mild to severe necrosis in roots and/or  hypocotyl. Severely affected seedlings  die. Therefore, the disease is transmitted  through seeds; pycnidia remain attached  to the surface of the grains and also stay in  the stubble. For a new disease cycle to occur in the  next season a temperature of 18 to 24 °C  and a relative humidity of 80% is  required, the pycnidia germinate and give  rise to pycnidiospores and the infection  initiates again.   The geographical distribution of this  disease is not exactly known and  apparently it is not of major economic  importance (Danielsen et al., 2003). Finally, at the stage of senescence, when  the stem is lignified, ogival shaped lesions  can be observed. These lesions are light  gray in the center with brown edges,  surrounded by an aura of glassy  appearance, inside which you may notice  small black spots (Figure 13) which  correspond to pycnidia of the fungus  Phoma sp. The size of these lesions ranges   from 2 to 3 cm. When conditions are  favorable (especially high relative  humidity) a number of spots can be seen in  a single stem (Figure 14). During severe  attacks these spots grow and reach each  other, covering the entire area of the stem. From season to season, the fungus  survives in the stubble that remains in the  field. This pathogen does not require  mechanical wounds to enter the plant, it  enters through natural openings. This disease has been observed in the  Central and Northern Altiplano, and in the  inter-Andean valleys, and basically its    occurrence depends on the presence of  inoculum and high relative humidity.  In general, in all production areas of  Bolivia plants from all stages of  development (from emergence until  harvest), with virus infection symptoms,  have been observed. The causal agents  have not been determined, yet what is  known is that quinoa is used as universal    plant (indicator plant) for the detection of  various viruses. The most frequent  symptoms observed in quinoa are:  yellowing, shortening of internodes  (rosetting), leathery leaves, etc. (Figure  15).   Conclusions   • most disease the   "quinoa mildew", caused by  Peronospora variabilis, followed by  "green mold" and "seedling death."  These three diseases occur in different  agro-ecological regions of Bolivia.  •   the symptoms have been observed in  the Central and Northern Altiplano and  inter-Andean valleys, without causing  significant economic losses.   • "Ogival appears   senescence, affecting the stems and  rachis of the panicle. It has no  incidence in reducing quinoa grain  yield.  •   "mildew", "green mold" and "seedling  death".  •   and "seedling death" can result in  losses of up to 50%.   Cited References    Barnett. H. 1960. Ilustrated genera of imperfect   fungi. 2 ed. Burgess Publishing Company.  225 p.  Danielsen, S., Bonifacio, A., Ames, T. 2003.   Diseases of Quinoa (Chenopodium  quinoa). Food Reviews International. 19(1  y 2): 43-59.  Choi, Y., Denchev, C., Shin, H. 2008.   Morphological and molecular analyses  support existence of hostspecific  Peronospora species infecting  Chenopodium. Mycopathology. No.  165:155-164.  Choi, Y., Danielsen, S., Lubeck, M., Hong, S.,   Delhey, R., Shin, H. 2010. Morphological    and molecular characterization of the  causal agent of downy mildew on quinoa  (Chenopodium quinoa). Mycopathology.   No. 169:403-412.  Gandarillas, A., Rojas, W., Bonifacio, A.,   Ojeda, N. 2014. La quinua en Bolivia:  Perspectiva de la Fundación PROINPA.  Chapter 5. In: Bazile Didier “Estado del  Arte de la Quinua en el Mundo”. FAO (in  press).  Tapia, M., Gandarillas, H., Alandia, S.,   Cardozo, A., Otazú, V., Ortiz, R., Rea, J.,  Salas, B., Zanabria, E., Mujica, A. 1979. La  Quinua y la Kañiwa: Cultivos Andinos.  IICA/CIID, Oficina Regional para América  Latina. Bogotá, Colombia. pp. 142-147.     Revista de Agricultura, Nro. 54 - Julio de 2014   Area: Current National Affairs 21   .  Figure 3. Plants with chlorotic  spots (top) and red spots (below)  caused by Peronospora variabilis   Introduction   The strong international demand for  quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) in  recent years, has led to a significant    increase in cultivated area in a very short  period of time (Gandarillas et al., 2014).  Commercial cultivation has expanded  from the traditional area of the Southern  Altiplano where Royal Quinoa is grown,    to new areas of "expansion" in the Central  and Northern Altiplano, and the  inter-Andean valleys. This situation has  led to face new problems, mainly due to  moisture. In the south, environmental  conditions are very dry, with an annual  average precipitation of 250 mm, while in  the Central and Northern Altiplano there  is an average precipitation of 500  mm/year, and in the valleys it reaches 800  mm/year. This article attempts to update  information on the incidence and  significance of the main fungal diseases  that affect quinoa, with emphasis on the  “expansion” areas, in the new context of  climate change, based on the publication  of Tapia et al., 1979.  The objectives of this work were:  • and the   affecting quinoa cultivars with  emphasis on expansion areas (Central  Altiplano, Northern Altiplano and  inter-Andean Valleys).  •   economic importance.   Materials and methods   This study was based primarily on visits  and sampling to 50 quinoa plots in  different production areas (10 to 12 plots  per area). Samples were taken of the different  diseases that appeared throughout crop  development, considering the weather  conditions at the time of sampling. This  work was carried out from November    2013 to April 2014, with a season  characterized by high precipitation.  Samples of seedlings and plants in various  stages of development, and of different  types of tissues (leaves, stem, roots and  grains) were collected. The samples were collected in plastic  bags and in a refrigerated container to  keep samples fresh, each one being  identified according to the collection site.  The samples were taken to PROINPA’s  laboratories in the shortest time possible,  and immediately processed using routine  techniques, ie direct microscope  observation of signs, humid chamber and  seeding in culture media (Potato Dextrose  Agar). Taxonomic keys developed based  on morphological characteristics of the  different kinds of fungi (Barnett, 1960),  were used to identify the structures.   Results and discussion   The presentation of results is made based  on the appearance of diseases in the crop,  according to the phenological stage at  which they arose: [ Diseases arising from emergence to   the appearance of 6-8 true leaves: At the beginning of the cultivation cycle  samples were taken from dead seedlings  in cotiledoneal phase (emergence); a  constriction at the neck of the plant  (Figure 1) was observed. With no  movement of nutrients and water to the  stem, there was a massive seedling death.  Digging the ground, in places where there  was no emergence of seeds, seedling  death was evident.   This symptom of strangulation was  diagnosed in the Central and Northern  Altiplano, and the inter-Andean valleys.  In the field it appears as an irregular  emergence (Figure 2), little perceived by  farmers, usually attributed to soil  problems, salinity or lack of moisture. The disease occurs in years of excessive  moisture, soils with high clay content,  fertilized with partially decomposed  manure and poor drainage. Once the  disease is present it remains in the soil  attached to the roots and stems of dead  plants, as conservation structures  (chlamydospores in the case of Fusarium  and sclerotia for Rhizoctonia).   Figure 1. Quinoa seedlings   with neck constriction at ground level  Figure 2. Plot of quinoa with  low plant emergence   Due to several factors that influence the  emergence, it is estimated that the death  of seedlings due to Rhizoctonia and/or  Fusarium, is of up to 10%. [ Diseases that occur in the   phenological phases of branching,  panicle formation, flowering, grain  formation and physiological maturity As the plants continued to develop, in the  branching phase (eight true leaves) and/or  panicle formation (inflorescence begins to  emerge from the apex of the plant), in  some areas of production and depending  on weather conditions; chlorotic spots  appeared on the leaves (Figure 3).  Depending on the variety these spots can  be red, orange, brown or black.   As the disease progresses, the undersides  of leaves present a grayish sporulation  (Figure 4), which corresponds to  Peronospora variabilis 1, causal agent of   the quinoa mildew. Depending on the  humidity, this disease can remain until  harvest. The yellowing of leaves reduces  the photosynthetic capacity and also  causes defoliation of the plants (Figure 5),  thus yields are reduced.   P. variabilis is a pathogen of easy  dispersion (wind and rain). During crop  development dissemination structures are  mainly spores, however at senescence or  absence of crop, the disease is spread by  oospores (sexual reproduction structures)  that may be adhered to the surface of the  grain or inside the stubble that remains in  the field. Therefore dissemination occurs,  at close range by means of spores, and at  long range through oospores. Mildew occurs in all agro-ecological  regions, with varying severity depending  on environmental conditions (high  relative humidity, above 80%). In the  Southern Highlands it only appears when  rainfall is intense and prolonged.  When  the rainy period stops automatically the  mycelium is dried and the disease  progression is interrupted. Varieties of  royal quinoa are susceptible to this  disease. The losses caused by mildew depend on  the phenological phase at which the plant  is attacked and the degree of resistance of  the variety. When susceptible varieties are  grown and favorable weather conditions  are given, especially high relative  humidity, the effects of mildew are  severe. If the attack occurs in early stages  of plant development, production can be  completely lost. In resistant varieties,  losses fluctuate between 20% and 40%  (Danielsen  et al. 2003). Therefore,   economic losses range from 2-5 quintals,  which depending on the price of quinoa  can be very significant. Consequently, for  the year 2014 losses could be equivalent  to 6,000 Bs/ha.   Coinciding with the appearance of  mildew in the panicle formation and  flowering stages, on the chlorotic spots, a  green sporulation was observed on the top  side of leafs (Figure 6). The causal agent  is Cladosporium sp. which depending on   humidity, can cover the entire surface of  the spots (Figure 7) and accelerate the  falling of leaves. Just like mildew this  disease can occur up to harvesting stage.  When there is excessive humidity the  pathogen spreads from the foliage to the  panicle, and it tends to turn it black  (Figure 8). Depending on the stage of the  filling phase, when the attack takes place,  the grains may even remain empty. If the  grains are already formed, they will be  slightly stained. When processing these  grains in the laboratory, it was observed  that  Cladosporium  conidia remain   attached to the surface of the grain, being    its mode of dissemination and survival for  the next planting season. Since this disease is strongly associated  with mildew, when damage occurs in the  panicle, economic losses due to the green  mold would produce at least a 5% loss in  addition to the losses caused by mildew. At the same time, during the development  of plants in places where there is poor  drainage or where water accumulates, a  symptom of wilting and yellowing occurs.   At the beginning wilting is only apical but  later it is widespread, it even causes the  death of plants. Going through the root system, lesions  sunk in the neck of the plant are observed,  similar to those found during the    emergence stage. Taking the full root  system from the soil, necrosis of the main  root and rootlets is observed (Figure 9).  If  winds occur during this condition, plants  fall (Figure 10). Due to excess moisture, the surface  portion (skin) of the root decomposes  quickly, exposing the underlying tissue to  attack by other pathogens. The diagnosis  of these samples shows that the symptom  corresponds to Fusarium  sp. Therefore,   this pathogen appears in pre and  post-emergence, and may manifest again  during crop development. The way to  recognize diseased plants is through their  weak development in comparison to  healthy plants.   This disease has been observed mainly in  areas close to Lake Titicaca (Northern  Altiplano) and to a lesser extent in the  Central Altiplano, in areas with heavy  soils and poor drainage. In the case of inter-Andean valleys,  similar symptoms are observed in adult  plants. Other plants with little  development simply show a pink color on  roots and rootlets (Figure 11). An analysis  of these roots shows that symptoms can  also be attributed to Fusarium sp.  During development, necrotic spots have  also been observed on the foliage.  These  are roughly circular or irregular in shape,  with beige centers and slightly brown  edges (Figure 12), inside which pycnidia  are present (black dots). The size of the  lesions ranges from 5 to 10 mm in  diameter. Work done in the laboratory  evidenced that the causal agent of this  disease is Ascochyta sp. and the common  name of the disease is "leaf spot".   When attacks are severe, intense  defoliation occurs, thus reducing  photosynthetic capacity; and if the panicle  is in formation, the quality of grains is  affected (brown color). Studies of the grains conducted in  laboratory show that the fungus produces  abundant pycnidiospores accompanied by  a mild to severe necrosis in roots and/or  hypocotyl. Severely affected seedlings  die. Therefore, the disease is transmitted  through seeds; pycnidia remain attached  to the surface of the grains and also stay in  the stubble. For a new disease cycle to occur in the  next season a temperature of 18 to 24 °C  and a relative humidity of 80% is  required, the pycnidia germinate and give  rise to pycnidiospores and the infection  initiates again.   The geographical distribution of this  disease is not exactly known and  apparently it is not of major economic  importance (Danielsen et al., 2003). Finally, at the stage of senescence, when  the stem is lignified, ogival shaped lesions  can be observed. These lesions are light  gray in the center with brown edges,  surrounded by an aura of glassy  appearance, inside which you may notice  small black spots (Figure 13) which  correspond to pycnidia of the fungus  Phoma sp. The size of these lesions ranges   from 2 to 3 cm. When conditions are  favorable (especially high relative  humidity) a number of spots can be seen in  a single stem (Figure 14). During severe  attacks these spots grow and reach each  other, covering the entire area of the stem. From season to season, the fungus  survives in the stubble that remains in the  field. This pathogen does not require  mechanical wounds to enter the plant, it  enters through natural openings. This disease has been observed in the  Central and Northern Altiplano, and in the  inter-Andean valleys, and basically its    occurrence depends on the presence of  inoculum and high relative humidity.  In general, in all production areas of  Bolivia plants from all stages of  development (from emergence until  harvest), with virus infection symptoms,  have been observed. The causal agents  have not been determined, yet what is  known is that quinoa is used as universal    plant (indicator plant) for the detection of  various viruses. The most frequent  symptoms observed in quinoa are:  yellowing, shortening of internodes  (rosetting), leathery leaves, etc. (Figure  15).   Conclusions   • most disease the   "quinoa mildew", caused by  Peronospora variabilis, followed by  "green mold" and "seedling death."  These three diseases occur in different  agro-ecological regions of Bolivia.  •   the symptoms have been observed in  the Central and Northern Altiplano and  inter-Andean valleys, without causing  significant economic losses.   • "Ogival appears   senescence, affecting the stems and  rachis of the panicle. It has no  incidence in reducing quinoa grain  yield.  •   "mildew", "green mold" and "seedling  death".  •   and "seedling death" can result in  losses of up to 50%.   Cited References    Barnett. H. 1960. Ilustrated genera of imperfect   fungi. 2 ed. Burgess Publishing Company.  225 p.  Danielsen, S., Bonifacio, A., Ames, T. 2003.   Diseases of Quinoa (Chenopodium  quinoa). Food Reviews International. 19(1  y 2): 43-59.  Choi, Y., Denchev, C., Shin, H. 2008.   Morphological and molecular analyses  support existence of hostspecific  Peronospora species infecting  Chenopodium. Mycopathology. No.  165:155-164.  Choi, Y., Danielsen, S., Lubeck, M., Hong, S.,   Delhey, R., Shin, H. 2010. Morphological    and molecular characterization of the  causal agent of downy mildew on quinoa  (Chenopodium quinoa). Mycopathology.   No. 169:403-412.  Gandarillas, A., Rojas, W., Bonifacio, A.,   Ojeda, N. 2014. La quinua en Bolivia:  Perspectiva de la Fundación PROINPA.  Chapter 5. In: Bazile Didier “Estado del  Arte de la Quinua en el Mundo”. FAO (in  press).  Tapia, M., Gandarillas, H., Alandia, S.,   Cardozo, A., Otazú, V., Ortiz, R., Rea, J.,  Salas, B., Zanabria, E., Mujica, A. 1979. La  Quinua y la Kañiwa: Cultivos Andinos.  IICA/CIID, Oficina Regional para América  Latina. Bogotá, Colombia. pp. 142-147.   Introduction   Quinoa has evolved in the Andes. It was  domesticated by men and women from  civilizations like the Tiwanaku and the  Inca. Until the early eighties, the Andean  people cultivated quinoa due to their  advantages in adaptation to altitudes  between 2800 to 4000 m.a.s.l., and  semi-arid climates, and for its nutritional  benefits. The main product of the quinoa plant is  the grain, highly appreciated for the  preparation of traditional dishes in a way    somewhat similar to rice.  The leaves can  also be eaten fresh and, by products from  harvesting and threshing are destined for  animal feed (llamas). Quinoa comprises a wide diversity of  native varieties adapted to specific areas  of the Central, Northern and Southern  Altiplano, and valleys. In the highlands,  quinoa is the main food crop for the  inhabitants of this area. In the Southern  Altiplano, quinoa is the only crop that  thrives acceptably, this is why researchers  describe the production system as a  quinoa monoculture.   With the discovery of its nutritional  properties and its promotion, quinoa has  become an important export product and  an important source of income generation. Currently, quinoa is a product with high  demand in the market, with encouraging  prices for producers, processors and  traders, creating an important economic  activity for the country. The demand and high prices of quinoa  have stimulated the expansion of acreage,  covering new areas of production. This  expansion involves changes in the  production process and new technological  needs on several fronts: management of  pests and diseases, plant nutrition, seed  varieties and agronomic management. Climate change, in turn, has led to  changes in rainfall and new technological  demands, such as earlier varieties. On the  other hand the market demands various  colors of quinoa and more suitable  varieties for industrial processing. In this context, PROINPA has undertaken  the development of a new generation of  varieties focused on the following  priorities: • large varieties the   Southern Altiplano, necessary for late  planting, for re planting in case of  drought losses or seedlings buried by  strong winds, and for their shorter time  to harvest.  • large varieties   mildew resistance for the Central  Altiplano.  • resistant for   Northern Altiplano and valleys.   • (with and   (saponin free) varieties for specific  market demands and, for local and  family consumption of quinoa.  These  varieties have the advantage of  facilitating grain processing.  • for (flour   flakes) and for nutritional objectives  (nutraceuticals).  • all varieties for   mechanical harvesting are also sought,  mainly due to their drive towards  competitive, sustainable and resilient  production in the occurrence of  adverse climate change phenomena.   Results and discussion   With the application of classical breeding  methods, a number of varieties with  common and differential characteristics  have been generated. Common characteristics relate to  performance, size and color of grain. The  differential characteristics refer to  adaptation to different agro-ecological  zones, earliness, resistance to mildew,  bitter or sweet quinoa, industrial quality  among others. Large grain varieties are directed to the  use of quinoa in ways similar to rice  (pearled quinoa), ie. for cooking in soups  and boiled grain.   For this purposes grain  may be preferably white, but also red and  black in color. Most ecotypes of Royal  Quinoa are suitable for pearled quinoa  (Bonifacio et al., 2012). The research on  industrial quality of these varieties is in  progress.  Adapting varieties implies an analysis of  options in terms of producing them in  different ecoregions such as the Southern,  Central, and Northern Altiplano, Valleys  and Sub Tropics. The precocity is a character that enables  the management of adverse environmental  factors through the following  mechanisms:  1) avoid frost through a shorter   production cycle.  2) possibility of delayed planting   caused by lack of moisture in the  planting season.  3)  prevent losses and enable replanting   in case of: seedlings buried by winds  in sandy soils, clay soils crusting,  seedling loss by frost or drought.  Mildew resistance is a key component to  produce organic quinoa in areas outside  the Southern Altiplano. Quinoa is  susceptible to disease under conditions of  high relative humidity and soil moisture  (Bonifacio, 2006) and susceptible   varieties (Utusaya) can register a severity  of 100% (Danielsen and Ames, 2000).  Therefore resistance to mildew is essential  to produce quinoa in areas of high relative  humidity, to reduce the use of fungicides  for disease control, reduce production  costs and promote grain filling. The bitter and sweet varieties have not  received differentiation until now.  Bitter  quinoa is produced, processed and sold in  greater proportion. However, given the  volumes of water that are used (not  recycled) to remove the saponin, the  difficulties of eliminating foamy water  and, the increased energy expenditure    (scarifying, washing and drying); the  interest in sweet quinoa is reemerging. This sweet quinoa, although it has its  limitations due to the preferences of a  couple of bird species, requires less time  for scarifying and/or washing; therefore it  produces less loses during processing.  It  does not generate foamy water and  pearled grain does not have the strong,  pungent odor that bitter varieties have.  Due to these qualities of sweet quinoa, it  becomes an alternative for production  areas in the Central and Northern  Altiplano, as well as for lines of grain  processing and transformation. Therefore  sweet varieties generated three decades  ago are currently subject of differentiated  demand.  Industrial quality refers to the physical  and chemical properties of specific grain  varieties. In that sense, the varieties for  flour, flakes, and for pasta among other  uses and varietal differentiation, require  the appropriate quality for each process.  Varieties with industrial quality give more    relevance to the criteria of varietal purity  and homogeneity, so often promoted by  instances of variety registration and seed  certification. According to Bodoin (2009), demand and  use of quinoa certified seed is very low  compared to the volume of local seed used  for commercial production, and for  cultivar expansion. Table 1 lists the varieties generated by  PROINPA, their adaptation, production    cycle, grain characteristics and potential  uses, and shows the varieties’  recommendation domains. This  information can be used in the context of a  risk management quinoa production  strategy, taking into account the effects of  climate change, disease prevalence  (mildew) and, the demands of producers  and the market (with and without saponin,  industrial quality, etc.).    Challenges   Today, consumers are looking for  information about the quality of the  products they consume (protein content,  protein quality, gluten-free); it is for that  reason that quinoa has a high international  demand. The challenge, for the Bolivian quinoa to  be more competitive in the international  market, is to research its nutraceutical  properties such as antioxidant content,  iron and zinc, etc., and incorporate such  features in new varieties. The growing quinoa production areas,  lead to a search for technology of easy  application over large areas. This is the  case of cropping areas that are  progressively using more combined  harvesters. Therefore, the demand for  genetic improvement seeks the  development of new varieties with plant  architecture suitable for mechanization  (uniform size and uniform maturity). The actors in the quinoa value chain that  are in the processing link, need to be  informed about the qualities of the new  varieties, in terms of protein content,  amylopectin, antioxidants, etc., in order to  specialize the use of varieties.  This would  give way to processed products with  better quality and identity, since they  would not be processed with varietal  mixtures, as it is currently done. Finally, to achieve extensive use of  varieties, it is necessary that actors  specialized in the industry become  involved in the production of high quality  seed. This would allow producers,  associations and companies in the quinoa  value chain to have constant availability    and access to these varieties, meeting the  standards required by the corresponding  authorities. Currently, the vast majority of  producers, uses farmers' own and local  seed, even for use on cultivar expansion  (Bodoin, 2009).   Participating institutions   •  •  • (Proyecto Inno   vación. Estratégica Nacional - Minis  terio de Desarrollo Rural Agropecua  rio y Medio Ambiente).  National  Estrategic Innovation Project –  Ministry of Rural Development,  Agriculture and Environment.  •  • (Universidad de   Andrés).    •  • (Proyecto Resis-   tencia Duradera para la Zona Andina -  Universidad de Wageningen). Project  of Lasting Resistance for the Andean  Region - Wageningen University.   Cited references   Bodoin, A. 2009. Evaluación y perspectivas del   mercado de semilla certificadas de quinua  en la región del Salar de Uyuni en el  Altiplano Sur de Bolivia. 2nd Year  Internship Thesis. Agroparis Tech. Paris,  France. 35 p.  Bonifacio, A., Vargas, A., Aroni, G. 2003.   Variedad de quinua Jach’a Grano.  PROINPA Foundation. Technical Listing  No 6. Cochabamba, Bolivia.   Bonifacio, A., Vargas, A. 2005. Variedad de   Quinua Kurmi. PROINPA Foundation -  The McKnight Foundation - MACA.  Tchnical Listing No. 12.  Bonifacio, A., Vargas, A., Rojas, J. (n/y).   Variedad de Quinua Kurmi. PROINPA  Foundation - The McKnight Foundation -  MACA. Technical Listing No. P/FTE/81.  Bonifacio, A., Vargas, A., Aroni, G., Quispe, R.   (n/y). Variedad de Quinua Horizontes.  PROINPA Foundation- MDRAyMA.  Technical Listing No. P/FTE/79.  Bonifacio, A. 2006. El futuro de los productos   andinos en la región alta y los valles  centrales de los Andes. Granos en el área    altoandina de Bolivia, Ecuador y Perú.  ONUDI, Subdivisión de Promoción de  Inversión y Tecnología. On Line.    Available at: http://quinua.pe   Retrieved on June 6, 2014. Bonifacio, A., Aroni, G., Villca, M. 2012.   Catálogo etnobotánico de la Quinua Real.  PROINPA Foundation. Cochabamba,  Bolivia. 123 p.  Danielsen, S., Ames, T. 2000. El mildiu   (Peronospora farinosa) de la quinua   (Chenopodium quinoa) en la zona andina.   CIP-KVL. Lima, Perú. 32 p.     ISSN 1998 - 9652   Area: Current National Affairs 22   Figure 4. Leaf with sporulation  on the underside  Figure 5. Severe defoliation   caused by mildew                                               Introduction   The strong international demand for  quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) in  recent years, has led to a significant    increase in cultivated area in a very short  period of time (Gandarillas et al., 2014).  Commercial cultivation has expanded  from the traditional area of the Southern  Altiplano where Royal Quinoa is grown,    to new areas of "expansion" in the Central  and Northern Altiplano, and the  inter-Andean valleys. This situation has  led to face new problems, mainly due to  moisture. In the south, environmental  conditions are very dry, with an annual  average precipitation of 250 mm, while in  the Central and Northern Altiplano there  is an average precipitation of 500  mm/year, and in the valleys it reaches 800  mm/year. This article attempts to update  information on the incidence and  significance of the main fungal diseases  that affect quinoa, with emphasis on the  “expansion” areas, in the new context of  climate change, based on the publication  of Tapia et al., 1979.  The objectives of this work were:  • and the   affecting quinoa cultivars with  emphasis on expansion areas (Central  Altiplano, Northern Altiplano and  inter-Andean Valleys).  •   economic importance.   Materials and methods   This study was based primarily on visits  and sampling to 50 quinoa plots in  different production areas (10 to 12 plots  per area). Samples were taken of the different  diseases that appeared throughout crop  development, considering the weather  conditions at the time of sampling. This  work was carried out from November    2013 to April 2014, with a season  characterized by high precipitation.  Samples of seedlings and plants in various  stages of development, and of different  types of tissues (leaves, stem, roots and  grains) were collected. The samples were collected in plastic  bags and in a refrigerated container to  keep samples fresh, each one being  identified according to the collection site.  The samples were taken to PROINPA’s  laboratories in the shortest time possible,  and immediately processed using routine  techniques, ie direct microscope  observation of signs, humid chamber and  seeding in culture media (Potato Dextrose  Agar). Taxonomic keys developed based  on morphological characteristics of the  different kinds of fungi (Barnett, 1960),  were used to identify the structures.   Results and discussion   The presentation of results is made based  on the appearance of diseases in the crop,  according to the phenological stage at  which they arose: [ Diseases arising from emergence to   the appearance of 6-8 true leaves: At the beginning of the cultivation cycle  samples were taken from dead seedlings  in cotiledoneal phase (emergence); a  constriction at the neck of the plant  (Figure 1) was observed. With no  movement of nutrients and water to the  stem, there was a massive seedling death.  Digging the ground, in places where there  was no emergence of seeds, seedling  death was evident.  This symptom of strangulation was  diagnosed in the Central and Northern  Altiplano, and the inter-Andean valleys.  In the field it appears as an irregular  emergence (Figure 2), little perceived by  farmers, usually attributed to soil  problems, salinity or lack of moisture. The disease occurs in years of excessive  moisture, soils with high clay content,  fertilized with partially decomposed  manure and poor drainage. Once the  disease is present it remains in the soil  attached to the roots and stems of dead  plants, as conservation structures  (chlamydospores in the case of Fusarium  and sclerotia for Rhizoctonia).   Due to several factors that influence the  emergence, it is estimated that the death  of seedlings due to Rhizoctonia and/or  Fusarium, is of up to 10%. [ Diseases that occur in the   phenological phases of branching,  panicle formation, flowering, grain  formation and physiological maturity As the plants continued to develop, in the  branching phase (eight true leaves) and/or  panicle formation (inflorescence begins to  emerge from the apex of the plant), in  some areas of production and depending  on weather conditions; chlorotic spots  appeared on the leaves (Figure 3).  Depending on the variety these spots can  be red, orange, brown or black.   As the disease progresses, the undersides  of leaves present a grayish sporulation  (Figure 4), which corresponds to  Peronospora variabilis 1, causal agent of   the quinoa mildew. Depending on the  humidity, this disease can remain until  harvest. The yellowing of leaves reduces  the photosynthetic capacity and also  causes defoliation of the plants (Figure 5),  thus yields are reduced.   1 Formerly known as Peronospora farinosa   f.sp. chenopodii (Fr.) Fr, works of Choi et al.,   2008 and 2010 have reclassified this causal  agent through molecular techniques using  rDNA intergenic regions.   P. variabilis is a pathogen of easy  dispersion (wind and rain). During crop  development dissemination structures are  mainly spores, however at senescence or  absence of crop, the disease is spread by  oospores (sexual reproduction structures)  that may be adhered to the surface of the  grain or inside the stubble that remains in  the field. Therefore dissemination occurs,  at close range by means of spores, and at  long range through oospores. Mildew occurs in all agro-ecological  regions, with varying severity depending  on environmental conditions (high  relative humidity, above 80%). In the  Southern Highlands it only appears when  rainfall is intense and prolonged.  When  the rainy period stops automatically the  mycelium is dried and the disease  progression is interrupted. Varieties of  royal quinoa are susceptible to this  disease. The losses caused by mildew depend on  the phenological phase at which the plant  is attacked and the degree of resistance of  the variety. When susceptible varieties are  grown and favorable weather conditions  are given, especially high relative  humidity, the effects of mildew are  severe. If the attack occurs in early stages  of plant development, production can be  completely lost. In resistant varieties,  losses fluctuate between 20% and 40%  (Danielsen  et al. 2003). Therefore,   economic losses range from 2-5 quintals,  which depending on the price of quinoa  can be very significant. Consequently, for  the year 2014 losses could be equivalent  to 6,000 Bs/ha.   Coinciding with the appearance of  mildew in the panicle formation and  flowering stages, on the chlorotic spots, a  green sporulation was observed on the top  side of leafs (Figure 6). The causal agent  is Cladosporium sp. which depending on   humidity, can cover the entire surface of  the spots (Figure 7) and accelerate the  falling of leaves. Just like mildew this  disease can occur up to harvesting stage.  When there is excessive humidity the  pathogen spreads from the foliage to the  panicle, and it tends to turn it black  (Figure 8). Depending on the stage of the  filling phase, when the attack takes place,  the grains may even remain empty. If the  grains are already formed, they will be  slightly stained. When processing these  grains in the laboratory, it was observed  that  Cladosporium  conidia remain   attached to the surface of the grain, being    its mode of dissemination and survival for  the next planting season. Since this disease is strongly associated  with mildew, when damage occurs in the  panicle, economic losses due to the green  mold would produce at least a 5% loss in  addition to the losses caused by mildew. At the same time, during the development  of plants in places where there is poor  drainage or where water accumulates, a  symptom of wilting and yellowing occurs.   At the beginning wilting is only apical but  later it is widespread, it even causes the  death of plants. Going through the root system, lesions  sunk in the neck of the plant are observed,  similar to those found during the    emergence stage. Taking the full root  system from the soil, necrosis of the main  root and rootlets is observed (Figure 9).  If  winds occur during this condition, plants  fall (Figure 10). Due to excess moisture, the surface  portion (skin) of the root decomposes  quickly, exposing the underlying tissue to  attack by other pathogens. The diagnosis  of these samples shows that the symptom  corresponds to Fusarium  sp. Therefore,   this pathogen appears in pre and  post-emergence, and may manifest again  during crop development. The way to  recognize diseased plants is through their  weak development in comparison to  healthy plants.   This disease has been observed mainly in  areas close to Lake Titicaca (Northern  Altiplano) and to a lesser extent in the  Central Altiplano, in areas with heavy  soils and poor drainage. In the case of inter-Andean valleys,  similar symptoms are observed in adult  plants. Other plants with little  development simply show a pink color on  roots and rootlets (Figure 11). An analysis  of these roots shows that symptoms can  also be attributed to Fusarium sp.  During development, necrotic spots have  also been observed on the foliage.  These  are roughly circular or irregular in shape,  with beige centers and slightly brown  edges (Figure 12), inside which pycnidia  are present (black dots). The size of the  lesions ranges from 5 to 10 mm in  diameter. Work done in the laboratory  evidenced that the causal agent of this  disease is Ascochyta sp. and the common  name of the disease is "leaf spot".   When attacks are severe, intense  defoliation occurs, thus reducing  photosynthetic capacity; and if the panicle  is in formation, the quality of grains is  affected (brown color). Studies of the grains conducted in  laboratory show that the fungus produces  abundant pycnidiospores accompanied by  a mild to severe necrosis in roots and/or  hypocotyl. Severely affected seedlings  die. Therefore, the disease is transmitted  through seeds; pycnidia remain attached  to the surface of the grains and also stay in  the stubble. For a new disease cycle to occur in the  next season a temperature of 18 to 24 °C  and a relative humidity of 80% is  required, the pycnidia germinate and give  rise to pycnidiospores and the infection  initiates again.   The geographical distribution of this  disease is not exactly known and  apparently it is not of major economic  importance (Danielsen et al., 2003). Finally, at the stage of senescence, when  the stem is lignified, ogival shaped lesions  can be observed. These lesions are light  gray in the center with brown edges,  surrounded by an aura of glassy  appearance, inside which you may notice  small black spots (Figure 13) which  correspond to pycnidia of the fungus  Phoma sp. The size of these lesions ranges   from 2 to 3 cm. When conditions are  favorable (especially high relative  humidity) a number of spots can be seen in  a single stem (Figure 14). During severe  attacks these spots grow and reach each  other, covering the entire area of the stem. From season to season, the fungus  survives in the stubble that remains in the  field. This pathogen does not require  mechanical wounds to enter the plant, it  enters through natural openings. This disease has been observed in the  Central and Northern Altiplano, and in the  inter-Andean valleys, and basically its    occurrence depends on the presence of  inoculum and high relative humidity.  In general, in all production areas of  Bolivia plants from all stages of  development (from emergence until  harvest), with virus infection symptoms,  have been observed. The causal agents  have not been determined, yet what is  known is that quinoa is used as universal    plant (indicator plant) for the detection of  various viruses. The most frequent  symptoms observed in quinoa are:  yellowing, shortening of internodes  (rosetting), leathery leaves, etc. (Figure  15).   Conclusions   • most disease the   "quinoa mildew", caused by  Peronospora variabilis, followed by  "green mold" and "seedling death."  These three diseases occur in different  agro-ecological regions of Bolivia.  •   the symptoms have been observed in  the Central and Northern Altiplano and  inter-Andean valleys, without causing  significant economic losses.   • "Ogival appears   senescence, affecting the stems and  rachis of the panicle. It has no  incidence in reducing quinoa grain  yield.  •   "mildew", "green mold" and "seedling  death".  •   and "seedling death" can result in  losses of up to 50%.   Cited References    Barnett. H. 1960. Ilustrated genera of imperfect   fungi. 2 ed. Burgess Publishing Company.  225 p.  Danielsen, S., Bonifacio, A., Ames, T. 2003.   Diseases of Quinoa (Chenopodium  quinoa). Food Reviews International. 19(1  y 2): 43-59.  Choi, Y., Denchev, C., Shin, H. 2008.   Morphological and molecular analyses  support existence of hostspecific  Peronospora species infecting  Chenopodium. Mycopathology. No.  165:155-164.  Choi, Y., Danielsen, S., Lubeck, M., Hong, S.,   Delhey, R., Shin, H. 2010. Morphological    and molecular characterization of the  causal agent of downy mildew on quinoa  (Chenopodium quinoa). Mycopathology.   No. 169:403-412.  Gandarillas, A., Rojas, W., Bonifacio, A.,   Ojeda, N. 2014. La quinua en Bolivia:  Perspectiva de la Fundación PROINPA.  Chapter 5. In: Bazile Didier “Estado del  Arte de la Quinua en el Mundo”. FAO (in  press).  Tapia, M., Gandarillas, H., Alandia, S.,   Cardozo, A., Otazú, V., Ortiz, R., Rea, J.,  Salas, B., Zanabria, E., Mujica, A. 1979. La  Quinua y la Kañiwa: Cultivos Andinos.  IICA/CIID, Oficina Regional para América  Latina. Bogotá, Colombia. pp. 142-147.   Introduction   Quinoa has evolved in the Andes. It was  domesticated by men and women from  civilizations like the Tiwanaku and the  Inca. Until the early eighties, the Andean  people cultivated quinoa due to their  advantages in adaptation to altitudes  between 2800 to 4000 m.a.s.l., and  semi-arid climates, and for its nutritional  benefits. The main product of the quinoa plant is  the grain, highly appreciated for the  preparation of traditional dishes in a way    somewhat similar to rice.  The leaves can  also be eaten fresh and, by products from  harvesting and threshing are destined for  animal feed (llamas). Quinoa comprises a wide diversity of  native varieties adapted to specific areas  of the Central, Northern and Southern  Altiplano, and valleys. In the highlands,  quinoa is the main food crop for the  inhabitants of this area. In the Southern  Altiplano, quinoa is the only crop that  thrives acceptably, this is why researchers  describe the production system as a  quinoa monoculture.   With the discovery of its nutritional  properties and its promotion, quinoa has  become an important export product and  an important source of income generation. Currently, quinoa is a product with high  demand in the market, with encouraging  prices for producers, processors and  traders, creating an important economic  activity for the country. The demand and high prices of quinoa  have stimulated the expansion of acreage,  covering new areas of production. This  expansion involves changes in the  production process and new technological  needs on several fronts: management of  pests and diseases, plant nutrition, seed  varieties and agronomic management. Climate change, in turn, has led to  changes in rainfall and new technological  demands, such as earlier varieties. On the  other hand the market demands various  colors of quinoa and more suitable  varieties for industrial processing. In this context, PROINPA has undertaken  the development of a new generation of  varieties focused on the following  priorities: • large varieties the   Southern Altiplano, necessary for late  planting, for re planting in case of  drought losses or seedlings buried by  strong winds, and for their shorter time  to harvest.  • large varieties   mildew resistance for the Central  Altiplano.  • resistant for   Northern Altiplano and valleys.   • (with and   (saponin free) varieties for specific  market demands and, for local and  family consumption of quinoa.  These  varieties have the advantage of  facilitating grain processing.  • for (flour   flakes) and for nutritional objectives  (nutraceuticals).  • all varieties for   mechanical harvesting are also sought,  mainly due to their drive towards  competitive, sustainable and resilient  production in the occurrence of  adverse climate change phenomena.   Results and discussion   With the application of classical breeding  methods, a number of varieties with  common and differential characteristics  have been generated. Common characteristics relate to  performance, size and color of grain. The  differential characteristics refer to  adaptation to different agro-ecological  zones, earliness, resistance to mildew,  bitter or sweet quinoa, industrial quality  among others. Large grain varieties are directed to the  use of quinoa in ways similar to rice  (pearled quinoa), ie. for cooking in soups  and boiled grain.   For this purposes grain  may be preferably white, but also red and  black in color. Most ecotypes of Royal  Quinoa are suitable for pearled quinoa  (Bonifacio et al., 2012). The research on  industrial quality of these varieties is in  progress.  Adapting varieties implies an analysis of  options in terms of producing them in  different ecoregions such as the Southern,  Central, and Northern Altiplano, Valleys  and Sub Tropics. The precocity is a character that enables  the management of adverse environmental  factors through the following  mechanisms:  1) avoid frost through a shorter   production cycle.  2) possibility of delayed planting   caused by lack of moisture in the  planting season.  3)  prevent losses and enable replanting   in case of: seedlings buried by winds  in sandy soils, clay soils crusting,  seedling loss by frost or drought.  Mildew resistance is a key component to  produce organic quinoa in areas outside  the Southern Altiplano. Quinoa is  susceptible to disease under conditions of  high relative humidity and soil moisture  (Bonifacio, 2006) and susceptible  varieties (Utusaya) can register a severity  of 100% (Danielsen and Ames, 2000).  Therefore resistance to mildew is essential  to produce quinoa in areas of high relative  humidity, to reduce the use of fungicides  for disease control, reduce production  costs and promote grain filling. The bitter and sweet varieties have not  received differentiation until now.  Bitter  quinoa is produced, processed and sold in  greater proportion. However, given the  volumes of water that are used (not  recycled) to remove the saponin, the  difficulties of eliminating foamy water  and, the increased energy expenditure    (scarifying, washing and drying); the  interest in sweet quinoa is reemerging. This sweet quinoa, although it has its  limitations due to the preferences of a  couple of bird species, requires less time  for scarifying and/or washing; therefore it  produces less loses during processing.  It  does not generate foamy water and  pearled grain does not have the strong,  pungent odor that bitter varieties have.  Due to these qualities of sweet quinoa, it  becomes an alternative for production  areas in the Central and Northern  Altiplano, as well as for lines of grain  processing and transformation. Therefore  sweet varieties generated three decades  ago are currently subject of differentiated  demand.  Industrial quality refers to the physical  and chemical properties of specific grain  varieties. In that sense, the varieties for  flour, flakes, and for pasta among other  uses and varietal differentiation, require  the appropriate quality for each process.  Varieties with industrial quality give more    relevance to the criteria of varietal purity  and homogeneity, so often promoted by  instances of variety registration and seed  certification. According to Bodoin (2009), demand and  use of quinoa certified seed is very low  compared to the volume of local seed used  for commercial production, and for  cultivar expansion. Table 1 lists the varieties generated by  PROINPA, their adaptation, production    cycle, grain characteristics and potential  uses, and shows the varieties’  recommendation domains. This   information can be used in the context of a  risk management quinoa production  strategy, taking into account the effects of  climate change, disease prevalence  (mildew) and, the demands of producers  and the market (with and without saponin,  industrial quality, etc.).    Challenges   Today, consumers are looking for  information about the quality of the  products they consume (protein content,  protein quality, gluten-free); it is for that  reason that quinoa has a high international  demand. The challenge, for the Bolivian quinoa to  be more competitive in the international  market, is to research its nutraceutical  properties such as antioxidant content,  iron and zinc, etc., and incorporate such  features in new varieties. The growing quinoa production areas,  lead to a search for technology of easy  application over large areas. This is the  case of cropping areas that are  progressively using more combined  harvesters. Therefore, the demand for  genetic improvement seeks the  development of new varieties with plant  architecture suitable for mechanization  (uniform size and uniform maturity). The actors in the quinoa value chain that  are in the processing link, need to be  informed about the qualities of the new  varieties, in terms of protein content,  amylopectin, antioxidants, etc., in order to  specialize the use of varieties.  This would  give way to processed products with  better quality and identity, since they  would not be processed with varietal  mixtures, as it is currently done. Finally, to achieve extensive use of  varieties, it is necessary that actors  specialized in the industry become  involved in the production of high quality  seed. This would allow producers,  associations and companies in the quinoa  value chain to have constant availability    and access to these varieties, meeting the  standards required by the corresponding  authorities. Currently, the vast majority of  producers, uses farmers' own and local  seed, even for use on cultivar expansion  (Bodoin, 2009).   Participating institutions   •  •  • (Proyecto Inno   vación. Estratégica Nacional - Minis  terio de Desarrollo Rural Agropecua  rio y Medio Ambiente).  National  Estrategic Innovation Project –  Ministry of Rural Development,  Agriculture and Environment.  •  • (Universidad de   Andrés).    •  • (Proyecto Resis-   tencia Duradera para la Zona Andina -  Universidad de Wageningen). Project  of Lasting Resistance for the Andean  Region - Wageningen University.   Cited references   Bodoin, A. 2009. Evaluación y perspectivas del   mercado de semilla certificadas de quinua  en la región del Salar de Uyuni en el  Altiplano Sur de Bolivia. 2nd Year  Internship Thesis. Agroparis Tech. Paris,  France. 35 p.  Bonifacio, A., Vargas, A., Aroni, G. 2003.   Variedad de quinua Jach’a Grano.  PROINPA Foundation. Technical Listing  No 6. Cochabamba, Bolivia.   Bonifacio, A., Vargas, A. 2005. Variedad de   Quinua Kurmi. PROINPA Foundation -  The McKnight Foundation - MACA.  Tchnical Listing No. 12.  Bonifacio, A., Vargas, A., Rojas, J. (n/y).   Variedad de Quinua Kurmi. PROINPA  Foundation - The McKnight Foundation -  MACA. Technical Listing No. P/FTE/81.  Bonifacio, A., Vargas, A., Aroni, G., Quispe, R.   (n/y). Variedad de Quinua Horizontes.  PROINPA Foundation- MDRAyMA.  Technical Listing No. P/FTE/79.  Bonifacio, A. 2006. El futuro de los productos   andinos en la región alta y los valles  centrales de los Andes. Granos en el área    altoandina de Bolivia, Ecuador y Perú.  ONUDI, Subdivisión de Promoción de  Inversión y Tecnología. On Line.    Available at: http://quinua.pe   Retrieved on June 6, 2014. Bonifacio, A., Aroni, G., Villca, M. 2012.   Catálogo etnobotánico de la Quinua Real.  PROINPA Foundation. Cochabamba,  Bolivia. 123 p.  Danielsen, S., Ames, T. 2000. El mildiu   (Peronospora farinosa) de la quinua   (Chenopodium quinoa) en la zona andina.   CIP-KVL. Lima, Perú. 32 p.     Revista de Agricultura, Nro. 54 - Julio de 2014   Area: Current National Affairs 23   Figure 6. Beginning of green sporulation   Figure 7. Leaf with abundant sporulation  Figure 8. Darkened panicle caused by Cladosporium sp   Introduction   The strong international demand for  quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) in  recent years, has led to a significant    increase in cultivated area in a very short  period of time (Gandarillas et al., 2014).  Commercial cultivation has expanded  from the traditional area of the Southern  Altiplano where Royal Quinoa is grown,    to new areas of "expansion" in the Central  and Northern Altiplano, and the  inter-Andean valleys. This situation has  led to face new problems, mainly due to  moisture. In the south, environmental  conditions are very dry, with an annual  average precipitation of 250 mm, while in  the Central and Northern Altiplano there  is an average precipitation of 500  mm/year, and in the valleys it reaches 800  mm/year. This article attempts to update  information on the incidence and  significance of the main fungal diseases  that affect quinoa, with emphasis on the  “expansion” areas, in the new context of  climate change, based on the publication  of Tapia et al., 1979.  The objectives of this work were:  • and the   affecting quinoa cultivars with  emphasis on expansion areas (Central  Altiplano, Northern Altiplano and  inter-Andean Valleys).  •   economic importance.   Materials and methods   This study was based primarily on visits  and sampling to 50 quinoa plots in  different production areas (10 to 12 plots  per area). Samples were taken of the different  diseases that appeared throughout crop  development, considering the weather  conditions at the time of sampling. This  work was carried out from November    2013 to April 2014, with a season  characterized by high precipitation.  Samples of seedlings and plants in various  stages of development, and of different  types of tissues (leaves, stem, roots and  grains) were collected. The samples were collected in plastic  bags and in a refrigerated container to  keep samples fresh, each one being  identified according to the collection site.  The samples were taken to PROINPA’s  laboratories in the shortest time possible,  and immediately processed using routine  techniques, ie direct microscope  observation of signs, humid chamber and  seeding in culture media (Potato Dextrose  Agar). Taxonomic keys developed based  on morphological characteristics of the  different kinds of fungi (Barnett, 1960),  were used to identify the structures.   Results and discussion   The presentation of results is made based  on the appearance of diseases in the crop,  according to the phenological stage at  which they arose: [ Diseases arising from emergence to   the appearance of 6-8 true leaves: At the beginning of the cultivation cycle  samples were taken from dead seedlings  in cotiledoneal phase (emergence); a  constriction at the neck of the plant  (Figure 1) was observed. With no  movement of nutrients and water to the  stem, there was a massive seedling death.  Digging the ground, in places where there  was no emergence of seeds, seedling  death was evident.  This symptom of strangulation was  diagnosed in the Central and Northern  Altiplano, and the inter-Andean valleys.  In the field it appears as an irregular  emergence (Figure 2), little perceived by  farmers, usually attributed to soil  problems, salinity or lack of moisture. The disease occurs in years of excessive  moisture, soils with high clay content,  fertilized with partially decomposed  manure and poor drainage. Once the  disease is present it remains in the soil  attached to the roots and stems of dead  plants, as conservation structures  (chlamydospores in the case of Fusarium  and sclerotia for Rhizoctonia).   Due to several factors that influence the  emergence, it is estimated that the death  of seedlings due to Rhizoctonia and/or  Fusarium, is of up to 10%. [ Diseases that occur in the   phenological phases of branching,  panicle formation, flowering, grain  formation and physiological maturity As the plants continued to develop, in the  branching phase (eight true leaves) and/or  panicle formation (inflorescence begins to  emerge from the apex of the plant), in  some areas of production and depending  on weather conditions; chlorotic spots  appeared on the leaves (Figure 3).  Depending on the variety these spots can  be red, orange, brown or black.   As the disease progresses, the undersides  of leaves present a grayish sporulation  (Figure 4), which corresponds to  Peronospora variabilis 1, causal agent of   the quinoa mildew. Depending on the  humidity, this disease can remain until  harvest. The yellowing of leaves reduces  the photosynthetic capacity and also  causes defoliation of the plants (Figure 5),  thus yields are reduced.   P. variabilis is a pathogen of easy  dispersion (wind and rain). During crop  development dissemination structures are  mainly spores, however at senescence or  absence of crop, the disease is spread by  oospores (sexual reproduction structures)  that may be adhered to the surface of the  grain or inside the stubble that remains in  the field. Therefore dissemination occurs,  at close range by means of spores, and at  long range through oospores. Mildew occurs in all agro-ecological  regions, with varying severity depending  on environmental conditions (high  relative humidity, above 80%). In the  Southern Highlands it only appears when  rainfall is intense and prolonged.  When  the rainy period stops automatically the  mycelium is dried and the disease  progression is interrupted. Varieties of  royal quinoa are susceptible to this  disease. The losses caused by mildew depend on  the phenological phase at which the plant  is attacked and the degree of resistance of  the variety. When susceptible varieties are  grown and favorable weather conditions  are given, especially high relative  humidity, the effects of mildew are  severe. If the attack occurs in early stages  of plant development, production can be  completely lost. In resistant varieties,  losses fluctuate between 20% and 40%  (Danielsen  et al. 2003). Therefore,   economic losses range from 2-5 quintals,  which depending on the price of quinoa  can be very significant. Consequently, for  the year 2014 losses could be equivalent  to 6,000 Bs/ha.   Coinciding with the appearance of  mildew in the panicle formation and  flowering stages, on the chlorotic spots, a  green sporulation was observed on the top  side of leafs (Figure 6). The causal agent  is Cladosporium sp. which depending on   humidity, can cover the entire surface of  the spots (Figure 7) and accelerate the  falling of leaves. Just like mildew this  disease can occur up to harvesting stage.  When there is excessive humidity the  pathogen spreads from the foliage to the  panicle, and it tends to turn it black  (Figure 8). Depending on the stage of the  filling phase, when the attack takes place,  the grains may even remain empty. If the  grains are already formed, they will be  slightly stained. When processing these  grains in the laboratory, it was observed  that  Cladosporium  conidia remain   attached to the surface of the grain, being    its mode of dissemination and survival for  the next planting season. Since this disease is strongly associated  with mildew, when damage occurs in the  panicle, economic losses due to the green  mold would produce at least a 5% loss in  addition to the losses caused by mildew. At the same time, during the development  of plants in places where there is poor  drainage or where water accumulates, a  symptom of wilting and yellowing occurs.   At the beginning wilting is only apical but  later it is widespread, it even causes the  death of plants. Going through the root system, lesions  sunk in the neck of the plant are observed,  similar to those found during the    emergence stage. Taking the full root  system from the soil, necrosis of the main  root and rootlets is observed (Figure 9).  If  winds occur during this condition, plants  fall (Figure 10). Due to excess moisture, the surface  portion (skin) of the root decomposes  quickly, exposing the underlying tissue to  attack by other pathogens. The diagnosis  of these samples shows that the symptom  corresponds to Fusarium  sp. Therefore,   this pathogen appears in pre and  post-emergence, and may manifest again  during crop development. The way to  recognize diseased plants is through their  weak development in comparison to  healthy plants.   This disease has been observed mainly in  areas close to Lake Titicaca (Northern  Altiplano) and to a lesser extent in the  Central Altiplano, in areas with heavy  soils and poor drainage. In the case of inter-Andean valleys,  similar symptoms are observed in adult  plants. Other plants with little  development simply show a pink color on  roots and rootlets (Figure 11). An analysis  of these roots shows that symptoms can  also be attributed to Fusarium sp.  During development, necrotic spots have  also been observed on the foliage.  These  are roughly circular or irregular in shape,  with beige centers and slightly brown  edges (Figure 12), inside which pycnidia  are present (black dots). The size of the  lesions ranges from 5 to 10 mm in  diameter. Work done in the laboratory  evidenced that the causal agent of this  disease is Ascochyta sp. and the common  name of the disease is "leaf spot".   When attacks are severe, intense  defoliation occurs, thus reducing  photosynthetic capacity; and if the panicle  is in formation, the quality of grains is  affected (brown color). Studies of the grains conducted in  laboratory show that the fungus produces  abundant pycnidiospores accompanied by  a mild to severe necrosis in roots and/or  hypocotyl. Severely affected seedlings  die. Therefore, the disease is transmitted  through seeds; pycnidia remain attached  to the surface of the grains and also stay in  the stubble. For a new disease cycle to occur in the  next season a temperature of 18 to 24 °C  and a relative humidity of 80% is  required, the pycnidia germinate and give  rise to pycnidiospores and the infection  initiates again.   The geographical distribution of this  disease is not exactly known and  apparently it is not of major economic  importance (Danielsen et al., 2003). Finally, at the stage of senescence, when  the stem is lignified, ogival shaped lesions  can be observed. These lesions are light  gray in the center with brown edges,  surrounded by an aura of glassy  appearance, inside which you may notice  small black spots (Figure 13) which  correspond to pycnidia of the fungus  Phoma sp. The size of these lesions ranges   from 2 to 3 cm. When conditions are  favorable (especially high relative  humidity) a number of spots can be seen in  a single stem (Figure 14). During severe  attacks these spots grow and reach each  other, covering the entire area of the stem. From season to season, the fungus  survives in the stubble that remains in the  field. This pathogen does not require  mechanical wounds to enter the plant, it  enters through natural openings. This disease has been observed in the  Central and Northern Altiplano, and in the  inter-Andean valleys, and basically its    occurrence depends on the presence of  inoculum and high relative humidity.  In general, in all production areas of  Bolivia plants from all stages of  development (from emergence until  harvest), with virus infection symptoms,  have been observed. The causal agents  have not been determined, yet what is  known is that quinoa is used as universal    plant (indicator plant) for the detection of  various viruses. The most frequent  symptoms observed in quinoa are:  yellowing, shortening of internodes  (rosetting), leathery leaves, etc. (Figure  15).   Conclusions   • most disease the   "quinoa mildew", caused by  Peronospora variabilis, followed by  "green mold" and "seedling death."  These three diseases occur in different  agro-ecological regions of Bolivia.  •   the symptoms have been observed in  the Central and Northern Altiplano and  inter-Andean valleys, without causing  significant economic losses.   • "Ogival appears   senescence, affecting the stems and  rachis of the panicle. It has no  incidence in reducing quinoa grain  yield.  •   "mildew", "green mold" and "seedling  death".  •   and "seedling death" can result in  losses of up to 50%.   Cited References    Barnett. H. 1960. Ilustrated genera of imperfect   fungi. 2 ed. Burgess Publishing Company.  225 p.  Danielsen, S., Bonifacio, A., Ames, T. 2003.   Diseases of Quinoa (Chenopodium  quinoa). Food Reviews International. 19(1  y 2): 43-59.  Choi, Y., Denchev, C., Shin, H. 2008.   Morphological and molecular analyses  support existence of hostspecific  Peronospora species infecting  Chenopodium. Mycopathology. No.  165:155-164.  Choi, Y., Danielsen, S., Lubeck, M., Hong, S.,   Delhey, R., Shin, H. 2010. Morphological    and molecular characterization of the  causal agent of downy mildew on quinoa  (Chenopodium quinoa). Mycopathology.   No. 169:403-412.  Gandarillas, A., Rojas, W., Bonifacio, A.,   Ojeda, N. 2014. La quinua en Bolivia:  Perspectiva de la Fundación PROINPA.  Chapter 5. In: Bazile Didier “Estado del  Arte de la Quinua en el Mundo”. FAO (in  press).  Tapia, M., Gandarillas, H., Alandia, S.,   Cardozo, A., Otazú, V., Ortiz, R., Rea, J.,  Salas, B., Zanabria, E., Mujica, A. 1979. La  Quinua y la Kañiwa: Cultivos Andinos.  IICA/CIID, Oficina Regional para América  Latina. Bogotá, Colombia. pp. 142-147.   Introduction   Quinoa has evolved in the Andes. It was  domesticated by men and women from  civilizations like the Tiwanaku and the  Inca. Until the early eighties, the Andean  people cultivated quinoa due to their  advantages in adaptation to altitudes  between 2800 to 4000 m.a.s.l., and  semi-arid climates, and for its nutritional  benefits. The main product of the quinoa plant is  the grain, highly appreciated for the  preparation of traditional dishes in a way    somewhat similar to rice.  The leaves can  also be eaten fresh and, by products from  harvesting and threshing are destined for  animal feed (llamas). Quinoa comprises a wide diversity of  native varieties adapted to specific areas  of the Central, Northern and Southern  Altiplano, and valleys. In the highlands,  quinoa is the main food crop for the  inhabitants of this area. In the Southern  Altiplano, quinoa is the only crop that  thrives acceptably, this is why researchers  describe the production system as a  quinoa monoculture.   With the discovery of its nutritional  properties and its promotion, quinoa has  become an important export product and  an important source of income generation. Currently, quinoa is a product with high  demand in the market, with encouraging  prices for producers, processors and  traders, creating an important economic  activity for the country. The demand and high prices of quinoa  have stimulated the expansion of acreage,  covering new areas of production. This  expansion involves changes in the  production process and new technological  needs on several fronts: management of  pests and diseases, plant nutrition, seed  varieties and agronomic management. Climate change, in turn, has led to  changes in rainfall and new technological  demands, such as earlier varieties. On the  other hand the market demands various  colors of quinoa and more suitable  varieties for industrial processing. In this context, PROINPA has undertaken  the development of a new generation of  varieties focused on the following  priorities: • large varieties the   Southern Altiplano, necessary for late  planting, for re planting in case of  drought losses or seedlings buried by  strong winds, and for their shorter time  to harvest.  • large varieties   mildew resistance for the Central  Altiplano.  • resistant for   Northern Altiplano and valleys.   • (with and   (saponin free) varieties for specific  market demands and, for local and  family consumption of quinoa.  These  varieties have the advantage of  facilitating grain processing.  • for (flour   flakes) and for nutritional objectives  (nutraceuticals).  • all varieties for   mechanical harvesting are also sought,  mainly due to their drive towards  competitive, sustainable and resilient  production in the occurrence of  adverse climate change phenomena.   Results and discussion   With the application of classical breeding  methods, a number of varieties with  common and differential characteristics  have been generated. Common characteristics relate to  performance, size and color of grain. The  differential characteristics refer to  adaptation to different agro-ecological  zones, earliness, resistance to mildew,  bitter or sweet quinoa, industrial quality  among others. Large grain varieties are directed to the  use of quinoa in ways similar to rice  (pearled quinoa), ie. for cooking in soups  and boiled grain.   For this purposes grain  may be preferably white, but also red and  black in color. Most ecotypes of Royal  Quinoa are suitable for pearled quinoa  (Bonifacio et al., 2012). The research on  industrial quality of these varieties is in  progress.  Adapting varieties implies an analysis of  options in terms of producing them in  different ecoregions such as the Southern,  Central, and Northern Altiplano, Valleys  and Sub Tropics. The precocity is a character that enables  the management of adverse environmental  factors through the following  mechanisms:  1) avoid frost through a shorter   production cycle.  2) possibility of delayed planting   caused by lack of moisture in the  planting season.  3)  prevent losses and enable replanting   in case of: seedlings buried by winds  in sandy soils, clay soils crusting,  seedling loss by frost or drought.  Mildew resistance is a key component to  produce organic quinoa in areas outside  the Southern Altiplano. Quinoa is  susceptible to disease under conditions of  high relative humidity and soil moisture  (Bonifacio, 2006) and susceptible  varieties (Utusaya) can register a severity  of 100% (Danielsen and Ames, 2000).  Therefore resistance to mildew is essential  to produce quinoa in areas of high relative  humidity, to reduce the use of fungicides  for disease control, reduce production  costs and promote grain filling. The bitter and sweet varieties have not  received differentiation until now.  Bitter  quinoa is produced, processed and sold in  greater proportion. However, given the  volumes of water that are used (not  recycled) to remove the saponin, the  difficulties of eliminating foamy water  and, the increased energy expenditure    (scarifying, washing and drying); the  interest in sweet quinoa is reemerging. This sweet quinoa, although it has its  limitations due to the preferences of a  couple of bird species, requires less time  for scarifying and/or washing; therefore it  produces less loses during processing.  It  does not generate foamy water and  pearled grain does not have the strong,  pungent odor that bitter varieties have.  Due to these qualities of sweet quinoa, it  becomes an alternative for production  areas in the Central and Northern  Altiplano, as well as for lines of grain  processing and transformation. Therefore  sweet varieties generated three decades  ago are currently subject of differentiated  demand.  Industrial quality refers to the physical  and chemical properties of specific grain  varieties. In that sense, the varieties for  flour, flakes, and for pasta among other  uses and varietal differentiation, require  the appropriate quality for each process.  Varieties with industrial quality give more    relevance to the criteria of varietal purity  and homogeneity, so often promoted by  instances of variety registration and seed  certification. According to Bodoin (2009), demand and  use of quinoa certified seed is very low  compared to the volume of local seed used  for commercial production, and for  cultivar expansion. Table 1 lists the varieties generated by  PROINPA, their adaptation, production    cycle, grain characteristics and potential  uses, and shows the varieties’  recommendation domains. This  information can be used in the context of a  risk management quinoa production  strategy, taking into account the effects of  climate change, disease prevalence  (mildew) and, the demands of producers  and the market (with and without saponin,  industrial quality, etc.).    Challenges   Today, consumers are looking for  information about the quality of the  products they consume (protein content,  protein quality, gluten-free); it is for that  reason that quinoa has a high international  demand. The challenge, for the Bolivian quinoa to  be more competitive in the international  market, is to research its nutraceutical  properties such as antioxidant content,  iron and zinc, etc., and incorporate such  features in new varieties. The growing quinoa production areas,  lead to a search for technology of easy  application over large areas. This is the  case of cropping areas that are  progressively using more combined   harvesters. Therefore, the demand for  genetic improvement seeks the  development of new varieties with plant  architecture suitable for mechanization  (uniform size and uniform maturity). The actors in the quinoa value chain that  are in the processing link, need to be  informed about the qualities of the new  varieties, in terms of protein content,  amylopectin, antioxidants, etc., in order to  specialize the use of varieties.  This would  give way to processed products with  better quality and identity, since they  would not be processed with varietal  mixtures, as it is currently done. Finally, to achieve extensive use of  varieties, it is necessary that actors  specialized in the industry become  involved in the production of high quality  seed. This would allow producers,  associations and companies in the quinoa  value chain to have constant availability    and access to these varieties, meeting the  standards required by the corresponding  authorities. Currently, the vast majority of  producers, uses farmers' own and local  seed, even for use on cultivar expansion  (Bodoin, 2009).   Participating institutions   •  •  • (Proyecto Inno   vación. Estratégica Nacional - Minis  terio de Desarrollo Rural Agropecua  rio y Medio Ambiente).  National  Estrategic Innovation Project –  Ministry of Rural Development,  Agriculture and Environment.  •  • (Universidad de   Andrés).    •  • (Proyecto Resis-   tencia Duradera para la Zona Andina -  Universidad de Wageningen). Project  of Lasting Resistance for the Andean  Region - Wageningen University.   Cited references   Bodoin, A. 2009. Evaluación y perspectivas del   mercado de semilla certificadas de quinua  en la región del Salar de Uyuni en el  Altiplano Sur de Bolivia. 2nd Year  Internship Thesis. Agroparis Tech. Paris,  France. 35 p.  Bonifacio, A., Vargas, A., Aroni, G. 2003.   Variedad de quinua Jach’a Grano.  PROINPA Foundation. Technical Listing  No 6. Cochabamba, Bolivia.   Bonifacio, A., Vargas, A. 2005. Variedad de   Quinua Kurmi. PROINPA Foundation -  The McKnight Foundation - MACA.  Tchnical Listing No. 12.  Bonifacio, A., Vargas, A., Rojas, J. (n/y).   Variedad de Quinua Kurmi. PROINPA  Foundation - The McKnight Foundation -  MACA. Technical Listing No. P/FTE/81.  Bonifacio, A., Vargas, A., Aroni, G., Quispe, R.   (n/y). Variedad de Quinua Horizontes.  PROINPA Foundation- MDRAyMA.  Technical Listing No. P/FTE/79.  Bonifacio, A. 2006. El futuro de los productos   andinos en la región alta y los valles  centrales de los Andes. Granos en el área    altoandina de Bolivia, Ecuador y Perú.  ONUDI, Subdivisión de Promoción de  Inversión y Tecnología. On Line.    Available at: http://quinua.pe   Retrieved on June 6, 2014. Bonifacio, A., Aroni, G., Villca, M. 2012.   Catálogo etnobotánico de la Quinua Real.  PROINPA Foundation. Cochabamba,  Bolivia. 123 p.  Danielsen, S., Ames, T. 2000. El mildiu   (Peronospora farinosa) de la quinua   (Chenopodium quinoa) en la zona andina.   CIP-KVL. Lima, Perú. 32 p.     ISSN 1998 - 9652   Area: Current National Affairs 24   Figure 9. Lesions to the neck with   decomposition of the root epidermis  Figure 10. Wilting and yellowing of plants  caused by  Fusarium sp.   Introduction   The strong international demand for  quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) in  recent years, has led to a significant    increase in cultivated area in a very short  period of time (Gandarillas et al., 2014).  Commercial cultivation has expanded  from the traditional area of the Southern  Altiplano where Royal Quinoa is grown,    to new areas of "expansion" in the Central  and Northern Altiplano, and the  inter-Andean valleys. This situation has  led to face new problems, mainly due to  moisture. In the south, environmental  conditions are very dry, with an annual  average precipitation of 250 mm, while in  the Central and Northern Altiplano there  is an average precipitation of 500  mm/year, and in the valleys it reaches 800  mm/year. This article attempts to update  information on the incidence and  significance of the main fungal diseases  that affect quinoa, with emphasis on the  “expansion” areas, in the new context of  climate change, based on the publication  of Tapia et al., 1979.  The objectives of this work were:  • and the   affecting quinoa cultivars with  emphasis on expansion areas (Central  Altiplano, Northern Altiplano and  inter-Andean Valleys).  •   economic importance.   Materials and methods   This study was based primarily on visits  and sampling to 50 quinoa plots in  different production areas (10 to 12 plots  per area). Samples were taken of the different  diseases that appeared throughout crop  development, considering the weather  conditions at the time of sampling. This  work was carried out from November    2013 to April 2014, with a season  characterized by high precipitation.  Samples of seedlings and plants in various  stages of development, and of different  types of tissues (leaves, stem, roots and  grains) were collected. The samples were collected in plastic  bags and in a refrigerated container to  keep samples fresh, each one being  identified according to the collection site.  The samples were taken to PROINPA’s  laboratories in the shortest time possible,  and immediately processed using routine  techniques, ie direct microscope  observation of signs, humid chamber and  seeding in culture media (Potato Dextrose  Agar). Taxonomic keys developed based  on morphological characteristics of the  different kinds of fungi (Barnett, 1960),  were used to identify the structures.   Results and discussion   The presentation of results is made based  on the appearance of diseases in the crop,  according to the phenological stage at  which they arose: [ Diseases arising from emergence to   the appearance of 6-8 true leaves: At the beginning of the cultivation cycle  samples were taken from dead seedlings  in cotiledoneal phase (emergence); a  constriction at the neck of the plant  (Figure 1) was observed. With no  movement of nutrients and water to the  stem, there was a massive seedling death.  Digging the ground, in places where there  was no emergence of seeds, seedling  death was evident.  This symptom of strangulation was  diagnosed in the Central and Northern  Altiplano, and the inter-Andean valleys.  In the field it appears as an irregular  emergence (Figure 2), little perceived by  farmers, usually attributed to soil  problems, salinity or lack of moisture. The disease occurs in years of excessive  moisture, soils with high clay content,  fertilized with partially decomposed  manure and poor drainage. Once the  disease is present it remains in the soil  attached to the roots and stems of dead  plants, as conservation structures  (chlamydospores in the case of Fusarium  and sclerotia for Rhizoctonia).   Due to several factors that influence the  emergence, it is estimated that the death  of seedlings due to Rhizoctonia and/or  Fusarium, is of up to 10%. [ Diseases that occur in the   phenological phases of branching,  panicle formation, flowering, grain  formation and physiological maturity As the plants continued to develop, in the  branching phase (eight true leaves) and/or  panicle formation (inflorescence begins to  emerge from the apex of the plant), in  some areas of production and depending  on weather conditions; chlorotic spots  appeared on the leaves (Figure 3).  Depending on the variety these spots can  be red, orange, brown or black.   As the disease progresses, the undersides  of leaves present a grayish sporulation  (Figure 4), which corresponds to  Peronospora variabilis 1, causal agent of   the quinoa mildew. Depending on the  humidity, this disease can remain until  harvest. The yellowing of leaves reduces  the photosynthetic capacity and also  causes defoliation of the plants (Figure 5),  thus yields are reduced.   P. variabilis is a pathogen of easy  dispersion (wind and rain). During crop  development dissemination structures are  mainly spores, however at senescence or  absence of crop, the disease is spread by  oospores (sexual reproduction structures)  that may be adhered to the surface of the  grain or inside the stubble that remains in  the field. Therefore dissemination occurs,  at close range by means of spores, and at  long range through oospores. Mildew occurs in all agro-ecological  regions, with varying severity depending  on environmental conditions (high  relative humidity, above 80%). In the  Southern Highlands it only appears when  rainfall is intense and prolonged.  When  the rainy period stops automatically the  mycelium is dried and the disease  progression is interrupted. Varieties of  royal quinoa are susceptible to this  disease. The losses caused by mildew depend on  the phenological phase at which the plant  is attacked and the degree of resistance of  the variety. When susceptible varieties are  grown and favorable weather conditions  are given, especially high relative  humidity, the effects of mildew are  severe. If the attack occurs in early stages  of plant development, production can be  completely lost. In resistant varieties,  losses fluctuate between 20% and 40%  (Danielsen  et al. 2003). Therefore,   economic losses range from 2-5 quintals,  which depending on the price of quinoa  can be very significant. Consequently, for  the year 2014 losses could be equivalent  to 6,000 Bs/ha.   Coinciding with the appearance of  mildew in the panicle formation and  flowering stages, on the chlorotic spots, a  green sporulation was observed on the top  side of leafs (Figure 6). The causal agent  is Cladosporium sp. which depending on   humidity, can cover the entire surface of  the spots (Figure 7) and accelerate the  falling of leaves. Just like mildew this  disease can occur up to harvesting stage.  When there is excessive humidity the  pathogen spreads from the foliage to the  panicle, and it tends to turn it black  (Figure 8). Depending on the stage of the  filling phase, when the attack takes place,  the grains may even remain empty. If the  grains are already formed, they will be  slightly stained. When processing these  grains in the laboratory, it was observed  that  Cladosporium  conidia remain   attached to the surface of the grain, being    its mode of dissemination and survival for  the next planting season. Since this disease is strongly associated  with mildew, when damage occurs in the  panicle, economic losses due to the green  mold would produce at least a 5% loss in  addition to the losses caused by mildew. At the same time, during the development  of plants in places where there is poor  drainage or where water accumulates, a  symptom of wilting and yellowing occurs.   At the beginning wilting is only apical but  later it is widespread, it even causes the  death of plants. Going through the root system, lesions  sunk in the neck of the plant are observed,  similar to those found during the    emergence stage. Taking the full root  system from the soil, necrosis of the main  root and rootlets is observed (Figure 9).  If  winds occur during this condition, plants  fall (Figure 10). Due to excess moisture, the surface  portion (skin) of the root decomposes  quickly, exposing the underlying tissue to  attack by other pathogens. The diagnosis  of these samples shows that the symptom  corresponds to Fusarium  sp. Therefore,   this pathogen appears in pre and  post-emergence, and may manifest again  during crop development. The way to  recognize diseased plants is through their  weak development in comparison to  healthy plants.   This disease has been observed mainly in  areas close to Lake Titicaca (Northern  Altiplano) and to a lesser extent in the  Central Altiplano, in areas with heavy  soils and poor drainage. In the case of inter-Andean valleys,  similar symptoms are observed in adult  plants. Other plants with little  development simply show a pink color on  roots and rootlets (Figure 11). An analysis  of these roots shows that symptoms can  also be attributed to Fusarium sp.  During development, necrotic spots have  also been observed on the foliage.  These  are roughly circular or irregular in shape,  with beige centers and slightly brown  edges (Figure 12), inside which pycnidia  are present (black dots). The size of the  lesions ranges from 5 to 10 mm in  diameter. Work done in the laboratory  evidenced that the causal agent of this  disease is Ascochyta sp. and the common  name of the disease is "leaf spot".   When attacks are severe, intense  defoliation occurs, thus reducing  photosynthetic capacity; and if the panicle  is in formation, the quality of grains is  affected (brown color). Studies of the grains conducted in  laboratory show that the fungus produces  abundant pycnidiospores accompanied by  a mild to severe necrosis in roots and/or  hypocotyl. Severely affected seedlings  die. Therefore, the disease is transmitted  through seeds; pycnidia remain attached  to the surface of the grains and also stay in  the stubble. For a new disease cycle to occur in the  next season a temperature of 18 to 24 °C  and a relative humidity of 80% is  required, the pycnidia germinate and give  rise to pycnidiospores and the infection  initiates again.   The geographical distribution of this  disease is not exactly known and  apparently it is not of major economic  importance (Danielsen et al., 2003). Finally, at the stage of senescence, when  the stem is lignified, ogival shaped lesions  can be observed. These lesions are light  gray in the center with brown edges,  surrounded by an aura of glassy  appearance, inside which you may notice  small black spots (Figure 13) which  correspond to pycnidia of the fungus  Phoma sp. The size of these lesions ranges   from 2 to 3 cm. When conditions are  favorable (especially high relative  humidity) a number of spots can be seen in  a single stem (Figure 14). During severe  attacks these spots grow and reach each  other, covering the entire area of the stem. From season to season, the fungus  survives in the stubble that remains in the  field. This pathogen does not require  mechanical wounds to enter the plant, it  enters through natural openings. This disease has been observed in the  Central and Northern Altiplano, and in the  inter-Andean valleys, and basically its    occurrence depends on the presence of  inoculum and high relative humidity.  In general, in all production areas of  Bolivia plants from all stages of  development (from emergence until  harvest), with virus infection symptoms,  have been observed. The causal agents  have not been determined, yet what is  known is that quinoa is used as universal    plant (indicator plant) for the detection of  various viruses. The most frequent  symptoms observed in quinoa are:  yellowing, shortening of internodes  (rosetting), leathery leaves, etc. (Figure  15).   Conclusions   • most disease the   "quinoa mildew", caused by  Peronospora variabilis, followed by  "green mold" and "seedling death."  These three diseases occur in different  agro-ecological regions of Bolivia.  •   the symptoms have been observed in  the Central and Northern Altiplano and  inter-Andean valleys, without causing  significant economic losses.   • "Ogival appears   senescence, affecting the stems and  rachis of the panicle. It has no  incidence in reducing quinoa grain  yield.  •   "mildew", "green mold" and "seedling  death".  •   and "seedling death" can result in  losses of up to 50%.   Cited References    Barnett. H. 1960. Ilustrated genera of imperfect   fungi. 2 ed. Burgess Publishing Company.  225 p.  Danielsen, S., Bonifacio, A., Ames, T. 2003.   Diseases of Quinoa (Chenopodium  quinoa). Food Reviews International. 19(1  y 2): 43-59.  Choi, Y., Denchev, C., Shin, H. 2008.   Morphological and molecular analyses  support existence of hostspecific  Peronospora species infecting  Chenopodium. Mycopathology. No.  165:155-164.  Choi, Y., Danielsen, S., Lubeck, M., Hong, S.,   Delhey, R., Shin, H. 2010. Morphological    and molecular characterization of the  causal agent of downy mildew on quinoa  (Chenopodium quinoa). Mycopathology.   No. 169:403-412.  Gandarillas, A., Rojas, W., Bonifacio, A.,   Ojeda, N. 2014. La quinua en Bolivia:  Perspectiva de la Fundación PROINPA.  Chapter 5. In: Bazile Didier “Estado del  Arte de la Quinua en el Mundo”. FAO (in  press).  Tapia, M., Gandarillas, H., Alandia, S.,   Cardozo, A., Otazú, V., Ortiz, R., Rea, J.,  Salas, B., Zanabria, E., Mujica, A. 1979. La  Quinua y la Kañiwa: Cultivos Andinos.  IICA/CIID, Oficina Regional para América  Latina. Bogotá, Colombia. pp. 142-147.   Introduction   Quinoa has evolved in the Andes. It was  domesticated by men and women from  civilizations like the Tiwanaku and the  Inca. Until the early eighties, the Andean  people cultivated quinoa due to their  advantages in adaptation to altitudes  between 2800 to 4000 m.a.s.l., and  semi-arid climates, and for its nutritional  benefits. The main product of the quinoa plant is  the grain, highly appreciated for the  preparation of traditional dishes in a way    somewhat similar to rice.  The leaves can  also be eaten fresh and, by products from  harvesting and threshing are destined for  animal feed (llamas). Quinoa comprises a wide diversity of  native varieties adapted to specific areas  of the Central, Northern and Southern  Altiplano, and valleys. In the highlands,  quinoa is the main food crop for the  inhabitants of this area. In the Southern  Altiplano, quinoa is the only crop that  thrives acceptably, this is why researchers  describe the production system as a  quinoa monoculture.   With the discovery of its nutritional  properties and its promotion, quinoa has  become an important export product and  an important source of income generation. Currently, quinoa is a product with high  demand in the market, with encouraging  prices for producers, processors and  traders, creating an important economic  activity for the country. The demand and high prices of quinoa  have stimulated the expansion of acreage,  covering new areas of production. This  expansion involves changes in the  production process and new technological  needs on several fronts: management of  pests and diseases, plant nutrition, seed  varieties and agronomic management. Climate change, in turn, has led to  changes in rainfall and new technological  demands, such as earlier varieties. On the  other hand the market demands various  colors of quinoa and more suitable  varieties for industrial processing. In this context, PROINPA has undertaken  the development of a new generation of  varieties focused on the following  priorities: • large varieties the   Southern Altiplano, necessary for late  planting, for re planting in case of  drought losses or seedlings buried by  strong winds, and for their shorter time  to harvest.  • large varieties   mildew resistance for the Central  Altiplano.  • resistant for   Northern Altiplano and valleys.   • (with and   (saponin free) varieties for specific  market demands and, for local and  family consumption of quinoa.  These  varieties have the advantage of  facilitating grain processing.  • for (flour   flakes) and for nutritional objectives  (nutraceuticals).  • all varieties for   mechanical harvesting are also sought,  mainly due to their drive towards  competitive, sustainable and resilient  production in the occurrence of  adverse climate change phenomena.   Results and discussion   With the application of classical breeding  methods, a number of varieties with  common and differential characteristics  have been generated. Common characteristics relate to  performance, size and color of grain. The  differential characteristics refer to  adaptation to different agro-ecological  zones, earliness, resistance to mildew,  bitter or sweet quinoa, industrial quality  among others. Large grain varieties are directed to the  use of quinoa in ways similar to rice  (pearled quinoa), ie. for cooking in soups  and boiled grain.   For this purposes grain  may be preferably white, but also red and  black in color. Most ecotypes of Royal  Quinoa are suitable for pearled quinoa  (Bonifacio et al., 2012). The research on  industrial quality of these varieties is in  progress.  Adapting varieties implies an analysis of  options in terms of producing them in  different ecoregions such as the Southern,  Central, and Northern Altiplano, Valleys  and Sub Tropics. The precocity is a character that enables  the management of adverse environmental  factors through the following  mechanisms:  1) avoid frost through a shorter   production cycle.  2) possibility of delayed planting   caused by lack of moisture in the  planting season.  3)  prevent losses and enable replanting   in case of: seedlings buried by winds  in sandy soils, clay soils crusting,  seedling loss by frost or drought.  Mildew resistance is a key component to  produce organic quinoa in areas outside  the Southern Altiplano. Quinoa is  susceptible to disease under conditions of  high relative humidity and soil moisture  (Bonifacio, 2006) and susceptible  varieties (Utusaya) can register a severity  of 100% (Danielsen and Ames, 2000).  Therefore resistance to mildew is essential  to produce quinoa in areas of high relative  humidity, to reduce the use of fungicides  for disease control, reduce production  costs and promote grain filling. The bitter and sweet varieties have not  received differentiation until now.  Bitter  quinoa is produced, processed and sold in  greater proportion. However, given the  volumes of water that are used (not  recycled) to remove the saponin, the  difficulties of eliminating foamy water  and, the increased energy expenditure    (scarifying, washing and drying); the  interest in sweet quinoa is reemerging. This sweet quinoa, although it has its  limitations due to the preferences of a  couple of bird species, requires less time  for scarifying and/or washing; therefore it  produces less loses during processing.  It  does not generate foamy water and  pearled grain does not have the strong,  pungent odor that bitter varieties have.  Due to these qualities of sweet quinoa, it  becomes an alternative for production  areas in the Central and Northern  Altiplano, as well as for lines of grain  processing and transformation. Therefore  sweet varieties generated three decades  ago are currently subject of differentiated  demand.  Industrial quality refers to the physical  and chemical properties of specific grain  varieties. In that sense, the varieties for  flour, flakes, and for pasta among other  uses and varietal differentiation, require  the appropriate quality for each process.  Varieties with industrial quality give more    relevance to the criteria of varietal purity  and homogeneity, so often promoted by  instances of variety registration and seed  certification. According to Bodoin (2009), demand and  use of quinoa certified seed is very low  compared to the volume of local seed used  for commercial production, and for  cultivar expansion. Table 1 lists the varieties generated by  PROINPA, their adaptation, production    cycle, grain characteristics and potential  uses, and shows the varieties’  recommendation domains. This  information can be used in the context of a  risk management quinoa production  strategy, taking into account the effects of  climate change, disease prevalence  (mildew) and, the demands of producers  and the market (with and without saponin,  industrial quality, etc.).    Challenges   Today, consumers are looking for  information about the quality of the  products they consume (protein content,  protein quality, gluten-free); it is for that  reason that quinoa has a high international  demand. The challenge, for the Bolivian quinoa to  be more competitive in the international  market, is to research its nutraceutical  properties such as antioxidant content,  iron and zinc, etc., and incorporate such  features in new varieties. The growing quinoa production areas,  lead to a search for technology of easy  application over large areas. This is the  case of cropping areas that are  progressively using more combined  harvesters. Therefore, the demand for  genetic improvement seeks the  development of new varieties with plant  architecture suitable for mechanization  (uniform size and uniform maturity). The actors in the quinoa value chain that  are in the processing link, need to be  informed about the qualities of the new  varieties, in terms of protein content,  amylopectin, antioxidants, etc., in order to  specialize the use of varieties.  This would  give way to processed products with  better quality and identity, since they  would not be processed with varietal  mixtures, as it is currently done. Finally, to achieve extensive use of  varieties, it is necessary that actors  specialized in the industry become  involved in the production of high quality  seed. This would allow producers,  associations and companies in the quinoa  value chain to have constant availability    and access to these varieties, meeting the  standards required by the corresponding  authorities. Currently, the vast majority of  producers, uses farmers' own and local  seed, even for use on cultivar expansion  (Bodoin, 2009).   Participating institutions   •  •  • (Proyecto Inno   vación. Estratégica Nacional - Minis  terio de Desarrollo Rural Agropecua  rio y Medio Ambiente).  National  Estrategic Innovation Project –   Ministry of Rural Development,  Agriculture and Environment.  •  • (Universidad de   Andrés).    •  • (Proyecto Resis-   tencia Duradera para la Zona Andina -  Universidad de Wageningen). Project  of Lasting Resistance for the Andean  Region - Wageningen University.   Cited references   Bodoin, A. 2009. Evaluación y perspectivas del   mercado de semilla certificadas de quinua  en la región del Salar de Uyuni en el  Altiplano Sur de Bolivia. 2nd Year  Internship Thesis. Agroparis Tech. Paris,  France. 35 p.  Bonifacio, A., Vargas, A., Aroni, G. 2003.   Variedad de quinua Jach’a Grano.  PROINPA Foundation. Technical Listing  No 6. Cochabamba, Bolivia.   Bonifacio, A., Vargas, A. 2005. Variedad de   Quinua Kurmi. PROINPA Foundation -  The McKnight Foundation - MACA.  Tchnical Listing No. 12.  Bonifacio, A., Vargas, A., Rojas, J. (n/y).   Variedad de Quinua Kurmi. PROINPA  Foundation - The McKnight Foundation -  MACA. Technical Listing No. P/FTE/81.  Bonifacio, A., Vargas, A., Aroni, G., Quispe, R.   (n/y). Variedad de Quinua Horizontes.  PROINPA Foundation- MDRAyMA.  Technical Listing No. P/FTE/79.  Bonifacio, A. 2006. El futuro de los productos   andinos en la región alta y los valles  centrales de los Andes. Granos en el área    altoandina de Bolivia, Ecuador y Perú.  ONUDI, Subdivisión de Promoción de  Inversión y Tecnología. On Line.    Available at: http://quinua.pe   Retrieved on June 6, 2014. Bonifacio, A., Aroni, G., Villca, M. 2012.   Catálogo etnobotánico de la Quinua Real.  PROINPA Foundation. Cochabamba,  Bolivia. 123 p.  Danielsen, S., Ames, T. 2000. El mildiu   (Peronospora farinosa) de la quinua   (Chenopodium quinoa) en la zona andina.   CIP-KVL. Lima, Perú. 32 p.     Revista de Agricultura, Nro. 54 - Julio de 2014   Area: Current National Affairs 25   Figure 11. Pink roots caused by Fusarium sp. in quinua   Introduction   The strong international demand for  quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) in  recent years, has led to a significant    increase in cultivated area in a very short  period of time (Gandarillas et al., 2014).  Commercial cultivation has expanded  from the traditional area of the Southern  Altiplano where Royal Quinoa is grown,    to new areas of "expansion" in the Central  and Northern Altiplano, and the  inter-Andean valleys. This situation has  led to face new problems, mainly due to  moisture. In the south, environmental  conditions are very dry, with an annual  average precipitation of 250 mm, while in  the Central and Northern Altiplano there  is an average precipitation of 500  mm/year, and in the valleys it reaches 800  mm/year. This article attempts to update  information on the incidence and  significance of the main fungal diseases  that affect quinoa, with emphasis on the  “expansion” areas, in the new context of  climate change, based on the publication  of Tapia et al., 1979.  The objectives of this work were:  • and the   affecting quinoa cultivars with  emphasis on expansion areas (Central  Altiplano, Northern Altiplano and  inter-Andean Valleys).  •   economic importance.   Materials and methods   This study was based primarily on visits  and sampling to 50 quinoa plots in  different production areas (10 to 12 plots  per area). Samples were taken of the different  diseases that appeared throughout crop  development, considering the weather  conditions at the time of sampling. This  work was carried out from November    2013 to April 2014, with a season  characterized by high precipitation.  Samples of seedlings and plants in various  stages of development, and of different  types of tissues (leaves, stem, roots and  grains) were collected. The samples were collected in plastic  bags and in a refrigerated container to  keep samples fresh, each one being  identified according to the collection site.  The samples were taken to PROINPA’s  laboratories in the shortest time possible,  and immediately processed using routine  techniques, ie direct microscope  observation of signs, humid chamber and  seeding in culture media (Potato Dextrose  Agar). Taxonomic keys developed based  on morphological characteristics of the  different kinds of fungi (Barnett, 1960),  were used to identify the structures.   Results and discussion   The presentation of results is made based  on the appearance of diseases in the crop,  according to the phenological stage at  which they arose: [ Diseases arising from emergence to   the appearance of 6-8 true leaves: At the beginning of the cultivation cycle  samples were taken from dead seedlings  in cotiledoneal phase (emergence); a  constriction at the neck of the plant  (Figure 1) was observed. With no  movement of nutrients and water to the  stem, there was a massive seedling death.  Digging the ground, in places where there  was no emergence of seeds, seedling  death was evident.  This symptom of strangulation was  diagnosed in the Central and Northern  Altiplano, and the inter-Andean valleys.  In the field it appears as an irregular  emergence (Figure 2), little perceived by  farmers, usually attributed to soil  problems, salinity or lack of moisture. The disease occurs in years of excessive  moisture, soils with high clay content,  fertilized with partially decomposed  manure and poor drainage. Once the  disease is present it remains in the soil  attached to the roots and stems of dead  plants, as conservation structures  (chlamydospores in the case of Fusarium  and sclerotia for Rhizoctonia).   Due to several factors that influence the  emergence, it is estimated that the death  of seedlings due to Rhizoctonia and/or  Fusarium, is of up to 10%. [ Diseases that occur in the   phenological phases of branching,  panicle formation, flowering, grain  formation and physiological maturity As the plants continued to develop, in the  branching phase (eight true leaves) and/or  panicle formation (inflorescence begins to  emerge from the apex of the plant), in  some areas of production and depending  on weather conditions; chlorotic spots  appeared on the leaves (Figure 3).  Depending on the variety these spots can  be red, orange, brown or black.   As the disease progresses, the undersides  of leaves present a grayish sporulation  (Figure 4), which corresponds to  Peronospora variabilis 1, causal agent of   the quinoa mildew. Depending on the  humidity, this disease can remain until  harvest. The yellowing of leaves reduces  the photosynthetic capacity and also  causes defoliation of the plants (Figure 5),  thus yields are reduced.   P. variabilis is a pathogen of easy  dispersion (wind and rain). During crop  development dissemination structures are  mainly spores, however at senescence or  absence of crop, the disease is spread by  oospores (sexual reproduction structures)  that may be adhered to the surface of the  grain or inside the stubble that remains in  the field. Therefore dissemination occurs,  at close range by means of spores, and at  long range through oospores. Mildew occurs in all agro-ecological  regions, with varying severity depending  on environmental conditions (high  relative humidity, above 80%). In the  Southern Highlands it only appears when  rainfall is intense and prolonged.  When  the rainy period stops automatically the  mycelium is dried and the disease  progression is interrupted. Varieties of  royal quinoa are susceptible to this  disease. The losses caused by mildew depend on  the phenological phase at which the plant  is attacked and the degree of resistance of  the variety. When susceptible varieties are  grown and favorable weather conditions  are given, especially high relative  humidity, the effects of mildew are  severe. If the attack occurs in early stages  of plant development, production can be  completely lost. In resistant varieties,  losses fluctuate between 20% and 40%  (Danielsen  et al. 2003). Therefore,   economic losses range from 2-5 quintals,  which depending on the price of quinoa  can be very significant. Consequently, for  the year 2014 losses could be equivalent  to 6,000 Bs/ha.   Coinciding with the appearance of  mildew in the panicle formation and  flowering stages, on the chlorotic spots, a  green sporulation was observed on the top  side of leafs (Figure 6). The causal agent  is Cladosporium sp. which depending on   humidity, can cover the entire surface of  the spots (Figure 7) and accelerate the  falling of leaves. Just like mildew this  disease can occur up to harvesting stage.  When there is excessive humidity the  pathogen spreads from the foliage to the  panicle, and it tends to turn it black  (Figure 8). Depending on the stage of the  filling phase, when the attack takes place,  the grains may even remain empty. If the  grains are already formed, they will be  slightly stained. When processing these  grains in the laboratory, it was observed  that  Cladosporium  conidia remain   attached to the surface of the grain, being    its mode of dissemination and survival for  the next planting season. Since this disease is strongly associated  with mildew, when damage occurs in the  panicle, economic losses due to the green  mold would produce at least a 5% loss in  addition to the losses caused by mildew. At the same time, during the development  of plants in places where there is poor  drainage or where water accumulates, a  symptom of wilting and yellowing occurs.   At the beginning wilting is only apical but  later it is widespread, it even causes the  death of plants. Going through the root system, lesions  sunk in the neck of the plant are observed,  similar to those found during the    emergence stage. Taking the full root  system from the soil, necrosis of the main  root and rootlets is observed (Figure 9).  If  winds occur during this condition, plants  fall (Figure 10). Due to excess moisture, the surface  portion (skin) of the root decomposes  quickly, exposing the underlying tissue to  attack by other pathogens. The diagnosis  of these samples shows that the symptom  corresponds to Fusarium  sp. Therefore,   this pathogen appears in pre and  post-emergence, and may manifest again  during crop development. The way to  recognize diseased plants is through their  weak development in comparison to  healthy plants.   This disease has been observed mainly in  areas close to Lake Titicaca (Northern  Altiplano) and to a lesser extent in the  Central Altiplano, in areas with heavy  soils and poor drainage. In the case of inter-Andean valleys,  similar symptoms are observed in adult  plants. Other plants with little  development simply show a pink color on  roots and rootlets (Figure 11). An analysis  of these roots shows that symptoms can  also be attributed to Fusarium sp.  During development, necrotic spots have  also been observed on the foliage.  These  are roughly circular or irregular in shape,  with beige centers and slightly brown  edges (Figure 12), inside which pycnidia  are present (black dots). The size of the  lesions ranges from 5 to 10 mm in  diameter. Work done in the laboratory  evidenced that the causal agent of this  disease is Ascochyta sp. and the common  name of the disease is "leaf spot".   When attacks are severe, intense  defoliation occurs, thus reducing  photosynthetic capacity; and if the panicle  is in formation, the quality of grains is  affected (brown color). Studies of the grains conducted in  laboratory show that the fungus produces  abundant pycnidiospores accompanied by  a mild to severe necrosis in roots and/or  hypocotyl. Severely affected seedlings  die. Therefore, the disease is transmitted  through seeds; pycnidia remain attached  to the surface of the grains and also stay in  the stubble. For a new disease cycle to occur in the  next season a temperature of 18 to 24 °C  and a relative humidity of 80% is  required, the pycnidia germinate and give  rise to pycnidiospores and the infection  initiates again.   The geographical distribution of this  disease is not exactly known and  apparently it is not of major economic  importance (Danielsen et al., 2003). Finally, at the stage of senescence, when  the stem is lignified, ogival shaped lesions  can be observed. These lesions are light  gray in the center with brown edges,  surrounded by an aura of glassy  appearance, inside which you may notice  small black spots (Figure 13) which  correspond to pycnidia of the fungus  Phoma sp. The size of these lesions ranges   from 2 to 3 cm. When conditions are  favorable (especially high relative  humidity) a number of spots can be seen in  a single stem (Figure 14). During severe  attacks these spots grow and reach each  other, covering the entire area of the stem. From season to season, the fungus  survives in the stubble that remains in the  field. This pathogen does not require  mechanical wounds to enter the plant, it  enters through natural openings. This disease has been observed in the  Central and Northern Altiplano, and in the  inter-Andean valleys, and basically its    occurrence depends on the presence of  inoculum and high relative humidity.  In general, in all production areas of  Bolivia plants from all stages of  development (from emergence until  harvest), with virus infection symptoms,  have been observed. The causal agents  have not been determined, yet what is  known is that quinoa is used as universal    plant (indicator plant) for the detection of  various viruses. The most frequent  symptoms observed in quinoa are:  yellowing, shortening of internodes  (rosetting), leathery leaves, etc. (Figure  15).   Conclusions   • most disease the   "quinoa mildew", caused by  Peronospora variabilis, followed by  "green mold" and "seedling death."  These three diseases occur in different  agro-ecological regions of Bolivia.  •   the symptoms have been observed in  the Central and Northern Altiplano and  inter-Andean valleys, without causing  significant economic losses.   • "Ogival appears   senescence, affecting the stems and  rachis of the panicle. It has no  incidence in reducing quinoa grain  yield.  •   "mildew", "green mold" and "seedling  death".  •   and "seedling death" can result in  losses of up to 50%.   Cited References    Barnett. H. 1960. Ilustrated genera of imperfect   fungi. 2 ed. Burgess Publishing Company.  225 p.  Danielsen, S., Bonifacio, A., Ames, T. 2003.   Diseases of Quinoa (Chenopodium  quinoa). Food Reviews International. 19(1  y 2): 43-59.  Choi, Y., Denchev, C., Shin, H. 2008.   Morphological and molecular analyses  support existence of hostspecific  Peronospora species infecting  Chenopodium. Mycopathology. No.  165:155-164.  Choi, Y., Danielsen, S., Lubeck, M., Hong, S.,   Delhey, R., Shin, H. 2010. Morphological    and molecular characterization of the  causal agent of downy mildew on quinoa  (Chenopodium quinoa). Mycopathology.   No. 169:403-412.  Gandarillas, A., Rojas, W., Bonifacio, A.,   Ojeda, N. 2014. La quinua en Bolivia:  Perspectiva de la Fundación PROINPA.  Chapter 5. In: Bazile Didier “Estado del  Arte de la Quinua en el Mundo”. FAO (in  press).  Tapia, M., Gandarillas, H., Alandia, S.,   Cardozo, A., Otazú, V., Ortiz, R., Rea, J.,  Salas, B., Zanabria, E., Mujica, A. 1979. La  Quinua y la Kañiwa: Cultivos Andinos.  IICA/CIID, Oficina Regional para América  Latina. Bogotá, Colombia. pp. 142-147.   Introduction   Quinoa has evolved in the Andes. It was  domesticated by men and women from  civilizations like the Tiwanaku and the  Inca. Until the early eighties, the Andean  people cultivated quinoa due to their  advantages in adaptation to altitudes  between 2800 to 4000 m.a.s.l., and  semi-arid climates, and for its nutritional  benefits. The main product of the quinoa plant is  the grain, highly appreciated for the  preparation of traditional dishes in a way    somewhat similar to rice.  The leaves can  also be eaten fresh and, by products from  harvesting and threshing are destined for  animal feed (llamas). Quinoa comprises a wide diversity of  native varieties adapted to specific areas  of the Central, Northern and Southern  Altiplano, and valleys. In the highlands,  quinoa is the main food crop for the  inhabitants of this area. In the Southern  Altiplano, quinoa is the only crop that  thrives acceptably, this is why researchers  describe the production system as a  quinoa monoculture.   With the discovery of its nutritional  properties and its promotion, quinoa has  become an important export product and  an important source of income generation. Currently, quinoa is a product with high  demand in the market, with encouraging  prices for producers, processors and  traders, creating an important economic  activity for the country. The demand and high prices of quinoa  have stimulated the expansion of acreage,  covering new areas of production. This  expansion involves changes in the  production process and new technological  needs on several fronts: management of  pests and diseases, plant nutrition, seed  varieties and agronomic management. Climate change, in turn, has led to  changes in rainfall and new technological  demands, such as earlier varieties. On the  other hand the market demands various  colors of quinoa and more suitable  varieties for industrial processing. In this context, PROINPA has undertaken  the development of a new generation of  varieties focused on the following  priorities: • large varieties the   Southern Altiplano, necessary for late  planting, for re planting in case of  drought losses or seedlings buried by  strong winds, and for their shorter time  to harvest.  • large varieties   mildew resistance for the Central  Altiplano.  • resistant for   Northern Altiplano and valleys.   • (with and   (saponin free) varieties for specific  market demands and, for local and  family consumption of quinoa.  These  varieties have the advantage of  facilitating grain processing.  • for (flour   flakes) and for nutritional objectives  (nutraceuticals).  • all varieties for   mechanical harvesting are also sought,  mainly due to their drive towards  competitive, sustainable and resilient  production in the occurrence of  adverse climate change phenomena.   Results and discussion   With the application of classical breeding  methods, a number of varieties with  common and differential characteristics  have been generated. Common characteristics relate to  performance, size and color of grain. The  differential characteristics refer to  adaptation to different agro-ecological  zones, earliness, resistance to mildew,  bitter or sweet quinoa, industrial quality  among others. Large grain varieties are directed to the  use of quinoa in ways similar to rice  (pearled quinoa), ie. for cooking in soups  and boiled grain.   For this purposes grain  may be preferably white, but also red and  black in color. Most ecotypes of Royal  Quinoa are suitable for pearled quinoa  (Bonifacio et al., 2012). The research on  industrial quality of these varieties is in  progress.  Adapting varieties implies an analysis of  options in terms of producing them in  different ecoregions such as the Southern,  Central, and Northern Altiplano, Valleys  and Sub Tropics. The precocity is a character that enables  the management of adverse environmental  factors through the following  mechanisms:  1) avoid frost through a shorter   production cycle.  2) possibility of delayed planting   caused by lack of moisture in the  planting season.  3)  prevent losses and enable replanting   in case of: seedlings buried by winds  in sandy soils, clay soils crusting,  seedling loss by frost or drought.  Mildew resistance is a key component to  produce organic quinoa in areas outside  the Southern Altiplano. Quinoa is  susceptible to disease under conditions of  high relative humidity and soil moisture  (Bonifacio, 2006) and susceptible  varieties (Utusaya) can register a severity  of 100% (Danielsen and Ames, 2000).  Therefore resistance to mildew is essential  to produce quinoa in areas of high relative  humidity, to reduce the use of fungicides  for disease control, reduce production  costs and promote grain filling. The bitter and sweet varieties have not  received differentiation until now.  Bitter  quinoa is produced, processed and sold in  greater proportion. However, given the  volumes of water that are used (not  recycled) to remove the saponin, the  difficulties of eliminating foamy water  and, the increased energy expenditure    (scarifying, washing and drying); the  interest in sweet quinoa is reemerging. This sweet quinoa, although it has its  limitations due to the preferences of a  couple of bird species, requires less time  for scarifying and/or washing; therefore it  produces less loses during processing.  It  does not generate foamy water and  pearled grain does not have the strong,  pungent odor that bitter varieties have.  Due to these qualities of sweet quinoa, it  becomes an alternative for production  areas in the Central and Northern  Altiplano, as well as for lines of grain  processing and transformation. Therefore  sweet varieties generated three decades  ago are currently subject of differentiated  demand.  Industrial quality refers to the physical  and chemical properties of specific grain  varieties. In that sense, the varieties for  flour, flakes, and for pasta among other  uses and varietal differentiation, require  the appropriate quality for each process.  Varieties with industrial quality give more    relevance to the criteria of varietal purity  and homogeneity, so often promoted by  instances of variety registration and seed  certification. According to Bodoin (2009), demand and  use of quinoa certified seed is very low  compared to the volume of local seed used  for commercial production, and for  cultivar expansion. Table 1 lists the varieties generated by  PROINPA, their adaptation, production    cycle, grain characteristics and potential  uses, and shows the varieties’  recommendation domains. This  information can be used in the context of a  risk management quinoa production  strategy, taking into account the effects of  climate change, disease prevalence  (mildew) and, the demands of producers  and the market (with and without saponin,  industrial quality, etc.).    Challenges   Today, consumers are looking for  information about the quality of the  products they consume (protein content,  protein quality, gluten-free); it is for that  reason that quinoa has a high international  demand. The challenge, for the Bolivian quinoa to  be more competitive in the international  market, is to research its nutraceutical  properties such as antioxidant content,  iron and zinc, etc., and incorporate such  features in new varieties. The growing quinoa production areas,  lead to a search for technology of easy  application over large areas. This is the  case of cropping areas that are  progressively using more combined  harvesters. Therefore, the demand for  genetic improvement seeks the  development of new varieties with plant  architecture suitable for mechanization  (uniform size and uniform maturity). The actors in the quinoa value chain that  are in the processing link, need to be  informed about the qualities of the new  varieties, in terms of protein content,  amylopectin, antioxidants, etc., in order to  specialize the use of varieties.  This would  give way to processed products with  better quality and identity, since they  would not be processed with varietal  mixtures, as it is currently done. Finally, to achieve extensive use of  varieties, it is necessary that actors  specialized in the industry become  involved in the production of high quality  seed. This would allow producers,  associations and companies in the quinoa  value chain to have constant availability    and access to these varieties, meeting the  standards required by the corresponding  authorities. Currently, the vast majority of  producers, uses farmers' own and local  seed, even for use on cultivar expansion  (Bodoin, 2009).   Participating institutions   •  •  • (Proyecto Inno   vación. Estratégica Nacional - Minis  terio de Desarrollo Rural Agropecua  rio y Medio Ambiente).  National  Estrategic Innovation Project –  Ministry of Rural Development,  Agriculture and Environment.  •  • (Universidad de   Andrés).    •  • (Proyecto Resis-   tencia Duradera para la Zona Andina -  Universidad de Wageningen). Project  of Lasting Resistance for the Andean  Region - Wageningen University.   Cited references   Bodoin, A. 2009. Evaluación y perspectivas del   mercado de semilla certificadas de quinua  en la región del Salar de Uyuni en el  Altiplano Sur de Bolivia. 2nd Year  Internship Thesis. Agroparis Tech. Paris,  France. 35 p.  Bonifacio, A., Vargas, A., Aroni, G. 2003.   Variedad de quinua Jach’a Grano.  PROINPA Foundation. Technical Listing  No 6. Cochabamba, Bolivia.   Bonifacio, A., Vargas, A. 2005. Variedad de   Quinua Kurmi. PROINPA Foundation -  The McKnight Foundation - MACA.  Tchnical Listing No. 12.  Bonifacio, A., Vargas, A., Rojas, J. (n/y).   Variedad de Quinua Kurmi. PROINPA  Foundation - The McKnight Foundation -  MACA. Technical Listing No. P/FTE/81.  Bonifacio, A., Vargas, A., Aroni, G., Quispe, R.   (n/y). Variedad de Quinua Horizontes.  PROINPA Foundation- MDRAyMA.  Technical Listing No. P/FTE/79.  Bonifacio, A. 2006. El futuro de los productos   andinos en la región alta y los valles  centrales de los Andes. Granos en el área    altoandina de Bolivia, Ecuador y Perú.  ONUDI, Subdivisión de Promoción de  Inversión y Tecnología. On Line.    Available at: http://quinua.pe   Retrieved on June 6, 2014. Bonifacio, A., Aroni, G., Villca, M. 2012.   Catálogo etnobotánico de la Quinua Real.  PROINPA Foundation. Cochabamba,  Bolivia. 123 p.  Danielsen, S., Ames, T. 2000. El mildiu   (Peronospora farinosa) de la quinua   (Chenopodium quinoa) en la zona andina.   CIP-KVL. Lima, Perú. 32 p.     ISSN 1998 - 9652   Area: Current National Affairs 26   Figure 12. Circular spots  with pycnidia inside  Figure 13. Ogival spot in the stem  with pycnidia inside   Figure 14. Several ogival spots  In the stem and lateral branches   Introduction   The strong international demand for  quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) in  recent years, has led to a significant    increase in cultivated area in a very short  period of time (Gandarillas et al., 2014).  Commercial cultivation has expanded  from the traditional area of the Southern  Altiplano where Royal Quinoa is grown,    to new areas of "expansion" in the Central  and Northern Altiplano, and the  inter-Andean valleys. This situation has  led to face new problems, mainly due to  moisture. In the south, environmental  conditions are very dry, with an annual  average precipitation of 250 mm, while in  the Central and Northern Altiplano there  is an average precipitation of 500  mm/year, and in the valleys it reaches 800  mm/year. This article attempts to update  information on the incidence and  significance of the main fungal diseases  that affect quinoa, with emphasis on the  “expansion” areas, in the new context of  climate change, based on the publication  of Tapia et al., 1979.  The objectives of this work were:  • and the   affecting quinoa cultivars with  emphasis on expansion areas (Central  Altiplano, Northern Altiplano and  inter-Andean Valleys).  •   economic importance.   Materials and methods   This study was based primarily on visits  and sampling to 50 quinoa plots in  different production areas (10 to 12 plots  per area). Samples were taken of the different  diseases that appeared throughout crop  development, considering the weather  conditions at the time of sampling. This  work was carried out from November    2013 to April 2014, with a season  characterized by high precipitation.  Samples of seedlings and plants in various  stages of development, and of different  types of tissues (leaves, stem, roots and  grains) were collected. The samples were collected in plastic  bags and in a refrigerated container to  keep samples fresh, each one being  identified according to the collection site.  The samples were taken to PROINPA’s  laboratories in the shortest time possible,  and immediately processed using routine  techniques, ie direct microscope  observation of signs, humid chamber and  seeding in culture media (Potato Dextrose  Agar). Taxonomic keys developed based  on morphological characteristics of the  different kinds of fungi (Barnett, 1960),  were used to identify the structures.   Results and discussion   The presentation of results is made based  on the appearance of diseases in the crop,  according to the phenological stage at  which they arose: [ Diseases arising from emergence to   the appearance of 6-8 true leaves: At the beginning of the cultivation cycle  samples were taken from dead seedlings  in cotiledoneal phase (emergence); a  constriction at the neck of the plant  (Figure 1) was observed. With no  movement of nutrients and water to the  stem, there was a massive seedling death.  Digging the ground, in places where there  was no emergence of seeds, seedling  death was evident.  This symptom of strangulation was  diagnosed in the Central and Northern  Altiplano, and the inter-Andean valleys.  In the field it appears as an irregular  emergence (Figure 2), little perceived by  farmers, usually attributed to soil  problems, salinity or lack of moisture. The disease occurs in years of excessive  moisture, soils with high clay content,  fertilized with partially decomposed  manure and poor drainage. Once the  disease is present it remains in the soil  attached to the roots and stems of dead  plants, as conservation structures  (chlamydospores in the case of Fusarium  and sclerotia for Rhizoctonia).   Due to several factors that influence the  emergence, it is estimated that the death  of seedlings due to Rhizoctonia and/or  Fusarium, is of up to 10%. [ Diseases that occur in the   phenological phases of branching,  panicle formation, flowering, grain  formation and physiological maturity As the plants continued to develop, in the  branching phase (eight true leaves) and/or  panicle formation (inflorescence begins to  emerge from the apex of the plant), in  some areas of production and depending  on weather conditions; chlorotic spots  appeared on the leaves (Figure 3).  Depending on the variety these spots can  be red, orange, brown or black.   As the disease progresses, the undersides  of leaves present a grayish sporulation  (Figure 4), which corresponds to  Peronospora variabilis 1, causal agent of   the quinoa mildew. Depending on the  humidity, this disease can remain until  harvest. The yellowing of leaves reduces  the photosynthetic capacity and also  causes defoliation of the plants (Figure 5),  thus yields are reduced.   P. variabilis is a pathogen of easy  dispersion (wind and rain). During crop  development dissemination structures are  mainly spores, however at senescence or  absence of crop, the disease is spread by  oospores (sexual reproduction structures)  that may be adhered to the surface of the  grain or inside the stubble that remains in  the field. Therefore dissemination occurs,  at close range by means of spores, and at  long range through oospores. Mildew occurs in all agro-ecological  regions, with varying severity depending  on environmental conditions (high  relative humidity, above 80%). In the  Southern Highlands it only appears when  rainfall is intense and prolonged.  When  the rainy period stops automatically the  mycelium is dried and the disease  progression is interrupted. Varieties of  royal quinoa are susceptible to this  disease. The losses caused by mildew depend on  the phenological phase at which the plant  is attacked and the degree of resistance of  the variety. When susceptible varieties are  grown and favorable weather conditions  are given, especially high relative  humidity, the effects of mildew are  severe. If the attack occurs in early stages  of plant development, production can be  completely lost. In resistant varieties,  losses fluctuate between 20% and 40%  (Danielsen  et al. 2003). Therefore,   economic losses range from 2-5 quintals,  which depending on the price of quinoa  can be very significant. Consequently, for  the year 2014 losses could be equivalent  to 6,000 Bs/ha.   Coinciding with the appearance of  mildew in the panicle formation and  flowering stages, on the chlorotic spots, a  green sporulation was observed on the top  side of leafs (Figure 6). The causal agent  is Cladosporium sp. which depending on   humidity, can cover the entire surface of  the spots (Figure 7) and accelerate the  falling of leaves. Just like mildew this  disease can occur up to harvesting stage.  When there is excessive humidity the  pathogen spreads from the foliage to the  panicle, and it tends to turn it black  (Figure 8). Depending on the stage of the  filling phase, when the attack takes place,  the grains may even remain empty. If the  grains are already formed, they will be  slightly stained. When processing these  grains in the laboratory, it was observed  that  Cladosporium  conidia remain   attached to the surface of the grain, being    its mode of dissemination and survival for  the next planting season. Since this disease is strongly associated  with mildew, when damage occurs in the  panicle, economic losses due to the green  mold would produce at least a 5% loss in  addition to the losses caused by mildew. At the same time, during the development  of plants in places where there is poor  drainage or where water accumulates, a  symptom of wilting and yellowing occurs.   At the beginning wilting is only apical but  later it is widespread, it even causes the  death of plants. Going through the root system, lesions  sunk in the neck of the plant are observed,  similar to those found during the    emergence stage. Taking the full root  system from the soil, necrosis of the main  root and rootlets is observed (Figure 9).  If  winds occur during this condition, plants  fall (Figure 10). Due to excess moisture, the surface  portion (skin) of the root decomposes  quickly, exposing the underlying tissue to  attack by other pathogens. The diagnosis  of these samples shows that the symptom  corresponds to Fusarium  sp. Therefore,   this pathogen appears in pre and  post-emergence, and may manifest again  during crop development. The way to  recognize diseased plants is through their  weak development in comparison to  healthy plants.   This disease has been observed mainly in  areas close to Lake Titicaca (Northern  Altiplano) and to a lesser extent in the  Central Altiplano, in areas with heavy  soils and poor drainage. In the case of inter-Andean valleys,  similar symptoms are observed in adult  plants. Other plants with little  development simply show a pink color on  roots and rootlets (Figure 11). An analysis  of these roots shows that symptoms can  also be attributed to Fusarium sp.  During development, necrotic spots have  also been observed on the foliage.  These  are roughly circular or irregular in shape,  with beige centers and slightly brown  edges (Figure 12), inside which pycnidia  are present (black dots). The size of the  lesions ranges from 5 to 10 mm in  diameter. Work done in the laboratory  evidenced that the causal agent of this  disease is Ascochyta sp. and the common  name of the disease is "leaf spot".   When attacks are severe, intense  defoliation occurs, thus reducing  photosynthetic capacity; and if the panicle  is in formation, the quality of grains is  affected (brown color). Studies of the grains conducted in  laboratory show that the fungus produces  abundant pycnidiospores accompanied by  a mild to severe necrosis in roots and/or  hypocotyl. Severely affected seedlings  die. Therefore, the disease is transmitted  through seeds; pycnidia remain attached  to the surface of the grains and also stay in  the stubble. For a new disease cycle to occur in the  next season a temperature of 18 to 24 °C  and a relative humidity of 80% is  required, the pycnidia germinate and give  rise to pycnidiospores and the infection  initiates again.   The geographical distribution of this  disease is not exactly known and  apparently it is not of major economic  importance (Danielsen et al., 2003). Finally, at the stage of senescence, when  the stem is lignified, ogival shaped lesions  can be observed. These lesions are light  gray in the center with brown edges,  surrounded by an aura of glassy  appearance, inside which you may notice  small black spots (Figure 13) which  correspond to pycnidia of the fungus  Phoma sp. The size of these lesions ranges   from 2 to 3 cm. When conditions are  favorable (especially high relative  humidity) a number of spots can be seen in  a single stem (Figure 14). During severe  attacks these spots grow and reach each  other, covering the entire area of the stem. From season to season, the fungus  survives in the stubble that remains in the  field. This pathogen does not require  mechanical wounds to enter the plant, it  enters through natural openings. This disease has been observed in the  Central and Northern Altiplano, and in the  inter-Andean valleys, and basically its    occurrence depends on the presence of  inoculum and high relative humidity.  In general, in all production areas of  Bolivia plants from all stages of  development (from emergence until  harvest), with virus infection symptoms,  have been observed. The causal agents  have not been determined, yet what is  known is that quinoa is used as universal    plant (indicator plant) for the detection of  various viruses. The most frequent  symptoms observed in quinoa are:  yellowing, shortening of internodes  (rosetting), leathery leaves, etc. (Figure  15).   Conclusions   • most disease the   "quinoa mildew", caused by  Peronospora variabilis, followed by  "green mold" and "seedling death."  These three diseases occur in different  agro-ecological regions of Bolivia.  •   the symptoms have been observed in  the Central and Northern Altiplano and  inter-Andean valleys, without causing  significant economic losses.   • "Ogival appears   senescence, affecting the stems and  rachis of the panicle. It has no  incidence in reducing quinoa grain  yield.  •   "mildew", "green mold" and "seedling  death".  •   and "seedling death" can result in  losses of up to 50%.   Cited References    Barnett. H. 1960. Ilustrated genera of imperfect   fungi. 2 ed. Burgess Publishing Company.  225 p.  Danielsen, S., Bonifacio, A., Ames, T. 2003.   Diseases of Quinoa (Chenopodium  quinoa). Food Reviews International. 19(1  y 2): 43-59.  Choi, Y., Denchev, C., Shin, H. 2008.   Morphological and molecular analyses  support existence of hostspecific  Peronospora species infecting  Chenopodium. Mycopathology. No.  165:155-164.  Choi, Y., Danielsen, S., Lubeck, M., Hong, S.,   Delhey, R., Shin, H. 2010. Morphological    and molecular characterization of the  causal agent of downy mildew on quinoa  (Chenopodium quinoa). Mycopathology.   No. 169:403-412.  Gandarillas, A., Rojas, W., Bonifacio, A.,   Ojeda, N. 2014. La quinua en Bolivia:  Perspectiva de la Fundación PROINPA.  Chapter 5. In: Bazile Didier “Estado del  Arte de la Quinua en el Mundo”. FAO (in  press).  Tapia, M., Gandarillas, H., Alandia, S.,   Cardozo, A., Otazú, V., Ortiz, R., Rea, J.,  Salas, B., Zanabria, E., Mujica, A. 1979. La  Quinua y la Kañiwa: Cultivos Andinos.  IICA/CIID, Oficina Regional para América  Latina. Bogotá, Colombia. pp. 142-147.   Introduction   Quinoa has evolved in the Andes. It was  domesticated by men and women from  civilizations like the Tiwanaku and the  Inca. Until the early eighties, the Andean  people cultivated quinoa due to their  advantages in adaptation to altitudes  between 2800 to 4000 m.a.s.l., and  semi-arid climates, and for its nutritional  benefits. The main product of the quinoa plant is  the grain, highly appreciated for the  preparation of traditional dishes in a way    somewhat similar to rice.  The leaves can  also be eaten fresh and, by products from  harvesting and threshing are destined for  animal feed (llamas). Quinoa comprises a wide diversity of  native varieties adapted to specific areas  of the Central, Northern and Southern  Altiplano, and valleys. In the highlands,  quinoa is the main food crop for the  inhabitants of this area. In the Southern  Altiplano, quinoa is the only crop that  thrives acceptably, this is why researchers  describe the production system as a  quinoa monoculture.   With the discovery of its nutritional  properties and its promotion, quinoa has  become an important export product and  an important source of income generation. Currently, quinoa is a product with high  demand in the market, with encouraging  prices for producers, processors and  traders, creating an important economic  activity for the country. The demand and high prices of quinoa  have stimulated the expansion of acreage,  covering new areas of production. This  expansion involves changes in the  production process and new technological  needs on several fronts: management of  pests and diseases, plant nutrition, seed  varieties and agronomic management. Climate change, in turn, has led to  changes in rainfall and new technological  demands, such as earlier varieties. On the  other hand the market demands various  colors of quinoa and more suitable  varieties for industrial processing. In this context, PROINPA has undertaken  the development of a new generation of  varieties focused on the following  priorities: • large varieties the   Southern Altiplano, necessary for late  planting, for re planting in case of  drought losses or seedlings buried by  strong winds, and for their shorter time  to harvest.  • large varieties   mildew resistance for the Central  Altiplano.  • resistant for   Northern Altiplano and valleys.   • (with and   (saponin free) varieties for specific  market demands and, for local and  family consumption of quinoa.  These  varieties have the advantage of  facilitating grain processing.  • for (flour   flakes) and for nutritional objectives  (nutraceuticals).  • all varieties for   mechanical harvesting are also sought,  mainly due to their drive towards  competitive, sustainable and resilient  production in the occurrence of  adverse climate change phenomena.   Results and discussion   With the application of classical breeding  methods, a number of varieties with  common and differential characteristics  have been generated. Common characteristics relate to  performance, size and color of grain. The  differential characteristics refer to  adaptation to different agro-ecological  zones, earliness, resistance to mildew,  bitter or sweet quinoa, industrial quality  among others. Large grain varieties are directed to the  use of quinoa in ways similar to rice  (pearled quinoa), ie. for cooking in soups  and boiled grain.   For this purposes grain  may be preferably white, but also red and  black in color. Most ecotypes of Royal  Quinoa are suitable for pearled quinoa  (Bonifacio et al., 2012). The research on  industrial quality of these varieties is in  progress.  Adapting varieties implies an analysis of  options in terms of producing them in  different ecoregions such as the Southern,  Central, and Northern Altiplano, Valleys  and Sub Tropics. The precocity is a character that enables  the management of adverse environmental  factors through the following  mechanisms:  1) avoid frost through a shorter   production cycle.  2) possibility of delayed planting   caused by lack of moisture in the  planting season.  3)  prevent losses and enable replanting   in case of: seedlings buried by winds  in sandy soils, clay soils crusting,  seedling loss by frost or drought.  Mildew resistance is a key component to  produce organic quinoa in areas outside  the Southern Altiplano. Quinoa is  susceptible to disease under conditions of  high relative humidity and soil moisture  (Bonifacio, 2006) and susceptible  varieties (Utusaya) can register a severity  of 100% (Danielsen and Ames, 2000).  Therefore resistance to mildew is essential  to produce quinoa in areas of high relative  humidity, to reduce the use of fungicides  for disease control, reduce production  costs and promote grain filling. The bitter and sweet varieties have not  received differentiation until now.  Bitter  quinoa is produced, processed and sold in  greater proportion. However, given the  volumes of water that are used (not  recycled) to remove the saponin, the  difficulties of eliminating foamy water  and, the increased energy expenditure    (scarifying, washing and drying); the  interest in sweet quinoa is reemerging. This sweet quinoa, although it has its  limitations due to the preferences of a  couple of bird species, requires less time  for scarifying and/or washing; therefore it  produces less loses during processing.  It  does not generate foamy water and  pearled grain does not have the strong,  pungent odor that bitter varieties have.  Due to these qualities of sweet quinoa, it  becomes an alternative for production  areas in the Central and Northern  Altiplano, as well as for lines of grain  processing and transformation. Therefore  sweet varieties generated three decades  ago are currently subject of differentiated  demand.  Industrial quality refers to the physical  and chemical properties of specific grain  varieties. In that sense, the varieties for  flour, flakes, and for pasta among other  uses and varietal differentiation, require  the appropriate quality for each process.  Varieties with industrial quality give more    relevance to the criteria of varietal purity  and homogeneity, so often promoted by  instances of variety registration and seed  certification. According to Bodoin (2009), demand and  use of quinoa certified seed is very low  compared to the volume of local seed used  for commercial production, and for  cultivar expansion. Table 1 lists the varieties generated by  PROINPA, their adaptation, production    cycle, grain characteristics and potential  uses, and shows the varieties’  recommendation domains. This  information can be used in the context of a  risk management quinoa production  strategy, taking into account the effects of  climate change, disease prevalence  (mildew) and, the demands of producers  and the market (with and without saponin,  industrial quality, etc.).    Challenges   Today, consumers are looking for  information about the quality of the  products they consume (protein content,  protein quality, gluten-free); it is for that  reason that quinoa has a high international  demand. The challenge, for the Bolivian quinoa to  be more competitive in the international  market, is to research its nutraceutical  properties such as antioxidant content,  iron and zinc, etc., and incorporate such  features in new varieties. The growing quinoa production areas,  lead to a search for technology of easy  application over large areas. This is the  case of cropping areas that are  progressively using more combined  harvesters. Therefore, the demand for  genetic improvement seeks the  development of new varieties with plant  architecture suitable for mechanization  (uniform size and uniform maturity). The actors in the quinoa value chain that  are in the processing link, need to be  informed about the qualities of the new  varieties, in terms of protein content,  amylopectin, antioxidants, etc., in order to  specialize the use of varieties.  This would  give way to processed products with  better quality and identity, since they  would not be processed with varietal  mixtures, as it is currently done. Finally, to achieve extensive use of  varieties, it is necessary that actors  specialized in the industry become  involved in the production of high quality  seed. This would allow producers,  associations and companies in the quinoa  value chain to have constant availability    and access to these varieties, meeting the  standards required by the corresponding  authorities. Currently, the vast majority of  producers, uses farmers' own and local  seed, even for use on cultivar expansion  (Bodoin, 2009).   Participating institutions   •  •  • (Proyecto Inno   vación. Estratégica Nacional - Minis  terio de Desarrollo Rural Agropecua  rio y Medio Ambiente).  National  Estrategic Innovation Project –  Ministry of Rural Development,  Agriculture and Environment.  •  • (Universidad de   Andrés).    •  • (Proyecto Resis-   tencia Duradera para la Zona Andina -  Universidad de Wageningen). Project  of Lasting Resistance for the Andean  Region - Wageningen University.   Cited references   Bodoin, A. 2009. Evaluación y perspectivas del   mercado de semilla certificadas de quinua  en la región del Salar de Uyuni en el  Altiplano Sur de Bolivia. 2nd Year  Internship Thesis. Agroparis Tech. Paris,  France. 35 p.  Bonifacio, A., Vargas, A., Aroni, G. 2003.   Variedad de quinua Jach’a Grano.  PROINPA Foundation. Technical Listing  No 6. Cochabamba, Bolivia.   Bonifacio, A., Vargas, A. 2005. Variedad de   Quinua Kurmi. PROINPA Foundation -  The McKnight Foundation - MACA.  Tchnical Listing No. 12.  Bonifacio, A., Vargas, A., Rojas, J. (n/y).   Variedad de Quinua Kurmi. PROINPA  Foundation - The McKnight Foundation -  MACA. Technical Listing No. P/FTE/81.  Bonifacio, A., Vargas, A., Aroni, G., Quispe, R.   (n/y). Variedad de Quinua Horizontes.  PROINPA Foundation- MDRAyMA.  Technical Listing No. P/FTE/79.  Bonifacio, A. 2006. El futuro de los productos   andinos en la región alta y los valles  centrales de los Andes. Granos en el área    altoandina de Bolivia, Ecuador y Perú.  ONUDI, Subdivisión de Promoción de  Inversión y Tecnología. On Line.    Available at: http://quinua.pe   Retrieved on June 6, 2014. Bonifacio, A., Aroni, G., Villca, M. 2012.   Catálogo etnobotánico de la Quinua Real.  PROINPA Foundation. Cochabamba,  Bolivia. 123 p.  Danielsen, S., Ames, T. 2000. El mildiu   (Peronospora farinosa) de la quinua   (Chenopodium quinoa) en la zona andina.   CIP-KVL. Lima, Perú. 32 p.     Revista de Agricultura, Nro. 54 - Julio de 2014   Area: Current National Affairs 27   Figure 15. Quinoa plant with   yellowing (left);shortening of  internodes, leathery leaves, yellowing  and little development (right);  characteristic symptoms of the incidence   of virus infections in this species   Introduction   The strong international demand for  quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) in  recent years, has led to a significant    increase in cultivated area in a very short  period of time (Gandarillas et al., 2014).  Commercial cultivation has expanded  from the traditional area of the Southern  Altiplano where Royal Quinoa is grown,    to new areas of "expansion" in the Central  and Northern Altiplano, and the  inter-Andean valleys. This situation has  led to face new problems, mainly due to  moisture. In the south, environmental  conditions are very dry, with an annual  average precipitation of 250 mm, while in  the Central and Northern Altiplano there  is an average precipitation of 500  mm/year, and in the valleys it reaches 800  mm/year. This article attempts to update  information on the incidence and  significance of the main fungal diseases  that affect quinoa, with emphasis on the  “expansion” areas, in the new context of  climate change, based on the publication  of Tapia et al., 1979.  The objectives of this work were:  • and the   affecting quinoa cultivars with  emphasis on expansion areas (Central  Altiplano, Northern Altiplano and  inter-Andean Valleys).  •   economic importance.   Materials and methods   This study was based primarily on visits  and sampling to 50 quinoa plots in  different production areas (10 to 12 plots  per area). Samples were taken of the different  diseases that appeared throughout crop  development, considering the weather  conditions at the time of sampling. This  work was carried out from November    2013 to April 2014, with a season  characterized by high precipitation.  Samples of seedlings and plants in various  stages of development, and of different  types of tissues (leaves, stem, roots and  grains) were collected. The samples were collected in plastic  bags and in a refrigerated container to  keep samples fresh, each one being  identified according to the collection site.  The samples were taken to PROINPA’s  laboratories in the shortest time possible,  and immediately processed using routine  techniques, ie direct microscope  observation of signs, humid chamber and  seeding in culture media (Potato Dextrose  Agar). Taxonomic keys developed based  on morphological characteristics of the  different kinds of fungi (Barnett, 1960),  were used to identify the structures.   Results and discussion   The presentation of results is made based  on the appearance of diseases in the crop,  according to the phenological stage at  which they arose: [ Diseases arising from emergence to   the appearance of 6-8 true leaves: At the beginning of the cultivation cycle  samples were taken from dead seedlings  in cotiledoneal phase (emergence); a  constriction at the neck of the plant  (Figure 1) was observed. With no  movement of nutrients and water to the  stem, there was a massive seedling death.  Digging the ground, in places where there  was no emergence of seeds, seedling  death was evident.  This symptom of strangulation was  diagnosed in the Central and Northern  Altiplano, and the inter-Andean valleys.  In the field it appears as an irregular  emergence (Figure 2), little perceived by  farmers, usually attributed to soil  problems, salinity or lack of moisture. The disease occurs in years of excessive  moisture, soils with high clay content,  fertilized with partially decomposed  manure and poor drainage. Once the  disease is present it remains in the soil  attached to the roots and stems of dead  plants, as conservation structures  (chlamydospores in the case of Fusarium  and sclerotia for Rhizoctonia).   Due to several factors that influence the  emergence, it is estimated that the death  of seedlings due to Rhizoctonia and/or  Fusarium, is of up to 10%. [ Diseases that occur in the   phenological phases of branching,  panicle formation, flowering, grain  formation and physiological maturity As the plants continued to develop, in the  branching phase (eight true leaves) and/or  panicle formation (inflorescence begins to  emerge from the apex of the plant), in  some areas of production and depending  on weather conditions; chlorotic spots  appeared on the leaves (Figure 3).  Depending on the variety these spots can  be red, orange, brown or black.   As the disease progresses, the undersides  of leaves present a grayish sporulation  (Figure 4), which corresponds to  Peronospora variabilis 1, causal agent of   the quinoa mildew. Depending on the  humidity, this disease can remain until  harvest. The yellowing of leaves reduces  the photosynthetic capacity and also  causes defoliation of the plants (Figure 5),  thus yields are reduced.   P. variabilis is a pathogen of easy  dispersion (wind and rain). During crop  development dissemination structures are  mainly spores, however at senescence or  absence of crop, the disease is spread by  oospores (sexual reproduction structures)  that may be adhered to the surface of the  grain or inside the stubble that remains in  the field. Therefore dissemination occurs,  at close range by means of spores, and at  long range through oospores. Mildew occurs in all agro-ecological  regions, with varying severity depending  on environmental conditions (high  relative humidity, above 80%). In the  Southern Highlands it only appears when  rainfall is intense and prolonged.  When  the rainy period stops automatically the  mycelium is dried and the disease  progression is interrupted. Varieties of  royal quinoa are susceptible to this  disease. The losses caused by mildew depend on  the phenological phase at which the plant  is attacked and the degree of resistance of  the variety. When susceptible varieties are  grown and favorable weather conditions  are given, especially high relative  humidity, the effects of mildew are  severe. If the attack occurs in early stages  of plant development, production can be  completely lost. In resistant varieties,  losses fluctuate between 20% and 40%  (Danielsen  et al. 2003). Therefore,   economic losses range from 2-5 quintals,  which depending on the price of quinoa  can be very significant. Consequently, for  the year 2014 losses could be equivalent  to 6,000 Bs/ha.   Coinciding with the appearance of  mildew in the panicle formation and  flowering stages, on the chlorotic spots, a  green sporulation was observed on the top  side of leafs (Figure 6). The causal agent  is Cladosporium sp. which depending on   humidity, can cover the entire surface of  the spots (Figure 7) and accelerate the  falling of leaves. Just like mildew this  disease can occur up to harvesting stage.  When there is excessive humidity the  pathogen spreads from the foliage to the  panicle, and it tends to turn it black  (Figure 8). Depending on the stage of the  filling phase, when the attack takes place,  the grains may even remain empty. If the  grains are already formed, they will be  slightly stained. When processing these  grains in the laboratory, it was observed  that  Cladosporium  conidia remain   attached to the surface of the grain, being    its mode of dissemination and survival for  the next planting season. Since this disease is strongly associated  with mildew, when damage occurs in the  panicle, economic losses due to the green  mold would produce at least a 5% loss in  addition to the losses caused by mildew. At the same time, during the development  of plants in places where there is poor  drainage or where water accumulates, a  symptom of wilting and yellowing occurs.   At the beginning wilting is only apical but  later it is widespread, it even causes the  death of plants. Going through the root system, lesions  sunk in the neck of the plant are observed,  similar to those found during the    emergence stage. Taking the full root  system from the soil, necrosis of the main  root and rootlets is observed (Figure 9).  If  winds occur during this condition, plants  fall (Figure 10). Due to excess moisture, the surface  portion (skin) of the root decomposes  quickly, exposing the underlying tissue to  attack by other pathogens. The diagnosis  of these samples shows that the symptom  corresponds to Fusarium  sp. Therefore,   this pathogen appears in pre and  post-emergence, and may manifest again  during crop development. The way to  recognize diseased plants is through their  weak development in comparison to  healthy plants.   This disease has been observed mainly in  areas close to Lake Titicaca (Northern  Altiplano) and to a lesser extent in the  Central Altiplano, in areas with heavy  soils and poor drainage. In the case of inter-Andean valleys,  similar symptoms are observed in adult  plants. Other plants with little  development simply show a pink color on  roots and rootlets (Figure 11). An analysis  of these roots shows that symptoms can  also be attributed to Fusarium sp.  During development, necrotic spots have  also been observed on the foliage.  These  are roughly circular or irregular in shape,  with beige centers and slightly brown  edges (Figure 12), inside which pycnidia  are present (black dots). The size of the  lesions ranges from 5 to 10 mm in  diameter. Work done in the laboratory  evidenced that the causal agent of this  disease is Ascochyta sp. and the common  name of the disease is "leaf spot".   When attacks are severe, intense  defoliation occurs, thus reducing  photosynthetic capacity; and if the panicle  is in formation, the quality of grains is  affected (brown color). Studies of the grains conducted in  laboratory show that the fungus produces  abundant pycnidiospores accompanied by  a mild to severe necrosis in roots and/or  hypocotyl. Severely affected seedlings  die. Therefore, the disease is transmitted  through seeds; pycnidia remain attached  to the surface of the grains and also stay in  the stubble. For a new disease cycle to occur in the  next season a temperature of 18 to 24 °C  and a relative humidity of 80% is  required, the pycnidia germinate and give  rise to pycnidiospores and the infection  initiates again.   The geographical distribution of this  disease is not exactly known and  apparently it is not of major economic  importance (Danielsen et al., 2003). Finally, at the stage of senescence, when  the stem is lignified, ogival shaped lesions  can be observed. These lesions are light  gray in the center with brown edges,  surrounded by an aura of glassy  appearance, inside which you may notice  small black spots (Figure 13) which  correspond to pycnidia of the fungus  Phoma sp. The size of these lesions ranges   from 2 to 3 cm. When conditions are  favorable (especially high relative  humidity) a number of spots can be seen in  a single stem (Figure 14). During severe  attacks these spots grow and reach each  other, covering the entire area of the stem. From season to season, the fungus  survives in the stubble that remains in the  field. This pathogen does not require  mechanical wounds to enter the plant, it  enters through natural openings. This disease has been observed in the  Central and Northern Altiplano, and in the  inter-Andean valleys, and basically its    occurrence depends on the presence of  inoculum and high relative humidity.  In general, in all production areas of  Bolivia plants from all stages of  development (from emergence until  harvest), with virus infection symptoms,  have been observed. The causal agents  have not been determined, yet what is  known is that quinoa is used as universal    plant (indicator plant) for the detection of  various viruses. The most frequent  symptoms observed in quinoa are:  yellowing, shortening of internodes  (rosetting), leathery leaves, etc. (Figure  15).   Conclusions   • most disease the   "quinoa mildew", caused by  Peronospora variabilis, followed by  "green mold" and "seedling death."  These three diseases occur in different  agro-ecological regions of Bolivia.  •   the symptoms have been observed in  the Central and Northern Altiplano and  inter-Andean valleys, without causing  significant economic losses.   • "Ogival appears   senescence, affecting the stems and  rachis of the panicle. It has no  incidence in reducing quinoa grain  yield.  •   "mildew", "green mold" and "seedling  death".  •   and "seedling death" can result in  losses of up to 50%.   Cited References    Barnett. H. 1960. Ilustrated genera of imperfect   fungi. 2 ed. Burgess Publishing Company.  225 p.  Danielsen, S., Bonifacio, A., Ames, T. 2003.   Diseases of Quinoa (Chenopodium  quinoa). Food Reviews International. 19(1  y 2): 43-59.  Choi, Y., Denchev, C., Shin, H. 2008.   Morphological and molecular analyses  support existence of hostspecific  Peronospora species infecting  Chenopodium. Mycopathology. No.  165:155-164.  Choi, Y., Danielsen, S., Lubeck, M., Hong, S.,   Delhey, R., Shin, H. 2010. Morphological    and molecular characterization of the  causal agent of downy mildew on quinoa  (Chenopodium quinoa). Mycopathology.   No. 169:403-412.  Gandarillas, A., Rojas, W., Bonifacio, A.,   Ojeda, N. 2014. La quinua en Bolivia:  Perspectiva de la Fundación PROINPA.  Chapter 5. In: Bazile Didier “Estado del  Arte de la Quinua en el Mundo”. FAO (in  press).  Tapia, M., Gandarillas, H., Alandia, S.,   Cardozo, A., Otazú, V., Ortiz, R., Rea, J.,  Salas, B., Zanabria, E., Mujica, A. 1979. La  Quinua y la Kañiwa: Cultivos Andinos.  IICA/CIID, Oficina Regional para América  Latina. Bogotá, Colombia. pp. 142-147.   Introduction   Quinoa has evolved in the Andes. It was  domesticated by men and women from  civilizations like the Tiwanaku and the  Inca. Until the early eighties, the Andean  people cultivated quinoa due to their  advantages in adaptation to altitudes  between 2800 to 4000 m.a.s.l., and  semi-arid climates, and for its nutritional  benefits. The main product of the quinoa plant is  the grain, highly appreciated for the  preparation of traditional dishes in a way    somewhat similar to rice.  The leaves can  also be eaten fresh and, by products from  harvesting and threshing are destined for  animal feed (llamas). Quinoa comprises a wide diversity of  native varieties adapted to specific areas  of the Central, Northern and Southern  Altiplano, and valleys. In the highlands,  quinoa is the main food crop for the  inhabitants of this area. In the Southern  Altiplano, quinoa is the only crop that  thrives acceptably, this is why researchers  describe the production system as a  quinoa monoculture.   With the discovery of its nutritional  properties and its promotion, quinoa has  become an important export product and  an important source of income generation. Currently, quinoa is a product with high  demand in the market, with encouraging  prices for producers, processors and  traders, creating an important economic  activity for the country. The demand and high prices of quinoa  have stimulated the expansion of acreage,  covering new areas of production. This  expansion involves changes in the  production process and new technological  needs on several fronts: management of  pests and diseases, plant nutrition, seed  varieties and agronomic management. Climate change, in turn, has led to  changes in rainfall and new technological  demands, such as earlier varieties. On the  other hand the market demands various  colors of quinoa and more suitable  varieties for industrial processing. In this context, PROINPA has undertaken  the development of a new generation of  varieties focused on the following  priorities: • large varieties the   Southern Altiplano, necessary for late  planting, for re planting in case of  drought losses or seedlings buried by  strong winds, and for their shorter time  to harvest.  • large varieties   mildew resistance for the Central  Altiplano.  • resistant for   Northern Altiplano and valleys.   • (with and   (saponin free) varieties for specific  market demands and, for local and  family consumption of quinoa.  These  varieties have the advantage of  facilitating grain processing.  • for (flour   flakes) and for nutritional objectives  (nutraceuticals).  • all varieties for   mechanical harvesting are also sought,  mainly due to their drive towards  competitive, sustainable and resilient  production in the occurrence of  adverse climate change phenomena.   Results and discussion   With the application of classical breeding  methods, a number of varieties with  common and differential characteristics  have been generated. Common characteristics relate to  performance, size and color of grain. The  differential characteristics refer to  adaptation to different agro-ecological  zones, earliness, resistance to mildew,  bitter or sweet quinoa, industrial quality  among others. Large grain varieties are directed to the  use of quinoa in ways similar to rice  (pearled quinoa), ie. for cooking in soups  and boiled grain.   For this purposes grain  may be preferably white, but also red and  black in color. Most ecotypes of Royal  Quinoa are suitable for pearled quinoa  (Bonifacio et al., 2012). The research on  industrial quality of these varieties is in  progress.  Adapting varieties implies an analysis of  options in terms of producing them in  different ecoregions such as the Southern,  Central, and Northern Altiplano, Valleys  and Sub Tropics. The precocity is a character that enables  the management of adverse environmental  factors through the following  mechanisms:  1) avoid frost through a shorter   production cycle.  2) possibility of delayed planting   caused by lack of moisture in the  planting season.  3)  prevent losses and enable replanting   in case of: seedlings buried by winds  in sandy soils, clay soils crusting,  seedling loss by frost or drought.  Mildew resistance is a key component to  produce organic quinoa in areas outside  the Southern Altiplano. Quinoa is  susceptible to disease under conditions of  high relative humidity and soil moisture  (Bonifacio, 2006) and susceptible  varieties (Utusaya) can register a severity  of 100% (Danielsen and Ames, 2000).  Therefore resistance to mildew is essential  to produce quinoa in areas of high relative  humidity, to reduce the use of fungicides  for disease control, reduce production  costs and promote grain filling. The bitter and sweet varieties have not  received differentiation until now.  Bitter  quinoa is produced, processed and sold in  greater proportion. However, given the  volumes of water that are used (not  recycled) to remove the saponin, the  difficulties of eliminating foamy water  and, the increased energy expenditure    (scarifying, washing and drying); the  interest in sweet quinoa is reemerging. This sweet quinoa, although it has its  limitations due to the preferences of a  couple of bird species, requires less time  for scarifying and/or washing; therefore it  produces less loses during processing.  It  does not generate foamy water and  pearled grain does not have the strong,  pungent odor that bitter varieties have.  Due to these qualities of sweet quinoa, it  becomes an alternative for production  areas in the Central and Northern  Altiplano, as well as for lines of grain  processing and transformation. Therefore  sweet varieties generated three decades  ago are currently subject of differentiated  demand.  Industrial quality refers to the physical  and chemical properties of specific grain  varieties. In that sense, the varieties for  flour, flakes, and for pasta among other  uses and varietal differentiation, require  the appropriate quality for each process.  Varieties with industrial quality give more    relevance to the criteria of varietal purity  and homogeneity, so often promoted by  instances of variety registration and seed  certification. According to Bodoin (2009), demand and  use of quinoa certified seed is very low  compared to the volume of local seed used  for commercial production, and for  cultivar expansion. Table 1 lists the varieties generated by  PROINPA, their adaptation, production    cycle, grain characteristics and potential  uses, and shows the varieties’  recommendation domains. This  information can be used in the context of a  risk management quinoa production  strategy, taking into account the effects of  climate change, disease prevalence  (mildew) and, the demands of producers  and the market (with and without saponin,  industrial quality, etc.).    Challenges   Today, consumers are looking for  information about the quality of the  products they consume (protein content,  protein quality, gluten-free); it is for that  reason that quinoa has a high international  demand. The challenge, for the Bolivian quinoa to  be more competitive in the international  market, is to research its nutraceutical  properties such as antioxidant content,  iron and zinc, etc., and incorporate such  features in new varieties. The growing quinoa production areas,  lead to a search for technology of easy  application over large areas. This is the  case of cropping areas that are  progressively using more combined  harvesters. Therefore, the demand for  genetic improvement seeks the  development of new varieties with plant  architecture suitable for mechanization  (uniform size and uniform maturity). The actors in the quinoa value chain that  are in the processing link, need to be  informed about the qualities of the new  varieties, in terms of protein content,  amylopectin, antioxidants, etc., in order to  specialize the use of varieties.  This would  give way to processed products with  better quality and identity, since they  would not be processed with varietal  mixtures, as it is currently done. Finally, to achieve extensive use of  varieties, it is necessary that actors  specialized in the industry become  involved in the production of high quality  seed. This would allow producers,  associations and companies in the quinoa  value chain to have constant availability    and access to these varieties, meeting the  standards required by the corresponding  authorities. Currently, the vast majority of  producers, uses farmers' own and local  seed, even for use on cultivar expansion  (Bodoin, 2009).   Participating institutions   •  •  • (Proyecto Inno   vación. Estratégica Nacional - Minis  terio de Desarrollo Rural Agropecua  rio y Medio Ambiente).  National  Estrategic Innovation Project –  Ministry of Rural Development,  Agriculture and Environment.  •  • (Universidad de   Andrés).    •  • (Proyecto Resis-   tencia Duradera para la Zona Andina -  Universidad de Wageningen). Project  of Lasting Resistance for the Andean  Region - Wageningen University.   Cited references   Bodoin, A. 2009. Evaluación y perspectivas del   mercado de semilla certificadas de quinua  en la región del Salar de Uyuni en el  Altiplano Sur de Bolivia. 2nd Year  Internship Thesis. Agroparis Tech. Paris,  France. 35 p.  Bonifacio, A., Vargas, A., Aroni, G. 2003.   Variedad de quinua Jach’a Grano.  PROINPA Foundation. Technical Listing  No 6. Cochabamba, Bolivia.   Bonifacio, A., Vargas, A. 2005. Variedad de   Quinua Kurmi. PROINPA Foundation -  The McKnight Foundation - MACA.  Tchnical Listing No. 12.  Bonifacio, A., Vargas, A., Rojas, J. (n/y).   Variedad de Quinua Kurmi. PROINPA  Foundation - The McKnight Foundation -  MACA. Technical Listing No. P/FTE/81.  Bonifacio, A., Vargas, A., Aroni, G., Quispe, R.   (n/y). Variedad de Quinua Horizontes.  PROINPA Foundation- MDRAyMA.  Technical Listing No. P/FTE/79.  Bonifacio, A. 2006. El futuro de los productos   andinos en la región alta y los valles  centrales de los Andes. Granos en el área    altoandina de Bolivia, Ecuador y Perú.  ONUDI, Subdivisión de Promoción de  Inversión y Tecnología. On Line.    Available at: http://quinua.pe   Retrieved on June 6, 2014. Bonifacio, A., Aroni, G., Villca, M. 2012.   Catálogo etnobotánico de la Quinua Real.  PROINPA Foundation. Cochabamba,  Bolivia. 123 p.  Danielsen, S., Ames, T. 2000. El mildiu   (Peronospora farinosa) de la quinua   (Chenopodium quinoa) en la zona andina.   CIP-KVL. Lima, Perú. 32 p.     ISSN 1998 - 9652   Area: Current National Affairs 28   Article received on June 10, 2014 - Article accepted on June 17, 2014   www.biotopbolivia.org   s.r.l. Bioinsumos para la vida   Con el objetivo de generar  una agricultura sostenible y  saludable, BIOTOP SRL,   pone a su disposición  bioinsumos que no dañan la  salud humana y no afectan al  medio ambiente. Estos  bioinsumos cuentan con  registro sanitario y cumplen  con las normas para la  producción orgánica.   CONTACTOS Oficina Central: COCHABAMBA Av. E. Meneces s/n Km 4 zona El Paso  – Cochabamba Telf.: (591-4) 4319595 int 162 –  4319522 m.crespo@biotopbolivia.org Oficina Oruro C. Rodríguez # 340 (Potosí y Pagador) Teléfono/Fax: (591-2) 5284490 j.olivera@biotopbolivia.org   PRODUCTOS BIOFUNGICIDAS •  Biobacillus  •  Tricotop  BIOINSECTICIDAS •  Acaritop  •  Matapol Plus  BIOFERTILIZANTES Y  PROMOTORES DE CRECIMIENTO •   Tricobal  •  Vigortop  ACELERADOR EN LA  FERMENTACIÓN ORGÁNICA •   BioBull  •  Biograd   Introduction   The strong international demand for  quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) in  recent years, has led to a significant    increase in cultivated area in a very short  period of time (Gandarillas et al., 2014).  Commercial cultivation has expanded  from the traditional area of the Southern  Altiplano where Royal Quinoa is grown,    to new areas of "expansion" in the Central  and Northern Altiplano, and the  inter-Andean valleys. This situation has  led to face new problems, mainly due to  moisture. In the south, environmental  conditions are very dry, with an annual  average precipitation of 250 mm, while in  the Central and Northern Altiplano there  is an average precipitation of 500  mm/year, and in the valleys it reaches 800  mm/year. This article attempts to update  information on the incidence and  significance of the main fungal diseases  that affect quinoa, with emphasis on the  “expansion” areas, in the new context of  climate change, based on the publication  of Tapia et al., 1979.  The objectives of this work were:  • and the   affecting quinoa cultivars with  emphasis on expansion areas (Central  Altiplano, Northern Altiplano and  inter-Andean Valleys).  •   economic importance.   Materials and methods   This study was based primarily on visits  and sampling to 50 quinoa plots in  different production areas (10 to 12 plots  per area). Samples were taken of the different  diseases that appeared throughout crop  development, considering the weather  conditions at the time of sampling. This  work was carried out from November    2013 to April 2014, with a season  characterized by high precipitation.  Samples of seedlings and plants in various  stages of development, and of different  types of tissues (leaves, stem, roots and  grains) were collected. The samples were collected in plastic  bags and in a refrigerated container to  keep samples fresh, each one being  identified according to the collection site.  The samples were taken to PROINPA’s  laboratories in the shortest time possible,  and immediately processed using routine  techniques, ie direct microscope  observation of signs, humid chamber and  seeding in culture media (Potato Dextrose  Agar). Taxonomic keys developed based  on morphological characteristics of the  different kinds of fungi (Barnett, 1960),  were used to identify the structures.   Results and discussion   The presentation of results is made based  on the appearance of diseases in the crop,  according to the phenological stage at  which they arose: [ Diseases arising from emergence to   the appearance of 6-8 true leaves: At the beginning of the cultivation cycle  samples were taken from dead seedlings  in cotiledoneal phase (emergence); a  constriction at the neck of the plant  (Figure 1) was observed. With no  movement of nutrients and water to the  stem, there was a massive seedling death.  Digging the ground, in places where there  was no emergence of seeds, seedling  death was evident.  This symptom of strangulation was  diagnosed in the Central and Northern  Altiplano, and the inter-Andean valleys.  In the field it appears as an irregular  emergence (Figure 2), little perceived by  farmers, usually attributed to soil  problems, salinity or lack of moisture. The disease occurs in years of excessive  moisture, soils with high clay content,  fertilized with partially decomposed  manure and poor drainage. Once the  disease is present it remains in the soil  attached to the roots and stems of dead  plants, as conservation structures  (chlamydospores in the case of Fusarium  and sclerotia for Rhizoctonia).   Due to several factors that influence the  emergence, it is estimated that the death  of seedlings due to Rhizoctonia and/or  Fusarium, is of up to 10%. [ Diseases that occur in the   phenological phases of branching,  panicle formation, flowering, grain  formation and physiological maturity As the plants continued to develop, in the  branching phase (eight true leaves) and/or  panicle formation (inflorescence begins to  emerge from the apex of the plant), in  some areas of production and depending  on weather conditions; chlorotic spots  appeared on the leaves (Figure 3).  Depending on the variety these spots can  be red, orange, brown or black.   As the disease progresses, the undersides  of leaves present a grayish sporulation  (Figure 4), which corresponds to  Peronospora variabilis 1, causal agent of   the quinoa mildew. Depending on the  humidity, this disease can remain until  harvest. The yellowing of leaves reduces  the photosynthetic capacity and also  causes defoliation of the plants (Figure 5),  thus yields are reduced.   P. variabilis is a pathogen of easy  dispersion (wind and rain). During crop  development dissemination structures are  mainly spores, however at senescence or  absence of crop, the disease is spread by  oospores (sexual reproduction structures)  that may be adhered to the surface of the  grain or inside the stubble that remains in  the field. Therefore dissemination occurs,  at close range by means of spores, and at  long range through oospores. Mildew occurs in all agro-ecological  regions, with varying severity depending  on environmental conditions (high  relative humidity, above 80%). In the  Southern Highlands it only appears when  rainfall is intense and prolonged.  When  the rainy period stops automatically the  mycelium is dried and the disease  progression is interrupted. Varieties of  royal quinoa are susceptible to this  disease. The losses caused by mildew depend on  the phenological phase at which the plant  is attacked and the degree of resistance of  the variety. When susceptible varieties are  grown and favorable weather conditions  are given, especially high relative  humidity, the effects of mildew are  severe. If the attack occurs in early stages  of plant development, production can be  completely lost. In resistant varieties,  losses fluctuate between 20% and 40%  (Danielsen  et al. 2003). Therefore,   economic losses range from 2-5 quintals,  which depending on the price of quinoa  can be very significant. Consequently, for  the year 2014 losses could be equivalent  to 6,000 Bs/ha.   Coinciding with the appearance of  mildew in the panicle formation and  flowering stages, on the chlorotic spots, a  green sporulation was observed on the top  side of leafs (Figure 6). The causal agent  is Cladosporium sp. which depending on   humidity, can cover the entire surface of  the spots (Figure 7) and accelerate the  falling of leaves. Just like mildew this  disease can occur up to harvesting stage.  When there is excessive humidity the  pathogen spreads from the foliage to the  panicle, and it tends to turn it black  (Figure 8). Depending on the stage of the  filling phase, when the attack takes place,  the grains may even remain empty. If the  grains are already formed, they will be  slightly stained. When processing these  grains in the laboratory, it was observed  that  Cladosporium  conidia remain   attached to the surface of the grain, being    its mode of dissemination and survival for  the next planting season. Since this disease is strongly associated  with mildew, when damage occurs in the  panicle, economic losses due to the green  mold would produce at least a 5% loss in  addition to the losses caused by mildew. At the same time, during the development  of plants in places where there is poor  drainage or where water accumulates, a  symptom of wilting and yellowing occurs.   At the beginning wilting is only apical but  later it is widespread, it even causes the  death of plants. Going through the root system, lesions  sunk in the neck of the plant are observed,  similar to those found during the    emergence stage. Taking the full root  system from the soil, necrosis of the main  root and rootlets is observed (Figure 9).  If  winds occur during this condition, plants  fall (Figure 10). Due to excess moisture, the surface  portion (skin) of the root decomposes  quickly, exposing the underlying tissue to  attack by other pathogens. The diagnosis  of these samples shows that the symptom  corresponds to Fusarium  sp. Therefore,   this pathogen appears in pre and  post-emergence, and may manifest again  during crop development. The way to  recognize diseased plants is through their  weak development in comparison to  healthy plants.   This disease has been observed mainly in  areas close to Lake Titicaca (Northern  Altiplano) and to a lesser extent in the  Central Altiplano, in areas with heavy  soils and poor drainage. In the case of inter-Andean valleys,  similar symptoms are observed in adult  plants. Other plants with little  development simply show a pink color on  roots and rootlets (Figure 11). An analysis  of these roots shows that symptoms can  also be attributed to Fusarium sp.  During development, necrotic spots have  also been observed on the foliage.  These  are roughly circular or irregular in shape,  with beige centers and slightly brown  edges (Figure 12), inside which pycnidia  are present (black dots). The size of the  lesions ranges from 5 to 10 mm in  diameter. Work done in the laboratory  evidenced that the causal agent of this  disease is Ascochyta sp. and the common  name of the disease is "leaf spot".   When attacks are severe, intense  defoliation occurs, thus reducing  photosynthetic capacity; and if the panicle  is in formation, the quality of grains is  affected (brown color). Studies of the grains conducted in  laboratory show that the fungus produces  abundant pycnidiospores accompanied by  a mild to severe necrosis in roots and/or  hypocotyl. Severely affected seedlings  die. Therefore, the disease is transmitted  through seeds; pycnidia remain attached  to the surface of the grains and also stay in  the stubble. For a new disease cycle to occur in the  next season a temperature of 18 to 24 °C  and a relative humidity of 80% is  required, the pycnidia germinate and give  rise to pycnidiospores and the infection  initiates again.   The geographical distribution of this  disease is not exactly known and  apparently it is not of major economic  importance (Danielsen et al., 2003). Finally, at the stage of senescence, when  the stem is lignified, ogival shaped lesions  can be observed. These lesions are light  gray in the center with brown edges,  surrounded by an aura of glassy  appearance, inside which you may notice  small black spots (Figure 13) which  correspond to pycnidia of the fungus  Phoma sp. The size of these lesions ranges   from 2 to 3 cm. When conditions are  favorable (especially high relative  humidity) a number of spots can be seen in  a single stem (Figure 14). During severe  attacks these spots grow and reach each  other, covering the entire area of the stem. From season to season, the fungus  survives in the stubble that remains in the  field. This pathogen does not require  mechanical wounds to enter the plant, it  enters through natural openings. This disease has been observed in the  Central and Northern Altiplano, and in the  inter-Andean valleys, and basically its    occurrence depends on the presence of  inoculum and high relative humidity.  In general, in all production areas of  Bolivia plants from all stages of  development (from emergence until  harvest), with virus infection symptoms,  have been observed. The causal agents  have not been determined, yet what is  known is that quinoa is used as universal    plant (indicator plant) for the detection of  various viruses. The most frequent  symptoms observed in quinoa are:  yellowing, shortening of internodes  (rosetting), leathery leaves, etc. (Figure  15).   Conclusions   • most disease the   "quinoa mildew", caused by  Peronospora variabilis, followed by  "green mold" and "seedling death."  These three diseases occur in different  agro-ecological regions of Bolivia.  •   the symptoms have been observed in  the Central and Northern Altiplano and  inter-Andean valleys, without causing  significant economic losses.   • "Ogival appears   senescence, affecting the stems and  rachis of the panicle. It has no  incidence in reducing quinoa grain  yield.  •   "mildew", "green mold" and "seedling  death".  •   and "seedling death" can result in  losses of up to 50%.   Cited References    Barnett. H. 1960. Ilustrated genera of imperfect   fungi. 2 ed. Burgess Publishing Company.  225 p.  Danielsen, S., Bonifacio, A., Ames, T. 2003.   Diseases of Quinoa (Chenopodium  quinoa). Food Reviews International. 19(1  y 2): 43-59.  Choi, Y., Denchev, C., Shin, H. 2008.   Morphological and molecular analyses  support existence of hostspecific  Peronospora species infecting  Chenopodium. Mycopathology. No.  165:155-164.  Choi, Y., Danielsen, S., Lubeck, M., Hong, S.,   Delhey, R., Shin, H. 2010. Morphological    and molecular characterization of the  causal agent of downy mildew on quinoa  (Chenopodium quinoa). Mycopathology.   No. 169:403-412.  Gandarillas, A., Rojas, W., Bonifacio, A.,   Ojeda, N. 2014. La quinua en Bolivia:  Perspectiva de la Fundación PROINPA.  Chapter 5. In: Bazile Didier “Estado del  Arte de la Quinua en el Mundo”. FAO (in  press).  Tapia, M., Gandarillas, H., Alandia, S.,   Cardozo, A., Otazú, V., Ortiz, R., Rea, J.,  Salas, B., Zanabria, E., Mujica, A. 1979. La  Quinua y la Kañiwa: Cultivos Andinos.  IICA/CIID, Oficina Regional para América  Latina. Bogotá, Colombia. pp. 142-147.   Introduction   Quinoa has evolved in the Andes. It was  domesticated by men and women from  civilizations like the Tiwanaku and the  Inca. Until the early eighties, the Andean  people cultivated quinoa due to their  advantages in adaptation to altitudes  between 2800 to 4000 m.a.s.l., and  semi-arid climates, and for its nutritional  benefits. The main product of the quinoa plant is  the grain, highly appreciated for the  preparation of traditional dishes in a way    somewhat similar to rice.  The leaves can  also be eaten fresh and, by products from  harvesting and threshing are destined for  animal feed (llamas). Quinoa comprises a wide diversity of  native varieties adapted to specific areas  of the Central, Northern and Southern  Altiplano, and valleys. In the highlands,  quinoa is the main food crop for the  inhabitants of this area. In the Southern  Altiplano, quinoa is the only crop that  thrives acceptably, this is why researchers  describe the production system as a  quinoa monoculture.   With the discovery of its nutritional  properties and its promotion, quinoa has  become an important export product and  an important source of income generation. Currently, quinoa is a product with high  demand in the market, with encouraging  prices for producers, processors and  traders, creating an important economic  activity for the country. The demand and high prices of quinoa  have stimulated the expansion of acreage,  covering new areas of production. This  expansion involves changes in the  production process and new technological  needs on several fronts: management of  pests and diseases, plant nutrition, seed  varieties and agronomic management. Climate change, in turn, has led to  changes in rainfall and new technological  demands, such as earlier varieties. On the  other hand the market demands various  colors of quinoa and more suitable  varieties for industrial processing. In this context, PROINPA has undertaken  the development of a new generation of  varieties focused on the following  priorities: • large varieties the   Southern Altiplano, necessary for late  planting, for re planting in case of  drought losses or seedlings buried by  strong winds, and for their shorter time  to harvest.  • large varieties   mildew resistance for the Central  Altiplano.  • resistant for   Northern Altiplano and valleys.   • (with and   (saponin free) varieties for specific  market demands and, for local and  family consumption of quinoa.  These  varieties have the advantage of  facilitating grain processing.  • for (flour   flakes) and for nutritional objectives  (nutraceuticals).  • all varieties for   mechanical harvesting are also sought,  mainly due to their drive towards  competitive, sustainable and resilient  production in the occurrence of  adverse climate change phenomena.   Results and discussion   With the application of classical breeding  methods, a number of varieties with  common and differential characteristics  have been generated. Common characteristics relate to  performance, size and color of grain. The  differential characteristics refer to  adaptation to different agro-ecological  zones, earliness, resistance to mildew,  bitter or sweet quinoa, industrial quality  among others. Large grain varieties are directed to the  use of quinoa in ways similar to rice  (pearled quinoa), ie. for cooking in soups  and boiled grain.   For this purposes grain  may be preferably white, but also red and  black in color. Most ecotypes of Royal  Quinoa are suitable for pearled quinoa  (Bonifacio et al., 2012). The research on  industrial quality of these varieties is in  progress.  Adapting varieties implies an analysis of  options in terms of producing them in  different ecoregions such as the Southern,  Central, and Northern Altiplano, Valleys  and Sub Tropics. The precocity is a character that enables  the management of adverse environmental  factors through the following  mechanisms:  1) avoid frost through a shorter   production cycle.  2) possibility of delayed planting   caused by lack of moisture in the  planting season.  3)  prevent losses and enable replanting   in case of: seedlings buried by winds  in sandy soils, clay soils crusting,  seedling loss by frost or drought.  Mildew resistance is a key component to  produce organic quinoa in areas outside  the Southern Altiplano. Quinoa is  susceptible to disease under conditions of  high relative humidity and soil moisture  (Bonifacio, 2006) and susceptible  varieties (Utusaya) can register a severity  of 100% (Danielsen and Ames, 2000).  Therefore resistance to mildew is essential  to produce quinoa in areas of high relative  humidity, to reduce the use of fungicides  for disease control, reduce production  costs and promote grain filling. The bitter and sweet varieties have not  received differentiation until now.  Bitter  quinoa is produced, processed and sold in  greater proportion. However, given the  volumes of water that are used (not  recycled) to remove the saponin, the  difficulties of eliminating foamy water  and, the increased energy expenditure    (scarifying, washing and drying); the  interest in sweet quinoa is reemerging. This sweet quinoa, although it has its  limitations due to the preferences of a  couple of bird species, requires less time  for scarifying and/or washing; therefore it  produces less loses during processing.  It  does not generate foamy water and  pearled grain does not have the strong,  pungent odor that bitter varieties have.  Due to these qualities of sweet quinoa, it  becomes an alternative for production  areas in the Central and Northern  Altiplano, as well as for lines of grain  processing and transformation. Therefore  sweet varieties generated three decades  ago are currently subject of differentiated  demand.  Industrial quality refers to the physical  and chemical properties of specific grain  varieties. In that sense, the varieties for  flour, flakes, and for pasta among other  uses and varietal differentiation, require  the appropriate quality for each process.  Varieties with industrial quality give more    relevance to the criteria of varietal purity  and homogeneity, so often promoted by  instances of variety registration and seed  certification. According to Bodoin (2009), demand and  use of quinoa certified seed is very low  compared to the volume of local seed used  for commercial production, and for  cultivar expansion. Table 1 lists the varieties generated by  PROINPA, their adaptation, production    cycle, grain characteristics and potential  uses, and shows the varieties’  recommendation domains. This  information can be used in the context of a  risk management quinoa production  strategy, taking into account the effects of  climate change, disease prevalence  (mildew) and, the demands of producers  and the market (with and without saponin,  industrial quality, etc.).    Challenges   Today, consumers are looking for  information about the quality of the  products they consume (protein content,  protein quality, gluten-free); it is for that  reason that quinoa has a high international  demand. The challenge, for the Bolivian quinoa to  be more competitive in the international  market, is to research its nutraceutical  properties such as antioxidant content,  iron and zinc, etc., and incorporate such  features in new varieties. The growing quinoa production areas,  lead to a search for technology of easy  application over large areas. This is the  case of cropping areas that are  progressively using more combined  harvesters. Therefore, the demand for  genetic improvement seeks the  development of new varieties with plant  architecture suitable for mechanization  (uniform size and uniform maturity). The actors in the quinoa value chain that  are in the processing link, need to be  informed about the qualities of the new  varieties, in terms of protein content,  amylopectin, antioxidants, etc., in order to  specialize the use of varieties.  This would  give way to processed products with  better quality and identity, since they  would not be processed with varietal  mixtures, as it is currently done. Finally, to achieve extensive use of  varieties, it is necessary that actors  specialized in the industry become  involved in the production of high quality  seed. This would allow producers,  associations and companies in the quinoa  value chain to have constant availability    and access to these varieties, meeting the  standards required by the corresponding  authorities. Currently, the vast majority of  producers, uses farmers' own and local  seed, even for use on cultivar expansion  (Bodoin, 2009).   Participating institutions   •  •  • (Proyecto Inno   vación. Estratégica Nacional - Minis  terio de Desarrollo Rural Agropecua  rio y Medio Ambiente).  National  Estrategic Innovation Project –  Ministry of Rural Development,  Agriculture and Environment.  •  • (Universidad de   Andrés).    •  • (Proyecto Resis-   tencia Duradera para la Zona Andina -  Universidad de Wageningen). Project  of Lasting Resistance for the Andean  Region - Wageningen University.   Cited references   Bodoin, A. 2009. Evaluación y perspectivas del   mercado de semilla certificadas de quinua  en la región del Salar de Uyuni en el  Altiplano Sur de Bolivia. 2nd Year  Internship Thesis. Agroparis Tech. Paris,  France. 35 p.  Bonifacio, A., Vargas, A., Aroni, G. 2003.   Variedad de quinua Jach’a Grano.  PROINPA Foundation. Technical Listing  No 6. Cochabamba, Bolivia.   Bonifacio, A., Vargas, A. 2005. Variedad de   Quinua Kurmi. PROINPA Foundation -  The McKnight Foundation - MACA.  Tchnical Listing No. 12.  Bonifacio, A., Vargas, A., Rojas, J. (n/y).   Variedad de Quinua Kurmi. PROINPA  Foundation - The McKnight Foundation -  MACA. Technical Listing No. P/FTE/81.  Bonifacio, A., Vargas, A., Aroni, G., Quispe, R.   (n/y). Variedad de Quinua Horizontes.  PROINPA Foundation- MDRAyMA.  Technical Listing No. P/FTE/79.  Bonifacio, A. 2006. El futuro de los productos   andinos en la región alta y los valles  centrales de los Andes. Granos en el área    altoandina de Bolivia, Ecuador y Perú.  ONUDI, Subdivisión de Promoción de  Inversión y Tecnología. On Line.    Available at: http://quinua.pe   Retrieved on June 6, 2014. Bonifacio, A., Aroni, G., Villca, M. 2012.   Catálogo etnobotánico de la Quinua Real.  PROINPA Foundation. Cochabamba,  Bolivia. 123 p.  Danielsen, S., Ames, T. 2000. El mildiu   (Peronospora farinosa) de la quinua   (Chenopodium quinoa) en la zona andina.   CIP-KVL. Lima, Perú. 32 p.     Revista de Agricultura, Nro. 54 - Julio de 2014   Area: Development of  Technologies 29   Breeding varieties of quinoa   for a market and climate change context   Alejandro Bonifacio; Amalia Vargas; Genaro Aroni    Work funded by: McKnight Foundation; SIBTA; Dutch Embassy in Bolivia  E mail: a.bonifacio@proinpa.org    Introduction   The strong international demand for  quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) in  recent years, has led to a significant    increase in cultivated area in a very short  period of time (Gandarillas et al., 2014).  Commercial cultivation has expanded  from the traditional area of the Southern  Altiplano where Royal Quinoa is grown,    to new areas of "expansion" in the Central  and Northern Altiplano, and the  inter-Andean valleys. This situation has  led to face new problems, mainly due to  moisture. In the south, environmental  conditions are very dry, with an annual  average precipitation of 250 mm, while in  the Central and Northern Altiplano there  is an average precipitation of 500  mm/year, and in the valleys it reaches 800  mm/year. This article attempts to update  information on the incidence and  significance of the main fungal diseases  that affect quinoa, with emphasis on the  “expansion” areas, in the new context of  climate change, based on the publication  of Tapia et al., 1979.  The objectives of this work were:  • and the   affecting quinoa cultivars with  emphasis on expansion areas (Central  Altiplano, Northern Altiplano and  inter-Andean Valleys).  •   economic importance.   Materials and methods   This study was based primarily on visits  and sampling to 50 quinoa plots in  different production areas (10 to 12 plots  per area). Samples were taken of the different  diseases that appeared throughout crop  development, considering the weather  conditions at the time of sampling. This  work was carried out from November    2013 to April 2014, with a season  characterized by high precipitation.  Samples of seedlings and plants in various  stages of development, and of different  types of tissues (leaves, stem, roots and  grains) were collected. The samples were collected in plastic  bags and in a refrigerated container to  keep samples fresh, each one being  identified according to the collection site.  The samples were taken to PROINPA’s  laboratories in the shortest time possible,  and immediately processed using routine  techniques, ie direct microscope  observation of signs, humid chamber and  seeding in culture media (Potato Dextrose  Agar). Taxonomic keys developed based  on morphological characteristics of the  different kinds of fungi (Barnett, 1960),  were used to identify the structures.   Results and discussion   The presentation of results is made based  on the appearance of diseases in the crop,  according to the phenological stage at  which they arose: [ Diseases arising from emergence to   the appearance of 6-8 true leaves: At the beginning of the cultivation cycle  samples were taken from dead seedlings  in cotiledoneal phase (emergence); a  constriction at the neck of the plant  (Figure 1) was observed. With no  movement of nutrients and water to the  stem, there was a massive seedling death.  Digging the ground, in places where there  was no emergence of seeds, seedling  death was evident.  This symptom of strangulation was  diagnosed in the Central and Northern  Altiplano, and the inter-Andean valleys.  In the field it appears as an irregular  emergence (Figure 2), little perceived by  farmers, usually attributed to soil  problems, salinity or lack of moisture. The disease occurs in years of excessive  moisture, soils with high clay content,  fertilized with partially decomposed  manure and poor drainage. Once the  disease is present it remains in the soil  attached to the roots and stems of dead  plants, as conservation structures  (chlamydospores in the case of Fusarium  and sclerotia for Rhizoctonia).   Due to several factors that influence the  emergence, it is estimated that the death  of seedlings due to Rhizoctonia and/or  Fusarium, is of up to 10%. [ Diseases that occur in the   phenological phases of branching,  panicle formation, flowering, grain  formation and physiological maturity As the plants continued to develop, in the  branching phase (eight true leaves) and/or  panicle formation (inflorescence begins to  emerge from the apex of the plant), in  some areas of production and depending  on weather conditions; chlorotic spots  appeared on the leaves (Figure 3).  Depending on the variety these spots can  be red, orange, brown or black.   As the disease progresses, the undersides  of leaves present a grayish sporulation  (Figure 4), which corresponds to  Peronospora variabilis 1, causal agent of   the quinoa mildew. Depending on the  humidity, this disease can remain until  harvest. The yellowing of leaves reduces  the photosynthetic capacity and also  causes defoliation of the plants (Figure 5),  thus yields are reduced.   P. variabilis is a pathogen of easy  dispersion (wind and rain). During crop  development dissemination structures are  mainly spores, however at senescence or  absence of crop, the disease is spread by  oospores (sexual reproduction structures)  that may be adhered to the surface of the  grain or inside the stubble that remains in  the field. Therefore dissemination occurs,  at close range by means of spores, and at  long range through oospores. Mildew occurs in all agro-ecological  regions, with varying severity depending  on environmental conditions (high  relative humidity, above 80%). In the  Southern Highlands it only appears when  rainfall is intense and prolonged.  When  the rainy period stops automatically the  mycelium is dried and the disease  progression is interrupted. Varieties of  royal quinoa are susceptible to this  disease. The losses caused by mildew depend on  the phenological phase at which the plant  is attacked and the degree of resistance of  the variety. When susceptible varieties are  grown and favorable weather conditions  are given, especially high relative  humidity, the effects of mildew are  severe. If the attack occurs in early stages  of plant development, production can be  completely lost. In resistant varieties,  losses fluctuate between 20% and 40%  (Danielsen  et al. 2003). Therefore,   economic losses range from 2-5 quintals,  which depending on the price of quinoa  can be very significant. Consequently, for  the year 2014 losses could be equivalent  to 6,000 Bs/ha.   Coinciding with the appearance of  mildew in the panicle formation and  flowering stages, on the chlorotic spots, a  green sporulation was observed on the top  side of leafs (Figure 6). The causal agent  is Cladosporium sp. which depending on   humidity, can cover the entire surface of  the spots (Figure 7) and accelerate the  falling of leaves. Just like mildew this  disease can occur up to harvesting stage.  When there is excessive humidity the  pathogen spreads from the foliage to the  panicle, and it tends to turn it black  (Figure 8). Depending on the stage of the  filling phase, when the attack takes place,  the grains may even remain empty. If the  grains are already formed, they will be  slightly stained. When processing these  grains in the laboratory, it was observed  that  Cladosporium  conidia remain   attached to the surface of the grain, being    its mode of dissemination and survival for  the next planting season. Since this disease is strongly associated  with mildew, when damage occurs in the  panicle, economic losses due to the green  mold would produce at least a 5% loss in  addition to the losses caused by mildew. At the same time, during the development  of plants in places where there is poor  drainage or where water accumulates, a  symptom of wilting and yellowing occurs.   At the beginning wilting is only apical but  later it is widespread, it even causes the  death of plants. Going through the root system, lesions  sunk in the neck of the plant are observed,  similar to those found during the    emergence stage. Taking the full root  system from the soil, necrosis of the main  root and rootlets is observed (Figure 9).  If  winds occur during this condition, plants  fall (Figure 10). Due to excess moisture, the surface  portion (skin) of the root decomposes  quickly, exposing the underlying tissue to  attack by other pathogens. The diagnosis  of these samples shows that the symptom  corresponds to Fusarium  sp. Therefore,   this pathogen appears in pre and  post-emergence, and may manifest again  during crop development. The way to  recognize diseased plants is through their  weak development in comparison to  healthy plants.   This disease has been observed mainly in  areas close to Lake Titicaca (Northern  Altiplano) and to a lesser extent in the  Central Altiplano, in areas with heavy  soils and poor drainage. In the case of inter-Andean valleys,  similar symptoms are observed in adult  plants. Other plants with little  development simply show a pink color on  roots and rootlets (Figure 11). An analysis  of these roots shows that symptoms can  also be attributed to Fusarium sp.  During development, necrotic spots have  also been observed on the foliage.  These  are roughly circular or irregular in shape,  with beige centers and slightly brown  edges (Figure 12), inside which pycnidia  are present (black dots). The size of the  lesions ranges from 5 to 10 mm in  diameter. Work done in the laboratory  evidenced that the causal agent of this  disease is Ascochyta sp. and the common  name of the disease is "leaf spot".   When attacks are severe, intense  defoliation occurs, thus reducing  photosynthetic capacity; and if the panicle  is in formation, the quality of grains is  affected (brown color). Studies of the grains conducted in  laboratory show that the fungus produces  abundant pycnidiospores accompanied by  a mild to severe necrosis in roots and/or  hypocotyl. Severely affected seedlings  die. Therefore, the disease is transmitted  through seeds; pycnidia remain attached  to the surface of the grains and also stay in  the stubble. For a new disease cycle to occur in the  next season a temperature of 18 to 24 °C  and a relative humidity of 80% is  required, the pycnidia germinate and give  rise to pycnidiospores and the infection  initiates again.   The geographical distribution of this  disease is not exactly known and  apparently it is not of major economic  importance (Danielsen et al., 2003). Finally, at the stage of senescence, when  the stem is lignified, ogival shaped lesions  can be observed. These lesions are light  gray in the center with brown edges,  surrounded by an aura of glassy  appearance, inside which you may notice  small black spots (Figure 13) which  correspond to pycnidia of the fungus  Phoma sp. The size of these lesions ranges   from 2 to 3 cm. When conditions are  favorable (especially high relative  humidity) a number of spots can be seen in  a single stem (Figure 14). During severe  attacks these spots grow and reach each  other, covering the entire area of the stem. From season to season, the fungus  survives in the stubble that remains in the  field. This pathogen does not require  mechanical wounds to enter the plant, it  enters through natural openings. This disease has been observed in the  Central and Northern Altiplano, and in the  inter-Andean valleys, and basically its    occurrence depends on the presence of  inoculum and high relative humidity.  In general, in all production areas of  Bolivia plants from all stages of  development (from emergence until  harvest), with virus infection symptoms,  have been observed. The causal agents  have not been determined, yet what is  known is that quinoa is used as universal    plant (indicator plant) for the detection of  various viruses. The most frequent  symptoms observed in quinoa are:  yellowing, shortening of internodes  (rosetting), leathery leaves, etc. (Figure  15).   Conclusions   • most disease the   "quinoa mildew", caused by  Peronospora variabilis, followed by  "green mold" and "seedling death."  These three diseases occur in different  agro-ecological regions of Bolivia.  •   the symptoms have been observed in  the Central and Northern Altiplano and  inter-Andean valleys, without causing  significant economic losses.   • "Ogival appears   senescence, affecting the stems and  rachis of the panicle. It has no  incidence in reducing quinoa grain  yield.  •   "mildew", "green mold" and "seedling  death".  •   and "seedling death" can result in  losses of up to 50%.   Cited References    Barnett. H. 1960. Ilustrated genera of imperfect   fungi. 2 ed. Burgess Publishing Company.  225 p.  Danielsen, S., Bonifacio, A., Ames, T. 2003.   Diseases of Quinoa (Chenopodium  quinoa). Food Reviews International. 19(1  y 2): 43-59.  Choi, Y., Denchev, C., Shin, H. 2008.   Morphological and molecular analyses  support existence of hostspecific  Peronospora species infecting  Chenopodium. Mycopathology. No.  165:155-164.  Choi, Y., Danielsen, S., Lubeck, M., Hong, S.,   Delhey, R., Shin, H. 2010. Morphological    and molecular characterization of the  causal agent of downy mildew on quinoa  (Chenopodium quinoa). Mycopathology.   No. 169:403-412.  Gandarillas, A., Rojas, W., Bonifacio, A.,   Ojeda, N. 2014. La quinua en Bolivia:  Perspectiva de la Fundación PROINPA.  Chapter 5. In: Bazile Didier “Estado del  Arte de la Quinua en el Mundo”. FAO (in  press).  Tapia, M., Gandarillas, H., Alandia, S.,   Cardozo, A., Otazú, V., Ortiz, R., Rea, J.,  Salas, B., Zanabria, E., Mujica, A. 1979. La  Quinua y la Kañiwa: Cultivos Andinos.  IICA/CIID, Oficina Regional para América   Latina. Bogotá, Colombia. pp. 142-147.   Summary. The article describes the technological implications of the commercial production of  quinoa in the South and Central Altiplano of Bolivia, highlighting the expansion of acreage and the  flow of varieties drawn from one area to another. These issues imply a process of maladaptation of  varieties, which produces susceptibility to mildew, difficulties to complete the production cycle,  spontaneous variation, lack of purity, varietal heterogeneity and poor usage quality. The document  presents the characteristics of the varieties generated, with specifications of their adaptation range  and product quality, and concludes with the challenges faced by quinoa breeding.  Keywords: Adaptation; Variability; Breeding Resumen. de de en contexto mercado cambio  climático.  El artículo describe las implicaciones tecnológicas de la producción comercial de quinua   en el Altiplano Sur y Central de Bolivia, resaltando la ampliación de la superficie de cultivo y el  movimiento de variedades de una zona a otra. Lo anterior implica un proceso de desadaptación de  variedades que se traduce en susceptibilidad a mildiu, dificultades para completar el ciclo productivo,  variación espontánea, falta de pureza, heterogeneidad varietal y baja calidad de uso. El documento  presenta las características de las variedades generadas con especificación de su rango de  adaptación y calidad, y concluye con los desafíos que enfrenta el mejoramiento genético de la  quinua. Palabras clave: Adaptación; Variabilidad; Mejoramiento Genético   Introduction   Quinoa has evolved in the Andes. It was  domesticated by men and women from  civilizations like the Tiwanaku and the  Inca. Until the early eighties, the Andean  people cultivated quinoa due to their  advantages in adaptation to altitudes  between 2800 to 4000 m.a.s.l., and  semi-arid climates, and for its nutritional  benefits. The main product of the quinoa plant is  the grain, highly appreciated for the  preparation of traditional dishes in a way    somewhat similar to rice.  The leaves can  also be eaten fresh and, by products from  harvesting and threshing are destined for  animal feed (llamas). Quinoa comprises a wide diversity of  native varieties adapted to specific areas  of the Central, Northern and Southern  Altiplano, and valleys. In the highlands,  quinoa is the main food crop for the  inhabitants of this area. In the Southern  Altiplano, quinoa is the only crop that  thrives acceptably, this is why researchers  describe the production system as a  quinoa monoculture.   With the discovery of its nutritional  properties and its promotion, quinoa has  become an important export product and  an important source of income generation. Currently, quinoa is a product with high  demand in the market, with encouraging  prices for producers, processors and  traders, creating an important economic  activity for the country. The demand and high prices of quinoa  have stimulated the expansion of acreage,  covering new areas of production. This  expansion involves changes in the  production process and new technological  needs on several fronts: management of  pests and diseases, plant nutrition, seed  varieties and agronomic management. Climate change, in turn, has led to  changes in rainfall and new technological  demands, such as earlier varieties. On the  other hand the market demands various  colors of quinoa and more suitable  varieties for industrial processing. In this context, PROINPA has undertaken  the development of a new generation of  varieties focused on the following  priorities: • large varieties the   Southern Altiplano, necessary for late  planting, for re planting in case of  drought losses or seedlings buried by  strong winds, and for their shorter time  to harvest.  • large varieties   mildew resistance for the Central  Altiplano.  • resistant for   Northern Altiplano and valleys.   • (with and   (saponin free) varieties for specific  market demands and, for local and  family consumption of quinoa.  These  varieties have the advantage of  facilitating grain processing.  • for (flour   flakes) and for nutritional objectives  (nutraceuticals).  • all varieties for   mechanical harvesting are also sought,  mainly due to their drive towards  competitive, sustainable and resilient  production in the occurrence of  adverse climate change phenomena.   Results and discussion   With the application of classical breeding  methods, a number of varieties with  common and differential characteristics  have been generated. Common characteristics relate to  performance, size and color of grain. The  differential characteristics refer to  adaptation to different agro-ecological  zones, earliness, resistance to mildew,  bitter or sweet quinoa, industrial quality  among others. Large grain varieties are directed to the  use of quinoa in ways similar to rice  (pearled quinoa), ie. for cooking in soups  and boiled grain.   For this purposes grain  may be preferably white, but also red and  black in color. Most ecotypes of Royal  Quinoa are suitable for pearled quinoa  (Bonifacio et al., 2012). The research on  industrial quality of these varieties is in  progress.  Adapting varieties implies an analysis of  options in terms of producing them in  different ecoregions such as the Southern,  Central, and Northern Altiplano, Valleys  and Sub Tropics. The precocity is a character that enables  the management of adverse environmental  factors through the following  mechanisms:  1) avoid frost through a shorter   production cycle.  2) possibility of delayed planting   caused by lack of moisture in the  planting season.  3)  prevent losses and enable replanting   in case of: seedlings buried by winds  in sandy soils, clay soils crusting,  seedling loss by frost or drought.  Mildew resistance is a key component to  produce organic quinoa in areas outside  the Southern Altiplano. Quinoa is  susceptible to disease under conditions of  high relative humidity and soil moisture  (Bonifacio, 2006) and susceptible  varieties (Utusaya) can register a severity  of 100% (Danielsen and Ames, 2000).  Therefore resistance to mildew is essential  to produce quinoa in areas of high relative  humidity, to reduce the use of fungicides  for disease control, reduce production  costs and promote grain filling. The bitter and sweet varieties have not  received differentiation until now.  Bitter  quinoa is produced, processed and sold in  greater proportion. However, given the  volumes of water that are used (not  recycled) to remove the saponin, the  difficulties of eliminating foamy water  and, the increased energy expenditure    (scarifying, washing and drying); the  interest in sweet quinoa is reemerging. This sweet quinoa, although it has its  limitations due to the preferences of a  couple of bird species, requires less time  for scarifying and/or washing; therefore it  produces less loses during processing.  It  does not generate foamy water and  pearled grain does not have the strong,  pungent odor that bitter varieties have.  Due to these qualities of sweet quinoa, it  becomes an alternative for production  areas in the Central and Northern  Altiplano, as well as for lines of grain  processing and transformation. Therefore  sweet varieties generated three decades  ago are currently subject of differentiated  demand.  Industrial quality refers to the physical  and chemical properties of specific grain  varieties. In that sense, the varieties for  flour, flakes, and for pasta among other  uses and varietal differentiation, require  the appropriate quality for each process.  Varieties with industrial quality give more    relevance to the criteria of varietal purity  and homogeneity, so often promoted by  instances of variety registration and seed  certification. According to Bodoin (2009), demand and  use of quinoa certified seed is very low  compared to the volume of local seed used  for commercial production, and for  cultivar expansion. Table 1 lists the varieties generated by  PROINPA, their adaptation, production    cycle, grain characteristics and potential  uses, and shows the varieties’  recommendation domains. This  information can be used in the context of a  risk management quinoa production  strategy, taking into account the effects of  climate change, disease prevalence  (mildew) and, the demands of producers  and the market (with and without saponin,  industrial quality, etc.).    Challenges   Today, consumers are looking for  information about the quality of the  products they consume (protein content,  protein quality, gluten-free); it is for that  reason that quinoa has a high international  demand. The challenge, for the Bolivian quinoa to  be more competitive in the international  market, is to research its nutraceutical  properties such as antioxidant content,  iron and zinc, etc., and incorporate such  features in new varieties. The growing quinoa production areas,  lead to a search for technology of easy  application over large areas. This is the  case of cropping areas that are  progressively using more combined  harvesters. Therefore, the demand for  genetic improvement seeks the  development of new varieties with plant  architecture suitable for mechanization  (uniform size and uniform maturity). The actors in the quinoa value chain that  are in the processing link, need to be  informed about the qualities of the new  varieties, in terms of protein content,  amylopectin, antioxidants, etc., in order to  specialize the use of varieties.  This would  give way to processed products with  better quality and identity, since they  would not be processed with varietal  mixtures, as it is currently done. Finally, to achieve extensive use of  varieties, it is necessary that actors  specialized in the industry become  involved in the production of high quality  seed. This would allow producers,  associations and companies in the quinoa  value chain to have constant availability    and access to these varieties, meeting the  standards required by the corresponding  authorities. Currently, the vast majority of  producers, uses farmers' own and local  seed, even for use on cultivar expansion  (Bodoin, 2009).   Participating institutions   •  •  • (Proyecto Inno   vación. Estratégica Nacional - Minis  terio de Desarrollo Rural Agropecua  rio y Medio Ambiente).  National  Estrategic Innovation Project –  Ministry of Rural Development,  Agriculture and Environment.  •  • (Universidad de   Andrés).    •  • (Proyecto Resis-   tencia Duradera para la Zona Andina -  Universidad de Wageningen). Project  of Lasting Resistance for the Andean  Region - Wageningen University.   Cited references   Bodoin, A. 2009. Evaluación y perspectivas del   mercado de semilla certificadas de quinua  en la región del Salar de Uyuni en el  Altiplano Sur de Bolivia. 2nd Year  Internship Thesis. Agroparis Tech. Paris,  France. 35 p.  Bonifacio, A., Vargas, A., Aroni, G. 2003.   Variedad de quinua Jach’a Grano.  PROINPA Foundation. Technical Listing  No 6. Cochabamba, Bolivia.   Bonifacio, A., Vargas, A. 2005. Variedad de   Quinua Kurmi. PROINPA Foundation -  The McKnight Foundation - MACA.  Tchnical Listing No. 12.  Bonifacio, A., Vargas, A., Rojas, J. (n/y).   Variedad de Quinua Kurmi. PROINPA  Foundation - The McKnight Foundation -  MACA. Technical Listing No. P/FTE/81.  Bonifacio, A., Vargas, A., Aroni, G., Quispe, R.   (n/y). Variedad de Quinua Horizontes.  PROINPA Foundation- MDRAyMA.  Technical Listing No. P/FTE/79.  Bonifacio, A. 2006. El futuro de los productos   andinos en la región alta y los valles  centrales de los Andes. Granos en el área    altoandina de Bolivia, Ecuador y Perú.  ONUDI, Subdivisión de Promoción de  Inversión y Tecnología. On Line.    Available at: http://quinua.pe   Retrieved on June 6, 2014. Bonifacio, A., Aroni, G., Villca, M. 2012.   Catálogo etnobotánico de la Quinua Real.  PROINPA Foundation. Cochabamba,  Bolivia. 123 p.  Danielsen, S., Ames, T. 2000. El mildiu   (Peronospora farinosa) de la quinua   (Chenopodium quinoa) en la zona andina.   CIP-KVL. Lima, Perú. 32 p.     ISSN 1998 - 9652   Area: Technology Development 30   Introduction   The strong international demand for  quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) in  recent years, has led to a significant    increase in cultivated area in a very short  period of time (Gandarillas et al., 2014).  Commercial cultivation has expanded  from the traditional area of the Southern  Altiplano where Royal Quinoa is grown,    to new areas of "expansion" in the Central  and Northern Altiplano, and the  inter-Andean valleys. This situation has  led to face new problems, mainly due to  moisture. In the south, environmental  conditions are very dry, with an annual  average precipitation of 250 mm, while in  the Central and Northern Altiplano there  is an average precipitation of 500  mm/year, and in the valleys it reaches 800  mm/year. This article attempts to update  information on the incidence and  significance of the main fungal diseases  that affect quinoa, with emphasis on the  “expansion” areas, in the new context of  climate change, based on the publication  of Tapia et al., 1979.  The objectives of this work were:  • and the   affecting quinoa cultivars with  emphasis on expansion areas (Central  Altiplano, Northern Altiplano and  inter-Andean Valleys).  •   economic importance.   Materials and methods   This study was based primarily on visits  and sampling to 50 quinoa plots in  different production areas (10 to 12 plots  per area). Samples were taken of the different  diseases that appeared throughout crop  development, considering the weather  conditions at the time of sampling. This  work was carried out from November    2013 to April 2014, with a season  characterized by high precipitation.  Samples of seedlings and plants in various  stages of development, and of different  types of tissues (leaves, stem, roots and  grains) were collected. The samples were collected in plastic  bags and in a refrigerated container to  keep samples fresh, each one being  identified according to the collection site.  The samples were taken to PROINPA’s  laboratories in the shortest time possible,  and immediately processed using routine  techniques, ie direct microscope  observation of signs, humid chamber and  seeding in culture media (Potato Dextrose  Agar). Taxonomic keys developed based  on morphological characteristics of the  different kinds of fungi (Barnett, 1960),  were used to identify the structures.   Results and discussion   The presentation of results is made based  on the appearance of diseases in the crop,  according to the phenological stage at  which they arose: [ Diseases arising from emergence to   the appearance of 6-8 true leaves: At the beginning of the cultivation cycle  samples were taken from dead seedlings  in cotiledoneal phase (emergence); a  constriction at the neck of the plant  (Figure 1) was observed. With no  movement of nutrients and water to the  stem, there was a massive seedling death.  Digging the ground, in places where there  was no emergence of seeds, seedling  death was evident.  This symptom of strangulation was  diagnosed in the Central and Northern  Altiplano, and the inter-Andean valleys.  In the field it appears as an irregular  emergence (Figure 2), little perceived by  farmers, usually attributed to soil  problems, salinity or lack of moisture. The disease occurs in years of excessive  moisture, soils with high clay content,  fertilized with partially decomposed  manure and poor drainage. Once the  disease is present it remains in the soil  attached to the roots and stems of dead  plants, as conservation structures  (chlamydospores in the case of Fusarium  and sclerotia for Rhizoctonia).   Due to several factors that influence the  emergence, it is estimated that the death  of seedlings due to Rhizoctonia and/or  Fusarium, is of up to 10%. [ Diseases that occur in the   phenological phases of branching,  panicle formation, flowering, grain  formation and physiological maturity As the plants continued to develop, in the  branching phase (eight true leaves) and/or  panicle formation (inflorescence begins to  emerge from the apex of the plant), in  some areas of production and depending  on weather conditions; chlorotic spots  appeared on the leaves (Figure 3).  Depending on the variety these spots can  be red, orange, brown or black.   As the disease progresses, the undersides  of leaves present a grayish sporulation  (Figure 4), which corresponds to  Peronospora variabilis 1, causal agent of   the quinoa mildew. Depending on the  humidity, this disease can remain until  harvest. The yellowing of leaves reduces  the photosynthetic capacity and also  causes defoliation of the plants (Figure 5),  thus yields are reduced.   P. variabilis is a pathogen of easy  dispersion (wind and rain). During crop  development dissemination structures are  mainly spores, however at senescence or  absence of crop, the disease is spread by  oospores (sexual reproduction structures)  that may be adhered to the surface of the  grain or inside the stubble that remains in  the field. Therefore dissemination occurs,  at close range by means of spores, and at  long range through oospores. Mildew occurs in all agro-ecological  regions, with varying severity depending  on environmental conditions (high  relative humidity, above 80%). In the  Southern Highlands it only appears when  rainfall is intense and prolonged.  When  the rainy period stops automatically the  mycelium is dried and the disease  progression is interrupted. Varieties of  royal quinoa are susceptible to this  disease. The losses caused by mildew depend on  the phenological phase at which the plant  is attacked and the degree of resistance of  the variety. When susceptible varieties are  grown and favorable weather conditions  are given, especially high relative  humidity, the effects of mildew are  severe. If the attack occurs in early stages  of plant development, production can be  completely lost. In resistant varieties,  losses fluctuate between 20% and 40%  (Danielsen  et al. 2003). Therefore,   economic losses range from 2-5 quintals,  which depending on the price of quinoa  can be very significant. Consequently, for  the year 2014 losses could be equivalent  to 6,000 Bs/ha.   Coinciding with the appearance of  mildew in the panicle formation and  flowering stages, on the chlorotic spots, a  green sporulation was observed on the top  side of leafs (Figure 6). The causal agent  is Cladosporium sp. which depending on   humidity, can cover the entire surface of  the spots (Figure 7) and accelerate the  falling of leaves. Just like mildew this  disease can occur up to harvesting stage.  When there is excessive humidity the  pathogen spreads from the foliage to the  panicle, and it tends to turn it black  (Figure 8). Depending on the stage of the  filling phase, when the attack takes place,  the grains may even remain empty. If the  grains are already formed, they will be  slightly stained. When processing these  grains in the laboratory, it was observed  that  Cladosporium  conidia remain   attached to the surface of the grain, being    its mode of dissemination and survival for  the next planting season. Since this disease is strongly associated  with mildew, when damage occurs in the  panicle, economic losses due to the green  mold would produce at least a 5% loss in  addition to the losses caused by mildew. At the same time, during the development  of plants in places where there is poor  drainage or where water accumulates, a  symptom of wilting and yellowing occurs.   At the beginning wilting is only apical but  later it is widespread, it even causes the  death of plants. Going through the root system, lesions  sunk in the neck of the plant are observed,  similar to those found during the    emergence stage. Taking the full root  system from the soil, necrosis of the main  root and rootlets is observed (Figure 9).  If  winds occur during this condition, plants  fall (Figure 10). Due to excess moisture, the surface  portion (skin) of the root decomposes  quickly, exposing the underlying tissue to  attack by other pathogens. The diagnosis  of these samples shows that the symptom  corresponds to Fusarium  sp. Therefore,   this pathogen appears in pre and  post-emergence, and may manifest again  during crop development. The way to  recognize diseased plants is through their  weak development in comparison to  healthy plants.   This disease has been observed mainly in  areas close to Lake Titicaca (Northern  Altiplano) and to a lesser extent in the  Central Altiplano, in areas with heavy  soils and poor drainage. In the case of inter-Andean valleys,  similar symptoms are observed in adult  plants. Other plants with little  development simply show a pink color on  roots and rootlets (Figure 11). An analysis  of these roots shows that symptoms can  also be attributed to Fusarium sp.  During development, necrotic spots have  also been observed on the foliage.  These  are roughly circular or irregular in shape,  with beige centers and slightly brown  edges (Figure 12), inside which pycnidia  are present (black dots). The size of the  lesions ranges from 5 to 10 mm in  diameter. Work done in the laboratory  evidenced that the causal agent of this  disease is Ascochyta sp. and the common  name of the disease is "leaf spot".   When attacks are severe, intense  defoliation occurs, thus reducing  photosynthetic capacity; and if the panicle  is in formation, the quality of grains is  affected (brown color). Studies of the grains conducted in  laboratory show that the fungus produces  abundant pycnidiospores accompanied by  a mild to severe necrosis in roots and/or  hypocotyl. Severely affected seedlings  die. Therefore, the disease is transmitted  through seeds; pycnidia remain attached  to the surface of the grains and also stay in  the stubble. For a new disease cycle to occur in the  next season a temperature of 18 to 24 °C  and a relative humidity of 80% is  required, the pycnidia germinate and give  rise to pycnidiospores and the infection  initiates again.   The geographical distribution of this  disease is not exactly known and  apparently it is not of major economic  importance (Danielsen et al., 2003). Finally, at the stage of senescence, when  the stem is lignified, ogival shaped lesions  can be observed. These lesions are light  gray in the center with brown edges,  surrounded by an aura of glassy  appearance, inside which you may notice  small black spots (Figure 13) which  correspond to pycnidia of the fungus  Phoma sp. The size of these lesions ranges   from 2 to 3 cm. When conditions are  favorable (especially high relative  humidity) a number of spots can be seen in  a single stem (Figure 14). During severe  attacks these spots grow and reach each  other, covering the entire area of the stem. From season to season, the fungus  survives in the stubble that remains in the  field. This pathogen does not require  mechanical wounds to enter the plant, it  enters through natural openings. This disease has been observed in the  Central and Northern Altiplano, and in the  inter-Andean valleys, and basically its    occurrence depends on the presence of  inoculum and high relative humidity.  In general, in all production areas of  Bolivia plants from all stages of  development (from emergence until  harvest), with virus infection symptoms,  have been observed. The causal agents  have not been determined, yet what is  known is that quinoa is used as universal    plant (indicator plant) for the detection of  various viruses. The most frequent  symptoms observed in quinoa are:  yellowing, shortening of internodes  (rosetting), leathery leaves, etc. (Figure  15).   Conclusions   • most disease the   "quinoa mildew", caused by  Peronospora variabilis, followed by  "green mold" and "seedling death."  These three diseases occur in different  agro-ecological regions of Bolivia.  •   the symptoms have been observed in  the Central and Northern Altiplano and  inter-Andean valleys, without causing  significant economic losses.   • "Ogival appears   senescence, affecting the stems and  rachis of the panicle. It has no  incidence in reducing quinoa grain  yield.  •   "mildew", "green mold" and "seedling  death".  •   and "seedling death" can result in  losses of up to 50%.   Cited References    Barnett. H. 1960. Ilustrated genera of imperfect   fungi. 2 ed. Burgess Publishing Company.  225 p.  Danielsen, S., Bonifacio, A., Ames, T. 2003.   Diseases of Quinoa (Chenopodium  quinoa). Food Reviews International. 19(1  y 2): 43-59.  Choi, Y., Denchev, C., Shin, H. 2008.   Morphological and molecular analyses  support existence of hostspecific  Peronospora species infecting  Chenopodium. Mycopathology. No.  165:155-164.  Choi, Y., Danielsen, S., Lubeck, M., Hong, S.,   Delhey, R., Shin, H. 2010. Morphological    and molecular characterization of the  causal agent of downy mildew on quinoa  (Chenopodium quinoa). Mycopathology.   No. 169:403-412.  Gandarillas, A., Rojas, W., Bonifacio, A.,   Ojeda, N. 2014. La quinua en Bolivia:  Perspectiva de la Fundación PROINPA.  Chapter 5. In: Bazile Didier “Estado del  Arte de la Quinua en el Mundo”. FAO (in  press).  Tapia, M., Gandarillas, H., Alandia, S.,   Cardozo, A., Otazú, V., Ortiz, R., Rea, J.,  Salas, B., Zanabria, E., Mujica, A. 1979. La  Quinua y la Kañiwa: Cultivos Andinos.  IICA/CIID, Oficina Regional para América   Latina. Bogotá, Colombia. pp. 142-147.   Introduction   Quinoa has evolved in the Andes. It was  domesticated by men and women from  civilizations like the Tiwanaku and the  Inca. Until the early eighties, the Andean  people cultivated quinoa due to their  advantages in adaptation to altitudes  between 2800 to 4000 m.a.s.l., and  semi-arid climates, and for its nutritional  benefits. The main product of the quinoa plant is  the grain, highly appreciated for the  preparation of traditional dishes in a way    somewhat similar to rice.  The leaves can  also be eaten fresh and, by products from  harvesting and threshing are destined for  animal feed (llamas). Quinoa comprises a wide diversity of  native varieties adapted to specific areas  of the Central, Northern and Southern  Altiplano, and valleys. In the highlands,  quinoa is the main food crop for the  inhabitants of this area. In the Southern  Altiplano, quinoa is the only crop that  thrives acceptably, this is why researchers  describe the production system as a  quinoa monoculture.   With the discovery of its nutritional  properties and its promotion, quinoa has  become an important export product and  an important source of income generation. Currently, quinoa is a product with high  demand in the market, with encouraging  prices for producers, processors and  traders, creating an important economic  activity for the country. The demand and high prices of quinoa  have stimulated the expansion of acreage,  covering new areas of production. This  expansion involves changes in the  production process and new technological  needs on several fronts: management of  pests and diseases, plant nutrition, seed  varieties and agronomic management. Climate change, in turn, has led to  changes in rainfall and new technological  demands, such as earlier varieties. On the  other hand the market demands various  colors of quinoa and more suitable  varieties for industrial processing. In this context, PROINPA has undertaken  the development of a new generation of  varieties focused on the following  priorities: • large varieties the   Southern Altiplano, necessary for late  planting, for re planting in case of  drought losses or seedlings buried by  strong winds, and for their shorter time  to harvest.  • large varieties   mildew resistance for the Central  Altiplano.  • resistant for   Northern Altiplano and valleys.   • (with and   (saponin free) varieties for specific  market demands and, for local and  family consumption of quinoa.  These  varieties have the advantage of  facilitating grain processing.  • for (flour   flakes) and for nutritional objectives  (nutraceuticals).  • all varieties for   mechanical harvesting are also sought,  mainly due to their drive towards  competitive, sustainable and resilient  production in the occurrence of  adverse climate change phenomena.   Results and discussion   With the application of classical breeding  methods, a number of varieties with  common and differential characteristics  have been generated. Common characteristics relate to  performance, size and color of grain. The  differential characteristics refer to  adaptation to different agro-ecological  zones, earliness, resistance to mildew,  bitter or sweet quinoa, industrial quality  among others. Large grain varieties are directed to the  use of quinoa in ways similar to rice  (pearled quinoa), ie. for cooking in soups  and boiled grain.   For this purposes grain  may be preferably white, but also red and  black in color. Most ecotypes of Royal  Quinoa are suitable for pearled quinoa  (Bonifacio et al., 2012). The research on  industrial quality of these varieties is in  progress.   Adapting varieties implies an analysis of  options in terms of producing them in  different ecoregions such as the Southern,  Central, and Northern Altiplano, Valleys  and Sub Tropics. The precocity is a character that enables  the management of adverse environmental  factors through the following  mechanisms:  1) avoid frost through a shorter   production cycle.  2) possibility of delayed planting   caused by lack of moisture in the  planting season.  3)  prevent losses and enable replanting   in case of: seedlings buried by winds  in sandy soils, clay soils crusting,  seedling loss by frost or drought.  Mildew resistance is a key component to  produce organic quinoa in areas outside  the Southern Altiplano. Quinoa is  susceptible to disease under conditions of  high relative humidity and soil moisture  (Bonifacio, 2006) and susceptible  varieties (Utusaya) can register a severity  of 100% (Danielsen and Ames, 2000).  Therefore resistance to mildew is essential  to produce quinoa in areas of high relative  humidity, to reduce the use of fungicides  for disease control, reduce production  costs and promote grain filling. The bitter and sweet varieties have not  received differentiation until now.  Bitter  quinoa is produced, processed and sold in  greater proportion. However, given the  volumes of water that are used (not  recycled) to remove the saponin, the  difficulties of eliminating foamy water  and, the increased energy expenditure    (scarifying, washing and drying); the  interest in sweet quinoa is reemerging. This sweet quinoa, although it has its  limitations due to the preferences of a  couple of bird species, requires less time  for scarifying and/or washing; therefore it  produces less loses during processing.  It  does not generate foamy water and  pearled grain does not have the strong,  pungent odor that bitter varieties have.  Due to these qualities of sweet quinoa, it  becomes an alternative for production  areas in the Central and Northern  Altiplano, as well as for lines of grain  processing and transformation. Therefore  sweet varieties generated three decades  ago are currently subject of differentiated  demand.  Industrial quality refers to the physical  and chemical properties of specific grain  varieties. In that sense, the varieties for  flour, flakes, and for pasta among other  uses and varietal differentiation, require  the appropriate quality for each process.  Varieties with industrial quality give more    relevance to the criteria of varietal purity  and homogeneity, so often promoted by  instances of variety registration and seed  certification. According to Bodoin (2009), demand and  use of quinoa certified seed is very low  compared to the volume of local seed used  for commercial production, and for  cultivar expansion. Table 1 lists the varieties generated by  PROINPA, their adaptation, production    cycle, grain characteristics and potential  uses, and shows the varieties’  recommendation domains. This  information can be used in the context of a  risk management quinoa production  strategy, taking into account the effects of  climate change, disease prevalence  (mildew) and, the demands of producers  and the market (with and without saponin,  industrial quality, etc.).    Challenges   Today, consumers are looking for  information about the quality of the  products they consume (protein content,  protein quality, gluten-free); it is for that  reason that quinoa has a high international  demand. The challenge, for the Bolivian quinoa to  be more competitive in the international  market, is to research its nutraceutical  properties such as antioxidant content,  iron and zinc, etc., and incorporate such  features in new varieties. The growing quinoa production areas,  lead to a search for technology of easy  application over large areas. This is the  case of cropping areas that are  progressively using more combined  harvesters. Therefore, the demand for  genetic improvement seeks the  development of new varieties with plant  architecture suitable for mechanization  (uniform size and uniform maturity). The actors in the quinoa value chain that  are in the processing link, need to be  informed about the qualities of the new  varieties, in terms of protein content,  amylopectin, antioxidants, etc., in order to  specialize the use of varieties.  This would  give way to processed products with  better quality and identity, since they  would not be processed with varietal  mixtures, as it is currently done. Finally, to achieve extensive use of  varieties, it is necessary that actors  specialized in the industry become  involved in the production of high quality  seed. This would allow producers,  associations and companies in the quinoa  value chain to have constant availability    and access to these varieties, meeting the  standards required by the corresponding  authorities. Currently, the vast majority of  producers, uses farmers' own and local  seed, even for use on cultivar expansion  (Bodoin, 2009).   Participating institutions   •  •  • (Proyecto Inno   vación. Estratégica Nacional - Minis  terio de Desarrollo Rural Agropecua  rio y Medio Ambiente).  National  Estrategic Innovation Project –  Ministry of Rural Development,  Agriculture and Environment.  •  • (Universidad de   Andrés).    •  • (Proyecto Resis-   tencia Duradera para la Zona Andina -  Universidad de Wageningen). Project  of Lasting Resistance for the Andean  Region - Wageningen University.   Cited references   Bodoin, A. 2009. Evaluación y perspectivas del   mercado de semilla certificadas de quinua  en la región del Salar de Uyuni en el  Altiplano Sur de Bolivia. 2nd Year  Internship Thesis. Agroparis Tech. Paris,  France. 35 p.  Bonifacio, A., Vargas, A., Aroni, G. 2003.   Variedad de quinua Jach’a Grano.  PROINPA Foundation. Technical Listing  No 6. Cochabamba, Bolivia.   Bonifacio, A., Vargas, A. 2005. Variedad de   Quinua Kurmi. PROINPA Foundation -  The McKnight Foundation - MACA.  Tchnical Listing No. 12.  Bonifacio, A., Vargas, A., Rojas, J. (n/y).   Variedad de Quinua Kurmi. PROINPA  Foundation - The McKnight Foundation -  MACA. Technical Listing No. P/FTE/81.  Bonifacio, A., Vargas, A., Aroni, G., Quispe, R.   (n/y). Variedad de Quinua Horizontes.  PROINPA Foundation- MDRAyMA.  Technical Listing No. P/FTE/79.  Bonifacio, A. 2006. El futuro de los productos   andinos en la región alta y los valles  centrales de los Andes. Granos en el área    altoandina de Bolivia, Ecuador y Perú.  ONUDI, Subdivisión de Promoción de  Inversión y Tecnología. On Line.    Available at: http://quinua.pe   Retrieved on June 6, 2014. Bonifacio, A., Aroni, G., Villca, M. 2012.   Catálogo etnobotánico de la Quinua Real.  PROINPA Foundation. Cochabamba,  Bolivia. 123 p.  Danielsen, S., Ames, T. 2000. El mildiu   (Peronospora farinosa) de la quinua   (Chenopodium quinoa) en la zona andina.   CIP-KVL. Lima, Perú. 32 p.     Revista de Agricultura, Nro. 54 - Julio de 2014   Area: Technology Development 31   Variety affected by mildew   Introduction   Quinoa has evolved in the Andes. It was  domesticated by men and women from  civilizations like the Tiwanaku and the  Inca. Until the early eighties, the Andean  people cultivated quinoa due to their  advantages in adaptation to altitudes  between 2800 to 4000 m.a.s.l., and  semi-arid climates, and for its nutritional  benefits. The main product of the quinoa plant is  the grain, highly appreciated for the  preparation of traditional dishes in a way    somewhat similar to rice.  The leaves can  also be eaten fresh and, by products from  harvesting and threshing are destined for  animal feed (llamas). Quinoa comprises a wide diversity of  native varieties adapted to specific areas  of the Central, Northern and Southern  Altiplano, and valleys. In the highlands,  quinoa is the main food crop for the  inhabitants of this area. In the Southern  Altiplano, quinoa is the only crop that  thrives acceptably, this is why researchers  describe the production system as a  quinoa monoculture.   With the discovery of its nutritional  properties and its promotion, quinoa has  become an important export product and  an important source of income generation. Currently, quinoa is a product with high  demand in the market, with encouraging  prices for producers, processors and  traders, creating an important economic  activity for the country. The demand and high prices of quinoa  have stimulated the expansion of acreage,  covering new areas of production. This  expansion involves changes in the  production process and new technological  needs on several fronts: management of  pests and diseases, plant nutrition, seed  varieties and agronomic management. Climate change, in turn, has led to  changes in rainfall and new technological  demands, such as earlier varieties. On the  other hand the market demands various  colors of quinoa and more suitable  varieties for industrial processing. In this context, PROINPA has undertaken  the development of a new generation of  varieties focused on the following  priorities: • large varieties the   Southern Altiplano, necessary for late  planting, for re planting in case of  drought losses or seedlings buried by  strong winds, and for their shorter time  to harvest.  • large varieties   mildew resistance for the Central  Altiplano.  • resistant for   Northern Altiplano and valleys.   • (with and   (saponin free) varieties for specific  market demands and, for local and  family consumption of quinoa.  These  varieties have the advantage of  facilitating grain processing.  • for (flour   flakes) and for nutritional objectives  (nutraceuticals).  • all varieties for   mechanical harvesting are also sought,  mainly due to their drive towards  competitive, sustainable and resilient  production in the occurrence of  adverse climate change phenomena.   Results and discussion   With the application of classical breeding  methods, a number of varieties with  common and differential characteristics  have been generated. Common characteristics relate to  performance, size and color of grain. The  differential characteristics refer to  adaptation to different agro-ecological  zones, earliness, resistance to mildew,  bitter or sweet quinoa, industrial quality  among others. Large grain varieties are directed to the  use of quinoa in ways similar to rice  (pearled quinoa), ie. for cooking in soups  and boiled grain.   For this purposes grain  may be preferably white, but also red and  black in color. Most ecotypes of Royal  Quinoa are suitable for pearled quinoa  (Bonifacio et al., 2012). The research on  industrial quality of these varieties is in  progress.   Adapting varieties implies an analysis of  options in terms of producing them in  different ecoregions such as the Southern,  Central, and Northern Altiplano, Valleys  and Sub Tropics. The precocity is a character that enables  the management of adverse environmental  factors through the following  mechanisms:  1) avoid frost through a shorter   production cycle.  2) possibility of delayed planting   caused by lack of moisture in the  planting season.  3)  prevent losses and enable replanting   in case of: seedlings buried by winds  in sandy soils, clay soils crusting,  seedling loss by frost or drought.  Mildew resistance is a key component to  produce organic quinoa in areas outside  the Southern Altiplano. Quinoa is  susceptible to disease under conditions of  high relative humidity and soil moisture  (Bonifacio, 2006) and susceptible  varieties (Utusaya) can register a severity  of 100% (Danielsen and Ames, 2000).  Therefore resistance to mildew is essential  to produce quinoa in areas of high relative  humidity, to reduce the use of fungicides  for disease control, reduce production  costs and promote grain filling. The bitter and sweet varieties have not  received differentiation until now.  Bitter  quinoa is produced, processed and sold in  greater proportion. However, given the  volumes of water that are used (not  recycled) to remove the saponin, the  difficulties of eliminating foamy water  and, the increased energy expenditure    (scarifying, washing and drying); the  interest in sweet quinoa is reemerging. This sweet quinoa, although it has its  limitations due to the preferences of a  couple of bird species, requires less time  for scarifying and/or washing; therefore it  produces less loses during processing.  It  does not generate foamy water and  pearled grain does not have the strong,  pungent odor that bitter varieties have.  Due to these qualities of sweet quinoa, it  becomes an alternative for production  areas in the Central and Northern  Altiplano, as well as for lines of grain  processing and transformation. Therefore  sweet varieties generated three decades  ago are currently subject of differentiated  demand.  Industrial quality refers to the physical  and chemical properties of specific grain  varieties. In that sense, the varieties for  flour, flakes, and for pasta among other  uses and varietal differentiation, require  the appropriate quality for each process.  Varieties with industrial quality give more    relevance to the criteria of varietal purity  and homogeneity, so often promoted by  instances of variety registration and seed  certification. According to Bodoin (2009), demand and  use of quinoa certified seed is very low  compared to the volume of local seed used  for commercial production, and for  cultivar expansion. Table 1 lists the varieties generated by  PROINPA, their adaptation, production    cycle, grain characteristics and potential  uses, and shows the varieties’  recommendation domains. This  information can be used in the context of a  risk management quinoa production  strategy, taking into account the effects of  climate change, disease prevalence  (mildew) and, the demands of producers  and the market (with and without saponin,  industrial quality, etc.).    Challenges   Today, consumers are looking for  information about the quality of the  products they consume (protein content,  protein quality, gluten-free); it is for that  reason that quinoa has a high international  demand. The challenge, for the Bolivian quinoa to  be more competitive in the international  market, is to research its nutraceutical  properties such as antioxidant content,  iron and zinc, etc., and incorporate such  features in new varieties. The growing quinoa production areas,  lead to a search for technology of easy  application over large areas. This is the  case of cropping areas that are  progressively using more combined  harvesters. Therefore, the demand for  genetic improvement seeks the  development of new varieties with plant  architecture suitable for mechanization  (uniform size and uniform maturity). The actors in the quinoa value chain that  are in the processing link, need to be  informed about the qualities of the new  varieties, in terms of protein content,  amylopectin, antioxidants, etc., in order to  specialize the use of varieties.  This would  give way to processed products with  better quality and identity, since they  would not be processed with varietal  mixtures, as it is currently done. Finally, to achieve extensive use of  varieties, it is necessary that actors  specialized in the industry become  involved in the production of high quality  seed. This would allow producers,  associations and companies in the quinoa  value chain to have constant availability    and access to these varieties, meeting the  standards required by the corresponding  authorities. Currently, the vast majority of  producers, uses farmers' own and local  seed, even for use on cultivar expansion  (Bodoin, 2009).   Participating institutions   •  •  • (Proyecto Inno   vación. Estratégica Nacional - Minis  terio de Desarrollo Rural Agropecua  rio y Medio Ambiente).  National  Estrategic Innovation Project –  Ministry of Rural Development,  Agriculture and Environment.  •  • (Universidad de   Andrés).    •  • (Proyecto Resis-   tencia Duradera para la Zona Andina -  Universidad de Wageningen). Project  of Lasting Resistance for the Andean  Region - Wageningen University.   Cited references   Bodoin, A. 2009. Evaluación y perspectivas del   mercado de semilla certificadas de quinua  en la región del Salar de Uyuni en el  Altiplano Sur de Bolivia. 2nd Year  Internship Thesis. Agroparis Tech. Paris,  France. 35 p.  Bonifacio, A., Vargas, A., Aroni, G. 2003.   Variedad de quinua Jach’a Grano.  PROINPA Foundation. Technical Listing  No 6. Cochabamba, Bolivia.   Bonifacio, A., Vargas, A. 2005. Variedad de   Quinua Kurmi. PROINPA Foundation -  The McKnight Foundation - MACA.  Tchnical Listing No. 12.  Bonifacio, A., Vargas, A., Rojas, J. (n/y).   Variedad de Quinua Kurmi. PROINPA  Foundation - The McKnight Foundation -  MACA. Technical Listing No. P/FTE/81.  Bonifacio, A., Vargas, A., Aroni, G., Quispe, R.   (n/y). Variedad de Quinua Horizontes.  PROINPA Foundation- MDRAyMA.  Technical Listing No. P/FTE/79.  Bonifacio, A. 2006. El futuro de los productos   andinos en la región alta y los valles  centrales de los Andes. Granos en el área    altoandina de Bolivia, Ecuador y Perú.  ONUDI, Subdivisión de Promoción de  Inversión y Tecnología. On Line.    Available at: http://quinua.pe   Retrieved on June 6, 2014. Bonifacio, A., Aroni, G., Villca, M. 2012.   Catálogo etnobotánico de la Quinua Real.  PROINPA Foundation. Cochabamba,  Bolivia. 123 p.  Danielsen, S., Ames, T. 2000. El mildiu   (Peronospora farinosa) de la quinua   (Chenopodium quinoa) en la zona andina.   CIP-KVL. Lima, Perú. 32 p.   Introduction   The quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd)  crop in the Bolivian Altiplano is attacked  by several species of pest insects. One of  these species is the quinoa moth or "qhona  qhona" Eurysacca quinoae Povolny 1997  (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae), listed as a key  pest of the crop (Avalos 1996) because it  causes losses of over 30% and  significantly reduces grain quality  (Saravia and Quispe, 2003; PROINPA,  2013). The first reports on parasitoid insects of  quinoa moths were registered in  Patacamaya in 1997, by the Quinoa  Programme from the ex - IBTA (IBTA,  1997). Later, specific pieces of work were  performed in some communities of the  Central and Southern Altiplano (Mamani,  1998, PROINPA 2003; PROINPA 2013). As a result of these studies it is known that  the percentage of natural parasitism in  larvae of Eurysacca quinoae reaches up to   40% and, that the parasitoid complex  consists of nine species.  Out of these nine  species, seven belong to the order  Hymenoptera from the families  Braconidae (Meteorus  sp., Apanteles sp.,   Microplitis sp.), Ichneumonidae  (Deleboea sp., Venturia sp., Diadegma  sp.) and Encyrtidae (Copidosoma  sp.),   and two belong to the order Diptera from  the families Tachinidae (Phytomiptera sp.  and  Dolichostoma sp.) (IBTA 1997;   Mamani 1998, and Saravia Quispe 2006;  Saravia et al., 2008;. PROINPA 2013). A parasitoid is understood as every insect,  which in the larval stage is parasitic of  other arthropod (host), while in the adult  phase it lives freely to breed and seek its  host.   Unlike the parasite, the parasitoid in most  cases ends up killing the host (Van  Driessche et al., 2007). The diversity of predators and parasitoids  of a given pest species is related to the  diversity of flowering plants associated to  a cultivar.  The nectar and pollen of these  flowers are important additional food  sources necessary for multiplication  (Altieri and Nicholls, 2010). Areas of quinoa production in the country  are located in three ecoregions: Northern,  Central and Southern Altiplano, these  differ mainly by the rainfall regime, the  quality of soils and crops produced.  The  Southern Altiplano is the driest region  (150-300 mm/year), with sandy soils and  low fertility where the main crop is the  Royal Quinoa. The Northern Altiplano  has higher rainfall (500 mm/year), soils  are more productive and crops produced  include potatoes, quinoa, barley, broad  beans among others. The Central  Altiplano presents intermediate weather  and soil conditions, relating to both  Northern and Southern Altiplano. Given the background mentioned and in  order to update information on the  parasitoids associated with the quinoa  moth, the present study was carried out in  three ecoregions of the Altiplano. The  objective was to identify the parasitoids  and determine natural parasitism on larvae  of  E. quinoae in quinoa plots of the   Bolivian Altiplano.   Materials and methods   Location. The work was implemented in  twelve quinoa producing communities of  the Altiplano, one from the Northern  Altiplano (Lacaya), eight from the Central    Altiplano (Contorno Centro, Contorno  Arriba, Cañaviri, Villa Manquiri,  Colquencha, Viscachani, Calpaya and  Crucero Belen) and three in the Southern  Altiplano (Colcha K, Vinto and Julaca)  (Figure 1). E. quinoae sampling and larval rearing.  The collection of larvae in the quinoa  plots of different communities was  conducted between February and March  2013, period of highest incidence of the  pest. This process was performed using the  method of "Entomological mantle", which  consists of a canvas of 1 m x 1 m stretched  at the base of the plant, then a careful    shaking of the the panicle to produce the  downfall of larvae on the canvas. Larvae  obtained were placed in 200 ml sized  plastic containers enclosing paper towels  at the base, and quinoa leaves and  branches as food for the larvae. These containers were placed in  Styrofoam carriers that were carried to the  Entomology Laboratory of PROINPA  Foundation in Quipaquipani Center  (Viacha-La Paz).  At the laboratory larvae  were selected by size, and placed in  specific quantities, in containers, to  continue their rearing until they reached  the phases of adult moths or parasitoids.   Percentage of natural parasitism and  taxonomic identification. To calculate the  percentage of natural parasitism by  species and community, the following  formula was used: The identification of parasitoids was made  by comparison and using taxonomic keys.  For identification by comparison,  representative specimens of these  biological controllers were mounted, and  compared to specimens described by  Mamani (1998), Saravia and Quispe  (2006) and Costa et al. (2009). In some cases the identification was  confirmed using taxonomic keys provided  by Sharkey (2006) for Braconidae, and  Gauld (1991) for Ichneumonidae, both  corresponding to the Neotropical region. In parallel specimens of interest were sent  to specialized centers (USDA) for  identification.   Results and discussion    Parasitoid complex associated with  larvae of E. quinoae   The parasitoid complex that is regulating  the population of E. quinoae in quinoa  plots located in the Bolivian Altiplano, is  composed of six species (Table 1, Figure  2). Of these six species, five correspond to  the order Hymenoptera and one to  Diptera. Among the wasps, all belong to the sub  order Apocrita, characterized by having  the first abdominal segment together with    the metathorax and separated from the rest  of the abdominal segments with a narrow  waist (Fernandez and Sharkey, 2006).  These wasps are grouped into two  superfamilies: • (medium large   wasps).   •  Cotesia sp. and Meteorus sp. correspond  to the Braconidae family; Venturia sp. and  Deleboea  sp. to Ichneumonidae, and   Copidosoma  sp. to Encyrtidae   (Chalcidoidea). The only Diptera species  Phytomiptera sp. belongs to the Tachinid  family, from the Oestroidae superfamily,  and the sub order Brachycera. Among the parasitoids, the micro-wasp  Copidosoma sp. (Encyrtidae), is a  polyembrionic egg parasitoid that  mummifies moth larvae before they reach  the pupal stage. From mummified larvae,  between 28 to 33 micro-wasps can  emerge. The rest of the wasps are larvo-pupal  endoparasitoids. They infect their host  (quinoa moth larvae) in the early larval  stages, but the effect can only be observed  when they kill the host in the pupal stage.  Biologically this parasitism strategy is  known as koinobiont. There is another  strategy called idiobiont parasitism that  occurs in species that permanently  paralyze their hosts, preventing them to  continue their development after being  parasitized.  This is a desirable feature for  parasitoids that are meant to be used in  biological control programs. In this study  no parasitoids with these characteristics  were found.   Table 1 shows the percentage of natural  parasitism recorded in the different  communities of the Northern, Central and  Southern Altiplano. Overall, the average  percentage of natural parasitism was  higher than 28%, with the communities of  the Central Altiplano (Viscachani,    Contorno Arriba and Cañaviri) recording  the highest percentages of parasitism,  with values above 40%, in comparison to  Colcha K, Vinto and Julaca (Southern  Altiplano), where the lowest percentages  of parasitism were observed, with values  below 5%. The rest of the communities:   Lacaya, Calpaya, Crucero Belén,  Contorno Centro and Villa Manquiri (the  first from the Northern Altiplano and the  rest from the Central Altiplano), recorded  natural parasitism of E. quinoae  fluctuating between 27% and 38%. The  average of 28% of parasitism is a value  that comes close to the efficiency levels of  control for this pest, which is obtained by  using botanical extracts and/or some  bioinsecticides available in local markets.  This shows the important role that these  parasitoids play in the natural regulation  of E. quinoae. Natural parasitism percentages recorded  in each of the communities was the   product of a joint action of a complex of  two to six parasitoids, regulating the larval  population of E. quinoae at different  levels (Annex 1). According to Table 1,  the parasitoids that contributed most to the  regulation of quinoa moth larvae in the  twelve communities are Cotesia sp. and  Meteorus sp., recording average  parasitism above 6%. In contrast, the  micro-wasp  Copidosoma sp. was the   species that contributed least to the  control of E. quinoae (1.2%). The communities that are characterized by  greater diversity of parasitoids are  Viscachani, Contorno Centro and Lacaya,  the first two located in the Central  Altiplano and the last in the Northern  Altiplano, recording a total of six  parasitoids. The communities Colcha K,  Vinto and Julaca in the Southern  Altiplano, recorded two and three  parasitoids (Table 1). Depending on the abundance of  parasitoids (Table 1) two groups can be  clearly observed. The first formed by the  communities of Central and Northern  Altiplano, where Viscachani and    Contorno Centro stand out with the largest  number of parasitoids. The second group  consists of the communities in the  Southern Altiplano with low amounts of  these biological control agents. The  differences can be explained by the  characteristics of agricultural production  in each of these areas, in addition to the  floristic composition of weeds and native  plants registered and distributed in these  areas. The distribution and relative importance  of the six parasitoids identified was highly  variable. Nevertheless, there clearly is one  species found in all locations: the  Tachinido  Phytomiptera sp. which   showed an average frequency of 5.3%,  being the most abundant parasitoid in  Cañaviri (14.3%) and the second most  abundant in Colquencha (11%). In this  regard, Stireman et al. (2009) state that  flies belonging to the Tachinidae family  are diverse and are important natural  enemies of many pests. All known species  of this family are parasitoids of  arthropods, mainly of lepidopteran larvae,  the taxonomic group to which E. quinoae  belongs to. The percentages of parasitism recorded in  this work are lower than those reported by  Mamani (1998) and PROINPA (2013),  who indicate that populations of quinoa  moth larvae in the Central Altiplano have  natural parasitism ranging between 43%  and 65%.   Conclusions   •   the sampled communities is being  regulated by a complex of six  parasitoids: five wasps (Hymenoptera)  and one fly (Diptera). Among the    wasps, the species registered were:  Cotesia sp. (Braconidae), Meteorus sp.  (Braconidae),  Deleboea sp.   (Ichneumonidae), Venturia sp.  (Ichneumonidae) and Copidosoma sp.  (Encyrtidae), and the fly was identified  as Phytomiptera sp. (Tachinidae).  • average of   parasitism was 28% in the twelve  communities, standing out Viscachani  with 44.7% of parasitism on average.  •  Cotesia sp. and Meteorus   sp. were the species with higher levels  of parasitism recorded in communities  of the Northern, Central and Southern  Altiplano.  • natural   percentages recorded in E. quinoae  larvae, in quinoa producing  communities of the Bolivian  Altiplano, show the need to implement  integrated pest management practices  that conserve and increase beneficial  organisms in these agroecosystems.  •   partial perspective of the natural  parasitism on  E. quinoae, as the   sampling period covered a limited time  span. Additionally, only parasitism on  the larval stage of one agricultural  campaign was studied. The possibility  of sampling new parasitoids in the  same places and at different times,  with the same or other collection  methods, is not ruled out.  • the of   elements that influence their control  capability are the effects of climate  change and environmental variability.  Insect pest species are able to respond  quickly to environmental changes.  However, the effect that this response    has on the populations of natural  enemies (parasitoids and predators) is  still unknown. This is an aspect to be  considered when thinking about  implementing biological control  programs.  • of limitations the of   parasitoids (directed releases) in  biological control programs is the  maintenance of massive rearing in the  laboratory. For this purpose, the first  step is to develop mass host (E.  quinoae) rearing and to generate  information on the biology and  reproduction of its parasitoids, to later  have available a tool of natural  biological control.   Cited references   Altieri, A., Nicholls, C. 2010. Diseños   agroecológicos para incrementar la  biodiversidad de entomofauna benéfica  en agroecosistemas. SOCLA. Medellín,  Colombia. 83 p.  Avalos, F. 1996. Identificación y dinámica   poblacional de la polilla de la quinua  Eurysacca melanocampta. Thesis for the  degree of Agricultural Engeneer. Faculty  of Agriculture, UMSA. 121 p.  Costa, F., Yabar, E., Gianoli, E. 2009.   Parasitismo sobre  Eurysacca   melanocampta Meyrick (Lepidoptera:  Gelechiidae) en dos localidades de  Cuzco, Perú. In.  Rev. Fac. Nal. Agr. de  Medellín,  Vol. 62, n. 1. , Medellin,  Colombia. Available at:  http://www.scielo.org.co/scielo.php?script =sci_arttext&pid=S0304-2847200900010 0008&lng=en&nrm=iso>. Retrieved May  23, 2014  Fernández, F., Sharkey, M. 2006. Sistemática   de los himenópteros de la Región  Neotropical: Estado del conocimiento y  perspectivas. In: Introducción a los  Hymenóptera de la Región Neotropical.  Fernández, F. y M. J. Sharkey (Eds.).    Sociedad Colombiana de Entomología y  Universidad Nacional de Colombia,  Bogotá, Colombia. pp. 7-35.  Gauld, I. 1991. The Ichneumonidae of Costa   Rica. 1 Introduction, keys to subfamilies,  and keys to the species of the lower  pimpliform subfamilies: Rhyssinae,  Pimplinae, Poemeniinae, Acaenitinae  and Cylloceriinae. The American  Entomological Institute. Florida, EEUU.  589 p.  IBTA, 1997. Instituto Boliviano de Tecnología   Agropecuaria. Annual Report,  1996-1997. Programa Quinua, IBTA. La  Paz, Bolivia. 185 p.  Mamani, D. 1998. Control biológico en forma   natural de la polilla de la quinua  (Eurysacca melanocampta Meyrick) por  parasitoides y perspectivas de cría para  su manipulación en el Altiplano Central.  Thesis for the degree of Agricultural  Engeneer. Faculty of Agriculture, UMSA.  La Paz, Bolivia. pp. 90-91.  PROINPA, 2003. Fundación para la   Promoción e Investigación de Productos  Andinos. Project Report: Desarrollo y  validación participativa de las  innovaciones tecnológicas que mejoren  las estrategias para manejo sostenible de  la quinua. The McKnight Foundation. La  Paz, Bolivia. 127 p.  PROINPA, 2013. Fundación para la   Promoción e Investigación de Productos  Andinos. Annual Report 2009-2010:  Proyecto Desarrollo y validación    participativa de las innovaciones  tecnológicas que mejoren las estrategias  para manejo sostenible del sistema  centrado en quinua en el Altiplano  boliviano. The McKnight Foundation. La  Paz, Bolivia. 145 p.  Saravia, R., Quispe, R. 2006. Manejo   integrado de las plagas insectiles del  cultivo de la quinua. In: Module 2: Manejo  agronómico de la quinua orgánica.  Fundación PROINPA. pp. 53-86.  Saravia, R., Quispe, R. 2003. Ciclo biológico   de la polilla de la quinua Eurysacca  melanocampta Meyrick. Technical Listing   No.6. PROINPA Foundation.  Cochabamba, Bolivia. 4 p.  Saravia, R., Mamani, A., Bonifacio, A., Alcon,   M. 2008. Diagnóstico de los enemigos  naturales de las plagas del cultivo de  quinua. PROINPA Foundation. Annual  Report 2008-2009. Rubro Granos  Altoandinos. Cochabamba, Bolivia, 215  p.  Sharkey, M. 2006. Two new genera of   Agathidinae (Hymenoptera: Braconidae)  with a key to the genera of the New  World. Zootaxa: 1185: 37-51.  Van Driesche, R., Hoddle, M., Center, D. 2007.   Control de plagas y malezas por  enemigos naturales. USDA. Translated  by E. Ruiz and J. Coronada. Universidad  de Tamaulipas. Cd. Victoria, México. 796  p.      ISSN 1998 - 9652   Area: Technology Development 32   Table 1. General characteristics of quinoa varieties   generated by PROINPA Foundation   Variety Adaptation  areas  Production  cycle  Saponin Grain color  and size  Quality  or use  Jach’a     Grano   Central and Northern Altiplano. Open valleys and highlands   Early Bitter White,    large  Pearled,  flaked  Kurmi Central and Northern Altiplano. Open valleys and highlands   Semi-late Sweet White,    large  Pearled,  flaked  Aynuqa  Central Altiplano Semi-early Sweet White,  large  Pearled,  flaked  White,  large  White,  large   Pearled,  flaked  Horizontes  Central and Southern Altiplano  Semi-early Bitter  Qosuña Southern and Central Altiplano  Semi-early  Sweet Pearled,  flaked,  milled  Blanquita Northern Altiplano, valleys and highlands  Semi-late Sweet White,  medium  Milled,  flaked  Qanchis   Blanco  Southern and Central Altiplano  Early Bitter White,  large  Pearled  Maniqueña  Southern and Central Altiplano  Early Bitter White,    large  White,    large   Pearled Pearled Kariquimeña  Southern and Central Altiplano  Early Bitter   Source:  Own elaboration based on Bonifacio, Vargas y Aroni (2003); Bonifacio y Vargas (2005); Bonifacio, Aroni y Vargas (n/y); Bonifacio, Vargas y Rojas (n/y); Bonifacio, Vargas, Aroni y Quispe (n/a).   Introduction   Quinoa has evolved in the Andes. It was  domesticated by men and women from  civilizations like the Tiwanaku and the  Inca. Until the early eighties, the Andean  people cultivated quinoa due to their  advantages in adaptation to altitudes  between 2800 to 4000 m.a.s.l., and  semi-arid climates, and for its nutritional  benefits. The main product of the quinoa plant is  the grain, highly appreciated for the  preparation of traditional dishes in a way    somewhat similar to rice.  The leaves can  also be eaten fresh and, by products from  harvesting and threshing are destined for  animal feed (llamas). Quinoa comprises a wide diversity of  native varieties adapted to specific areas  of the Central, Northern and Southern  Altiplano, and valleys. In the highlands,  quinoa is the main food crop for the  inhabitants of this area. In the Southern  Altiplano, quinoa is the only crop that  thrives acceptably, this is why researchers  describe the production system as a  quinoa monoculture.   With the discovery of its nutritional  properties and its promotion, quinoa has  become an important export product and  an important source of income generation. Currently, quinoa is a product with high  demand in the market, with encouraging  prices for producers, processors and  traders, creating an important economic  activity for the country. The demand and high prices of quinoa  have stimulated the expansion of acreage,  covering new areas of production. This  expansion involves changes in the  production process and new technological  needs on several fronts: management of  pests and diseases, plant nutrition, seed  varieties and agronomic management. Climate change, in turn, has led to  changes in rainfall and new technological  demands, such as earlier varieties. On the  other hand the market demands various  colors of quinoa and more suitable  varieties for industrial processing. In this context, PROINPA has undertaken  the development of a new generation of  varieties focused on the following  priorities: • large varieties the   Southern Altiplano, necessary for late  planting, for re planting in case of  drought losses or seedlings buried by  strong winds, and for their shorter time  to harvest.  • large varieties   mildew resistance for the Central  Altiplano.  • resistant for   Northern Altiplano and valleys.   • (with and   (saponin free) varieties for specific  market demands and, for local and  family consumption of quinoa.  These  varieties have the advantage of  facilitating grain processing.  • for (flour   flakes) and for nutritional objectives  (nutraceuticals).  • all varieties for   mechanical harvesting are also sought,  mainly due to their drive towards  competitive, sustainable and resilient  production in the occurrence of  adverse climate change phenomena.   Results and discussion   With the application of classical breeding  methods, a number of varieties with  common and differential characteristics  have been generated. Common characteristics relate to  performance, size and color of grain. The  differential characteristics refer to  adaptation to different agro-ecological  zones, earliness, resistance to mildew,  bitter or sweet quinoa, industrial quality  among others. Large grain varieties are directed to the  use of quinoa in ways similar to rice  (pearled quinoa), ie. for cooking in soups  and boiled grain.   For this purposes grain  may be preferably white, but also red and  black in color. Most ecotypes of Royal  Quinoa are suitable for pearled quinoa  (Bonifacio et al., 2012). The research on  industrial quality of these varieties is in  progress.  Adapting varieties implies an analysis of  options in terms of producing them in  different ecoregions such as the Southern,  Central, and Northern Altiplano, Valleys  and Sub Tropics. The precocity is a character that enables  the management of adverse environmental  factors through the following  mechanisms:  1) avoid frost through a shorter   production cycle.  2) possibility of delayed planting   caused by lack of moisture in the  planting season.  3)  prevent losses and enable replanting   in case of: seedlings buried by winds  in sandy soils, clay soils crusting,  seedling loss by frost or drought.  Mildew resistance is a key component to  produce organic quinoa in areas outside  the Southern Altiplano. Quinoa is  susceptible to disease under conditions of  high relative humidity and soil moisture  (Bonifacio, 2006) and susceptible  varieties (Utusaya) can register a severity  of 100% (Danielsen and Ames, 2000).  Therefore resistance to mildew is essential  to produce quinoa in areas of high relative  humidity, to reduce the use of fungicides  for disease control, reduce production  costs and promote grain filling. The bitter and sweet varieties have not  received differentiation until now.  Bitter  quinoa is produced, processed and sold in  greater proportion. However, given the  volumes of water that are used (not  recycled) to remove the saponin, the  difficulties of eliminating foamy water  and, the increased energy expenditure    (scarifying, washing and drying); the  interest in sweet quinoa is reemerging. This sweet quinoa, although it has its  limitations due to the preferences of a  couple of bird species, requires less time  for scarifying and/or washing; therefore it  produces less loses during processing.  It  does not generate foamy water and  pearled grain does not have the strong,  pungent odor that bitter varieties have.  Due to these qualities of sweet quinoa, it  becomes an alternative for production  areas in the Central and Northern  Altiplano, as well as for lines of grain  processing and transformation. Therefore  sweet varieties generated three decades  ago are currently subject of differentiated  demand.  Industrial quality refers to the physical  and chemical properties of specific grain  varieties. In that sense, the varieties for  flour, flakes, and for pasta among other  uses and varietal differentiation, require  the appropriate quality for each process.  Varieties with industrial quality give more    relevance to the criteria of varietal purity  and homogeneity, so often promoted by  instances of variety registration and seed  certification. According to Bodoin (2009), demand and  use of quinoa certified seed is very low  compared to the volume of local seed used  for commercial production, and for  cultivar expansion. Table 1 lists the varieties generated by  PROINPA, their adaptation, production    cycle, grain characteristics and potential  uses, and shows the varieties’  recommendation domains. This  information can be used in the context of a  risk management quinoa production  strategy, taking into account the effects of  climate change, disease prevalence  (mildew) and, the demands of producers  and the market (with and without saponin,  industrial quality, etc.).    Challenges   Today, consumers are looking for  information about the quality of the  products they consume (protein content,  protein quality, gluten-free); it is for that  reason that quinoa has a high international  demand. The challenge, for the Bolivian quinoa to  be more competitive in the international  market, is to research its nutraceutical  properties such as antioxidant content,  iron and zinc, etc., and incorporate such  features in new varieties. The growing quinoa production areas,  lead to a search for technology of easy  application over large areas. This is the  case of cropping areas that are  progressively using more combined  harvesters. Therefore, the demand for  genetic improvement seeks the  development of new varieties with plant  architecture suitable for mechanization  (uniform size and uniform maturity). The actors in the quinoa value chain that  are in the processing link, need to be  informed about the qualities of the new  varieties, in terms of protein content,  amylopectin, antioxidants, etc., in order to  specialize the use of varieties.  This would  give way to processed products with  better quality and identity, since they  would not be processed with varietal  mixtures, as it is currently done. Finally, to achieve extensive use of  varieties, it is necessary that actors  specialized in the industry become  involved in the production of high quality  seed. This would allow producers,  associations and companies in the quinoa  value chain to have constant availability    and access to these varieties, meeting the  standards required by the corresponding  authorities. Currently, the vast majority of  producers, uses farmers' own and local  seed, even for use on cultivar expansion  (Bodoin, 2009).   Participating institutions   •  •  • (Proyecto Inno   vación. Estratégica Nacional - Minis  terio de Desarrollo Rural Agropecua  rio y Medio Ambiente).  National  Estrategic Innovation Project –  Ministry of Rural Development,  Agriculture and Environment.  •  • (Universidad de   Andrés).    •  • (Proyecto Resis-   tencia Duradera para la Zona Andina -  Universidad de Wageningen). Project  of Lasting Resistance for the Andean  Region - Wageningen University.   Cited references   Bodoin, A. 2009. Evaluación y perspectivas del   mercado de semilla certificadas de quinua  en la región del Salar de Uyuni en el  Altiplano Sur de Bolivia. 2nd Year  Internship Thesis. Agroparis Tech. Paris,  France. 35 p.  Bonifacio, A., Vargas, A., Aroni, G. 2003.   Variedad de quinua Jach’a Grano.  PROINPA Foundation. Technical Listing  No 6. Cochabamba, Bolivia.   Bonifacio, A., Vargas, A. 2005. Variedad de   Quinua Kurmi. PROINPA Foundation -  The McKnight Foundation - MACA.  Tchnical Listing No. 12.  Bonifacio, A., Vargas, A., Rojas, J. (n/y).   Variedad de Quinua Kurmi. PROINPA  Foundation - The McKnight Foundation -  MACA. Technical Listing No. P/FTE/81.  Bonifacio, A., Vargas, A., Aroni, G., Quispe, R.   (n/y). Variedad de Quinua Horizontes.  PROINPA Foundation- MDRAyMA.  Technical Listing No. P/FTE/79.  Bonifacio, A. 2006. El futuro de los productos   andinos en la región alta y los valles  centrales de los Andes. Granos en el área    altoandina de Bolivia, Ecuador y Perú.  ONUDI, Subdivisión de Promoción de  Inversión y Tecnología. On Line.    Available at: http://quinua.pe   Retrieved on June 6, 2014. Bonifacio, A., Aroni, G., Villca, M. 2012.   Catálogo etnobotánico de la Quinua Real.  PROINPA Foundation. Cochabamba,  Bolivia. 123 p.  Danielsen, S., Ames, T. 2000. El mildiu   (Peronospora farinosa) de la quinua   (Chenopodium quinoa) en la zona andina.   CIP-KVL. Lima, Perú. 32 p.   Introduction   The quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd)  crop in the Bolivian Altiplano is attacked  by several species of pest insects. One of  these species is the quinoa moth or "qhona  qhona" Eurysacca quinoae Povolny 1997  (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae), listed as a key  pest of the crop (Avalos 1996) because it  causes losses of over 30% and  significantly reduces grain quality  (Saravia and Quispe, 2003; PROINPA,  2013). The first reports on parasitoid insects of  quinoa moths were registered in  Patacamaya in 1997, by the Quinoa  Programme from the ex - IBTA (IBTA,  1997). Later, specific pieces of work were  performed in some communities of the  Central and Southern Altiplano (Mamani,  1998, PROINPA 2003; PROINPA 2013). As a result of these studies it is known that  the percentage of natural parasitism in  larvae of Eurysacca quinoae reaches up to   40% and, that the parasitoid complex  consists of nine species.  Out of these nine  species, seven belong to the order  Hymenoptera from the families  Braconidae (Meteorus  sp., Apanteles sp.,   Microplitis sp.), Ichneumonidae  (Deleboea sp., Venturia sp., Diadegma  sp.) and Encyrtidae (Copidosoma  sp.),   and two belong to the order Diptera from  the families Tachinidae (Phytomiptera sp.  and  Dolichostoma sp.) (IBTA 1997;   Mamani 1998, and Saravia Quispe 2006;  Saravia et al., 2008;. PROINPA 2013). A parasitoid is understood as every insect,  which in the larval stage is parasitic of  other arthropod (host), while in the adult  phase it lives freely to breed and seek its  host.   Unlike the parasite, the parasitoid in most  cases ends up killing the host (Van  Driessche et al., 2007). The diversity of predators and parasitoids  of a given pest species is related to the  diversity of flowering plants associated to  a cultivar.  The nectar and pollen of these  flowers are important additional food  sources necessary for multiplication  (Altieri and Nicholls, 2010). Areas of quinoa production in the country  are located in three ecoregions: Northern,  Central and Southern Altiplano, these  differ mainly by the rainfall regime, the  quality of soils and crops produced.  The  Southern Altiplano is the driest region  (150-300 mm/year), with sandy soils and  low fertility where the main crop is the  Royal Quinoa. The Northern Altiplano  has higher rainfall (500 mm/year), soils  are more productive and crops produced  include potatoes, quinoa, barley, broad  beans among others. The Central  Altiplano presents intermediate weather  and soil conditions, relating to both  Northern and Southern Altiplano. Given the background mentioned and in  order to update information on the  parasitoids associated with the quinoa  moth, the present study was carried out in  three ecoregions of the Altiplano. The  objective was to identify the parasitoids  and determine natural parasitism on larvae  of  E. quinoae in quinoa plots of the   Bolivian Altiplano.   Materials and methods   Location. The work was implemented in  twelve quinoa producing communities of  the Altiplano, one from the Northern  Altiplano (Lacaya), eight from the Central    Altiplano (Contorno Centro, Contorno  Arriba, Cañaviri, Villa Manquiri,  Colquencha, Viscachani, Calpaya and  Crucero Belen) and three in the Southern  Altiplano (Colcha K, Vinto and Julaca)  (Figure 1). E. quinoae sampling and larval rearing.  The collection of larvae in the quinoa  plots of different communities was  conducted between February and March  2013, period of highest incidence of the  pest. This process was performed using the  method of "Entomological mantle", which  consists of a canvas of 1 m x 1 m stretched  at the base of the plant, then a careful    shaking of the the panicle to produce the  downfall of larvae on the canvas. Larvae  obtained were placed in 200 ml sized  plastic containers enclosing paper towels  at the base, and quinoa leaves and  branches as food for the larvae. These containers were placed in  Styrofoam carriers that were carried to the  Entomology Laboratory of PROINPA  Foundation in Quipaquipani Center  (Viacha-La Paz).  At the laboratory larvae  were selected by size, and placed in  specific quantities, in containers, to  continue their rearing until they reached  the phases of adult moths or parasitoids.   Percentage of natural parasitism and  taxonomic identification. To calculate the  percentage of natural parasitism by  species and community, the following  formula was used: The identification of parasitoids was made  by comparison and using taxonomic keys.  For identification by comparison,  representative specimens of these  biological controllers were mounted, and  compared to specimens described by  Mamani (1998), Saravia and Quispe  (2006) and Costa et al. (2009). In some cases the identification was  confirmed using taxonomic keys provided  by Sharkey (2006) for Braconidae, and  Gauld (1991) for Ichneumonidae, both  corresponding to the Neotropical region. In parallel specimens of interest were sent  to specialized centers (USDA) for  identification.   Results and discussion    Parasitoid complex associated with  larvae of E. quinoae   The parasitoid complex that is regulating  the population of E. quinoae in quinoa  plots located in the Bolivian Altiplano, is  composed of six species (Table 1, Figure  2). Of these six species, five correspond to  the order Hymenoptera and one to  Diptera. Among the wasps, all belong to the sub  order Apocrita, characterized by having  the first abdominal segment together with    the metathorax and separated from the rest  of the abdominal segments with a narrow  waist (Fernandez and Sharkey, 2006).  These wasps are grouped into two  superfamilies: • (medium large   wasps).   •  Cotesia sp. and Meteorus sp. correspond  to the Braconidae family; Venturia sp. and  Deleboea  sp. to Ichneumonidae, and   Copidosoma  sp. to Encyrtidae   (Chalcidoidea). The only Diptera species  Phytomiptera sp. belongs to the Tachinid  family, from the Oestroidae superfamily,  and the sub order Brachycera. Among the parasitoids, the micro-wasp  Copidosoma sp. (Encyrtidae), is a  polyembrionic egg parasitoid that  mummifies moth larvae before they reach  the pupal stage. From mummified larvae,  between 28 to 33 micro-wasps can  emerge. The rest of the wasps are larvo-pupal  endoparasitoids. They infect their host  (quinoa moth larvae) in the early larval  stages, but the effect can only be observed  when they kill the host in the pupal stage.  Biologically this parasitism strategy is  known as koinobiont. There is another  strategy called idiobiont parasitism that  occurs in species that permanently  paralyze their hosts, preventing them to  continue their development after being  parasitized.  This is a desirable feature for  parasitoids that are meant to be used in  biological control programs. In this study  no parasitoids with these characteristics  were found.   Table 1 shows the percentage of natural  parasitism recorded in the different  communities of the Northern, Central and  Southern Altiplano. Overall, the average  percentage of natural parasitism was  higher than 28%, with the communities of  the Central Altiplano (Viscachani,    Contorno Arriba and Cañaviri) recording  the highest percentages of parasitism,  with values above 40%, in comparison to  Colcha K, Vinto and Julaca (Southern  Altiplano), where the lowest percentages  of parasitism were observed, with values  below 5%. The rest of the communities:   Lacaya, Calpaya, Crucero Belén,  Contorno Centro and Villa Manquiri (the  first from the Northern Altiplano and the  rest from the Central Altiplano), recorded  natural parasitism of E. quinoae  fluctuating between 27% and 38%. The  average of 28% of parasitism is a value  that comes close to the efficiency levels of  control for this pest, which is obtained by  using botanical extracts and/or some  bioinsecticides available in local markets.  This shows the important role that these  parasitoids play in the natural regulation  of E. quinoae. Natural parasitism percentages recorded  in each of the communities was the  product of a joint action of a complex of  two to six parasitoids, regulating the larval  population of E. quinoae at different  levels (Annex 1). According to Table 1,  the parasitoids that contributed most to the  regulation of quinoa moth larvae in the  twelve communities are Cotesia sp. and  Meteorus sp., recording average  parasitism above 6%. In contrast, the  micro-wasp  Copidosoma sp. was the   species that contributed least to the  control of E. quinoae (1.2%).   The communities that are characterized by  greater diversity of parasitoids are  Viscachani, Contorno Centro and Lacaya,  the first two located in the Central  Altiplano and the last in the Northern  Altiplano, recording a total of six  parasitoids. The communities Colcha K,  Vinto and Julaca in the Southern  Altiplano, recorded two and three  parasitoids (Table 1). Depending on the abundance of  parasitoids (Table 1) two groups can be  clearly observed. The first formed by the  communities of Central and Northern  Altiplano, where Viscachani and    Contorno Centro stand out with the largest  number of parasitoids. The second group  consists of the communities in the  Southern Altiplano with low amounts of  these biological control agents. The  differences can be explained by the  characteristics of agricultural production  in each of these areas, in addition to the  floristic composition of weeds and native  plants registered and distributed in these  areas. The distribution and relative importance  of the six parasitoids identified was highly  variable. Nevertheless, there clearly is one  species found in all locations: the  Tachinido  Phytomiptera sp. which   showed an average frequency of 5.3%,  being the most abundant parasitoid in  Cañaviri (14.3%) and the second most  abundant in Colquencha (11%). In this  regard, Stireman et al. (2009) state that  flies belonging to the Tachinidae family  are diverse and are important natural  enemies of many pests. All known species  of this family are parasitoids of  arthropods, mainly of lepidopteran larvae,  the taxonomic group to which E. quinoae  belongs to. The percentages of parasitism recorded in  this work are lower than those reported by  Mamani (1998) and PROINPA (2013),  who indicate that populations of quinoa  moth larvae in the Central Altiplano have  natural parasitism ranging between 43%  and 65%.   Conclusions   •   the sampled communities is being  regulated by a complex of six  parasitoids: five wasps (Hymenoptera)  and one fly (Diptera). Among the    wasps, the species registered were:  Cotesia sp. (Braconidae), Meteorus sp.  (Braconidae),  Deleboea sp.   (Ichneumonidae), Venturia sp.  (Ichneumonidae) and Copidosoma sp.  (Encyrtidae), and the fly was identified  as Phytomiptera sp. (Tachinidae).  • average of   parasitism was 28% in the twelve  communities, standing out Viscachani  with 44.7% of parasitism on average.  •  Cotesia sp. and Meteorus   sp. were the species with higher levels  of parasitism recorded in communities  of the Northern, Central and Southern  Altiplano.  • natural   percentages recorded in E. quinoae  larvae, in quinoa producing  communities of the Bolivian  Altiplano, show the need to implement  integrated pest management practices  that conserve and increase beneficial  organisms in these agroecosystems.  •   partial perspective of the natural  parasitism on  E. quinoae, as the   sampling period covered a limited time  span. Additionally, only parasitism on  the larval stage of one agricultural  campaign was studied. The possibility  of sampling new parasitoids in the  same places and at different times,  with the same or other collection  methods, is not ruled out.  • the of   elements that influence their control  capability are the effects of climate  change and environmental variability.  Insect pest species are able to respond  quickly to environmental changes.  However, the effect that this response    has on the populations of natural  enemies (parasitoids and predators) is  still unknown. This is an aspect to be  considered when thinking about  implementing biological control  programs.  • of limitations the of   parasitoids (directed releases) in  biological control programs is the  maintenance of massive rearing in the  laboratory. For this purpose, the first  step is to develop mass host (E.  quinoae) rearing and to generate  information on the biology and  reproduction of its parasitoids, to later  have available a tool of natural  biological control.   Cited references   Altieri, A., Nicholls, C. 2010. Diseños   agroecológicos para incrementar la  biodiversidad de entomofauna benéfica  en agroecosistemas. SOCLA. Medellín,  Colombia. 83 p.  Avalos, F. 1996. Identificación y dinámica   poblacional de la polilla de la quinua  Eurysacca melanocampta. Thesis for the  degree of Agricultural Engeneer. Faculty  of Agriculture, UMSA. 121 p.  Costa, F., Yabar, E., Gianoli, E. 2009.   Parasitismo sobre  Eurysacca   melanocampta Meyrick (Lepidoptera:  Gelechiidae) en dos localidades de  Cuzco, Perú. In.  Rev. Fac. Nal. Agr. de  Medellín,  Vol. 62, n. 1. , Medellin,  Colombia. Available at:  http://www.scielo.org.co/scielo.php?script =sci_arttext&pid=S0304-2847200900010 0008&lng=en&nrm=iso>. Retrieved May  23, 2014  Fernández, F., Sharkey, M. 2006. Sistemática   de los himenópteros de la Región  Neotropical: Estado del conocimiento y  perspectivas. In: Introducción a los  Hymenóptera de la Región Neotropical.  Fernández, F. y M. J. Sharkey (Eds.).    Sociedad Colombiana de Entomología y  Universidad Nacional de Colombia,  Bogotá, Colombia. pp. 7-35.  Gauld, I. 1991. The Ichneumonidae of Costa   Rica. 1 Introduction, keys to subfamilies,  and keys to the species of the lower  pimpliform subfamilies: Rhyssinae,  Pimplinae, Poemeniinae, Acaenitinae  and Cylloceriinae. The American  Entomological Institute. Florida, EEUU.  589 p.  IBTA, 1997. Instituto Boliviano de Tecnología   Agropecuaria. Annual Report,  1996-1997. Programa Quinua, IBTA. La  Paz, Bolivia. 185 p.  Mamani, D. 1998. Control biológico en forma   natural de la polilla de la quinua  (Eurysacca melanocampta Meyrick) por  parasitoides y perspectivas de cría para  su manipulación en el Altiplano Central.  Thesis for the degree of Agricultural  Engeneer. Faculty of Agriculture, UMSA.  La Paz, Bolivia. pp. 90-91.  PROINPA, 2003. Fundación para la   Promoción e Investigación de Productos  Andinos. Project Report: Desarrollo y  validación participativa de las  innovaciones tecnológicas que mejoren  las estrategias para manejo sostenible de  la quinua. The McKnight Foundation. La  Paz, Bolivia. 127 p.  PROINPA, 2013. Fundación para la   Promoción e Investigación de Productos  Andinos. Annual Report 2009-2010:  Proyecto Desarrollo y validación    participativa de las innovaciones  tecnológicas que mejoren las estrategias  para manejo sostenible del sistema  centrado en quinua en el Altiplano  boliviano. The McKnight Foundation. La  Paz, Bolivia. 145 p.  Saravia, R., Quispe, R. 2006. Manejo   integrado de las plagas insectiles del  cultivo de la quinua. In: Module 2: Manejo  agronómico de la quinua orgánica.  Fundación PROINPA. pp. 53-86.  Saravia, R., Quispe, R. 2003. Ciclo biológico   de la polilla de la quinua Eurysacca  melanocampta Meyrick. Technical Listing   No.6. PROINPA Foundation.  Cochabamba, Bolivia. 4 p.  Saravia, R., Mamani, A., Bonifacio, A., Alcon,   M. 2008. Diagnóstico de los enemigos  naturales de las plagas del cultivo de  quinua. PROINPA Foundation. Annual  Report 2008-2009. Rubro Granos  Altoandinos. Cochabamba, Bolivia, 215  p.  Sharkey, M. 2006. Two new genera of   Agathidinae (Hymenoptera: Braconidae)  with a key to the genera of the New  World. Zootaxa: 1185: 37-51.  Van Driesche, R., Hoddle, M., Center, D. 2007.   Control de plagas y malezas por  enemigos naturales. USDA. Translated  by E. Ruiz and J. Coronada. Universidad  de Tamaulipas. Cd. Victoria, México. 796  p.      Revista de Agricultura, Nro. 54 - Julio de 2014   Area: Technology Development 33   Kurmi Variety Blanquita Variety  Jach’a Grano Variety Qusuna Variety  Royal Quinoa in flowering phase  (variation by plan color)  Royal Quinoa in maturing phase   Introduction   Quinoa has evolved in the Andes. It was  domesticated by men and women from  civilizations like the Tiwanaku and the  Inca. Until the early eighties, the Andean  people cultivated quinoa due to their  advantages in adaptation to altitudes  between 2800 to 4000 m.a.s.l., and  semi-arid climates, and for its nutritional  benefits. The main product of the quinoa plant is  the grain, highly appreciated for the  preparation of traditional dishes in a way    somewhat similar to rice.  The leaves can  also be eaten fresh and, by products from  harvesting and threshing are destined for  animal feed (llamas). Quinoa comprises a wide diversity of  native varieties adapted to specific areas  of the Central, Northern and Southern  Altiplano, and valleys. In the highlands,  quinoa is the main food crop for the  inhabitants of this area. In the Southern  Altiplano, quinoa is the only crop that  thrives acceptably, this is why researchers  describe the production system as a  quinoa monoculture.   With the discovery of its nutritional  properties and its promotion, quinoa has  become an important export product and  an important source of income generation. Currently, quinoa is a product with high  demand in the market, with encouraging  prices for producers, processors and  traders, creating an important economic  activity for the country. The demand and high prices of quinoa  have stimulated the expansion of acreage,  covering new areas of production. This  expansion involves changes in the  production process and new technological  needs on several fronts: management of  pests and diseases, plant nutrition, seed  varieties and agronomic management. Climate change, in turn, has led to  changes in rainfall and new technological  demands, such as earlier varieties. On the  other hand the market demands various  colors of quinoa and more suitable  varieties for industrial processing. In this context, PROINPA has undertaken  the development of a new generation of  varieties focused on the following  priorities: • large varieties the   Southern Altiplano, necessary for late  planting, for re planting in case of  drought losses or seedlings buried by  strong winds, and for their shorter time  to harvest.  • large varieties   mildew resistance for the Central  Altiplano.  • resistant for   Northern Altiplano and valleys.   • (with and   (saponin free) varieties for specific  market demands and, for local and  family consumption of quinoa.  These  varieties have the advantage of  facilitating grain processing.  • for (flour   flakes) and for nutritional objectives  (nutraceuticals).  • all varieties for   mechanical harvesting are also sought,  mainly due to their drive towards  competitive, sustainable and resilient  production in the occurrence of  adverse climate change phenomena.   Results and discussion   With the application of classical breeding  methods, a number of varieties with  common and differential characteristics  have been generated. Common characteristics relate to  performance, size and color of grain. The  differential characteristics refer to  adaptation to different agro-ecological  zones, earliness, resistance to mildew,  bitter or sweet quinoa, industrial quality  among others. Large grain varieties are directed to the  use of quinoa in ways similar to rice  (pearled quinoa), ie. for cooking in soups  and boiled grain.   For this purposes grain  may be preferably white, but also red and  black in color. Most ecotypes of Royal  Quinoa are suitable for pearled quinoa  (Bonifacio et al., 2012). The research on  industrial quality of these varieties is in  progress.  Adapting varieties implies an analysis of  options in terms of producing them in  different ecoregions such as the Southern,  Central, and Northern Altiplano, Valleys  and Sub Tropics. The precocity is a character that enables  the management of adverse environmental  factors through the following  mechanisms:  1) avoid frost through a shorter   production cycle.  2) possibility of delayed planting   caused by lack of moisture in the  planting season.  3)  prevent losses and enable replanting   in case of: seedlings buried by winds  in sandy soils, clay soils crusting,  seedling loss by frost or drought.  Mildew resistance is a key component to  produce organic quinoa in areas outside  the Southern Altiplano. Quinoa is  susceptible to disease under conditions of  high relative humidity and soil moisture  (Bonifacio, 2006) and susceptible  varieties (Utusaya) can register a severity  of 100% (Danielsen and Ames, 2000).  Therefore resistance to mildew is essential  to produce quinoa in areas of high relative  humidity, to reduce the use of fungicides  for disease control, reduce production  costs and promote grain filling. The bitter and sweet varieties have not  received differentiation until now.  Bitter  quinoa is produced, processed and sold in  greater proportion. However, given the  volumes of water that are used (not  recycled) to remove the saponin, the  difficulties of eliminating foamy water  and, the increased energy expenditure    (scarifying, washing and drying); the  interest in sweet quinoa is reemerging. This sweet quinoa, although it has its  limitations due to the preferences of a  couple of bird species, requires less time  for scarifying and/or washing; therefore it  produces less loses during processing.  It  does not generate foamy water and  pearled grain does not have the strong,  pungent odor that bitter varieties have.  Due to these qualities of sweet quinoa, it  becomes an alternative for production  areas in the Central and Northern  Altiplano, as well as for lines of grain  processing and transformation. Therefore  sweet varieties generated three decades  ago are currently subject of differentiated  demand.  Industrial quality refers to the physical  and chemical properties of specific grain  varieties. In that sense, the varieties for  flour, flakes, and for pasta among other  uses and varietal differentiation, require  the appropriate quality for each process.  Varieties with industrial quality give more    relevance to the criteria of varietal purity  and homogeneity, so often promoted by  instances of variety registration and seed  certification. According to Bodoin (2009), demand and  use of quinoa certified seed is very low  compared to the volume of local seed used  for commercial production, and for  cultivar expansion. Table 1 lists the varieties generated by  PROINPA, their adaptation, production    cycle, grain characteristics and potential  uses, and shows the varieties’  recommendation domains. This  information can be used in the context of a  risk management quinoa production  strategy, taking into account the effects of  climate change, disease prevalence  (mildew) and, the demands of producers  and the market (with and without saponin,  industrial quality, etc.).    Challenges   Today, consumers are looking for  information about the quality of the  products they consume (protein content,  protein quality, gluten-free); it is for that  reason that quinoa has a high international  demand. The challenge, for the Bolivian quinoa to  be more competitive in the international  market, is to research its nutraceutical  properties such as antioxidant content,  iron and zinc, etc., and incorporate such  features in new varieties. The growing quinoa production areas,  lead to a search for technology of easy  application over large areas. This is the  case of cropping areas that are  progressively using more combined  harvesters. Therefore, the demand for  genetic improvement seeks the  development of new varieties with plant  architecture suitable for mechanization  (uniform size and uniform maturity). The actors in the quinoa value chain that  are in the processing link, need to be  informed about the qualities of the new  varieties, in terms of protein content,  amylopectin, antioxidants, etc., in order to  specialize the use of varieties.  This would  give way to processed products with  better quality and identity, since they  would not be processed with varietal  mixtures, as it is currently done. Finally, to achieve extensive use of  varieties, it is necessary that actors  specialized in the industry become  involved in the production of high quality  seed. This would allow producers,  associations and companies in the quinoa  value chain to have constant availability    and access to these varieties, meeting the  standards required by the corresponding  authorities. Currently, the vast majority of  producers, uses farmers' own and local  seed, even for use on cultivar expansion  (Bodoin, 2009).   Participating institutions   •  •  • (Proyecto Inno   vación. Estratégica Nacional - Minis  terio de Desarrollo Rural Agropecua  rio y Medio Ambiente).  National  Estrategic Innovation Project –  Ministry of Rural Development,  Agriculture and Environment.  •  • (Universidad de   Andrés).    •  • (Proyecto Resis-   tencia Duradera para la Zona Andina -  Universidad de Wageningen). Project  of Lasting Resistance for the Andean  Region - Wageningen University.   Cited references   Bodoin, A. 2009. Evaluación y perspectivas del   mercado de semilla certificadas de quinua  en la región del Salar de Uyuni en el  Altiplano Sur de Bolivia. 2nd Year  Internship Thesis. Agroparis Tech. Paris,  France. 35 p.  Bonifacio, A., Vargas, A., Aroni, G. 2003.   Variedad de quinua Jach’a Grano.  PROINPA Foundation. Technical Listing  No 6. Cochabamba, Bolivia.   Bonifacio, A., Vargas, A. 2005. Variedad de   Quinua Kurmi. PROINPA Foundation -  The McKnight Foundation - MACA.  Tchnical Listing No. 12.  Bonifacio, A., Vargas, A., Rojas, J. (n/y).   Variedad de Quinua Kurmi. PROINPA  Foundation - The McKnight Foundation -  MACA. Technical Listing No. P/FTE/81.  Bonifacio, A., Vargas, A., Aroni, G., Quispe, R.   (n/y). Variedad de Quinua Horizontes.  PROINPA Foundation- MDRAyMA.  Technical Listing No. P/FTE/79.  Bonifacio, A. 2006. El futuro de los productos   andinos en la región alta y los valles  centrales de los Andes. Granos en el área    altoandina de Bolivia, Ecuador y Perú.  ONUDI, Subdivisión de Promoción de  Inversión y Tecnología. On Line.    Available at: http://quinua.pe   Retrieved on June 6, 2014. Bonifacio, A., Aroni, G., Villca, M. 2012.   Catálogo etnobotánico de la Quinua Real.  PROINPA Foundation. Cochabamba,  Bolivia. 123 p.  Danielsen, S., Ames, T. 2000. El mildiu   (Peronospora farinosa) de la quinua   (Chenopodium quinoa) en la zona andina.   CIP-KVL. Lima, Perú. 32 p.   Introduction   The quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd)  crop in the Bolivian Altiplano is attacked  by several species of pest insects. One of  these species is the quinoa moth or "qhona  qhona" Eurysacca quinoae Povolny 1997  (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae), listed as a key  pest of the crop (Avalos 1996) because it  causes losses of over 30% and  significantly reduces grain quality  (Saravia and Quispe, 2003; PROINPA,  2013). The first reports on parasitoid insects of  quinoa moths were registered in  Patacamaya in 1997, by the Quinoa  Programme from the ex - IBTA (IBTA,  1997). Later, specific pieces of work were  performed in some communities of the  Central and Southern Altiplano (Mamani,  1998, PROINPA 2003; PROINPA 2013). As a result of these studies it is known that  the percentage of natural parasitism in  larvae of Eurysacca quinoae reaches up to   40% and, that the parasitoid complex  consists of nine species.  Out of these nine  species, seven belong to the order  Hymenoptera from the families  Braconidae (Meteorus  sp., Apanteles sp.,   Microplitis sp.), Ichneumonidae  (Deleboea sp., Venturia sp., Diadegma  sp.) and Encyrtidae (Copidosoma  sp.),   and two belong to the order Diptera from  the families Tachinidae (Phytomiptera sp.  and  Dolichostoma sp.) (IBTA 1997;   Mamani 1998, and Saravia Quispe 2006;  Saravia et al., 2008;. PROINPA 2013). A parasitoid is understood as every insect,  which in the larval stage is parasitic of  other arthropod (host), while in the adult  phase it lives freely to breed and seek its  host.   Unlike the parasite, the parasitoid in most  cases ends up killing the host (Van  Driessche et al., 2007). The diversity of predators and parasitoids  of a given pest species is related to the  diversity of flowering plants associated to  a cultivar.  The nectar and pollen of these  flowers are important additional food  sources necessary for multiplication  (Altieri and Nicholls, 2010). Areas of quinoa production in the country  are located in three ecoregions: Northern,  Central and Southern Altiplano, these  differ mainly by the rainfall regime, the  quality of soils and crops produced.  The  Southern Altiplano is the driest region  (150-300 mm/year), with sandy soils and  low fertility where the main crop is the  Royal Quinoa. The Northern Altiplano  has higher rainfall (500 mm/year), soils  are more productive and crops produced  include potatoes, quinoa, barley, broad  beans among others. The Central  Altiplano presents intermediate weather  and soil conditions, relating to both  Northern and Southern Altiplano. Given the background mentioned and in  order to update information on the  parasitoids associated with the quinoa  moth, the present study was carried out in  three ecoregions of the Altiplano. The  objective was to identify the parasitoids  and determine natural parasitism on larvae   of  E. quinoae in quinoa plots of the   Bolivian Altiplano.   Materials and methods   Location. The work was implemented in  twelve quinoa producing communities of  the Altiplano, one from the Northern  Altiplano (Lacaya), eight from the Central    Altiplano (Contorno Centro, Contorno  Arriba, Cañaviri, Villa Manquiri,  Colquencha, Viscachani, Calpaya and  Crucero Belen) and three in the Southern  Altiplano (Colcha K, Vinto and Julaca)  (Figure 1). E. quinoae sampling and larval rearing.  The collection of larvae in the quinoa  plots of different communities was  conducted between February and March  2013, period of highest incidence of the  pest. This process was performed using the  method of "Entomological mantle", which  consists of a canvas of 1 m x 1 m stretched  at the base of the plant, then a careful    shaking of the the panicle to produce the  downfall of larvae on the canvas. Larvae  obtained were placed in 200 ml sized  plastic containers enclosing paper towels  at the base, and quinoa leaves and  branches as food for the larvae. These containers were placed in  Styrofoam carriers that were carried to the  Entomology Laboratory of PROINPA  Foundation in Quipaquipani Center  (Viacha-La Paz).  At the laboratory larvae  were selected by size, and placed in  specific quantities, in containers, to  continue their rearing until they reached  the phases of adult moths or parasitoids.   Percentage of natural parasitism and  taxonomic identification. To calculate the  percentage of natural parasitism by  species and community, the following  formula was used: The identification of parasitoids was made  by comparison and using taxonomic keys.  For identification by comparison,  representative specimens of these  biological controllers were mounted, and  compared to specimens described by  Mamani (1998), Saravia and Quispe  (2006) and Costa et al. (2009). In some cases the identification was  confirmed using taxonomic keys provided  by Sharkey (2006) for Braconidae, and  Gauld (1991) for Ichneumonidae, both  corresponding to the Neotropical region. In parallel specimens of interest were sent  to specialized centers (USDA) for  identification.   Results and discussion    Parasitoid complex associated with  larvae of E. quinoae   The parasitoid complex that is regulating  the population of E. quinoae in quinoa  plots located in the Bolivian Altiplano, is  composed of six species (Table 1, Figure  2). Of these six species, five correspond to  the order Hymenoptera and one to  Diptera. Among the wasps, all belong to the sub  order Apocrita, characterized by having  the first abdominal segment together with    the metathorax and separated from the rest  of the abdominal segments with a narrow  waist (Fernandez and Sharkey, 2006).  These wasps are grouped into two  superfamilies: • (medium large   wasps).   •  Cotesia sp. and Meteorus sp. correspond  to the Braconidae family; Venturia sp. and  Deleboea  sp. to Ichneumonidae, and   Copidosoma  sp. to Encyrtidae   (Chalcidoidea). The only Diptera species  Phytomiptera sp. belongs to the Tachinid  family, from the Oestroidae superfamily,  and the sub order Brachycera. Among the parasitoids, the micro-wasp  Copidosoma sp. (Encyrtidae), is a  polyembrionic egg parasitoid that  mummifies moth larvae before they reach  the pupal stage. From mummified larvae,  between 28 to 33 micro-wasps can  emerge. The rest of the wasps are larvo-pupal  endoparasitoids. They infect their host  (quinoa moth larvae) in the early larval  stages, but the effect can only be observed  when they kill the host in the pupal stage.  Biologically this parasitism strategy is  known as koinobiont. There is another  strategy called idiobiont parasitism that  occurs in species that permanently  paralyze their hosts, preventing them to  continue their development after being  parasitized.  This is a desirable feature for  parasitoids that are meant to be used in  biological control programs. In this study  no parasitoids with these characteristics  were found.   Table 1 shows the percentage of natural  parasitism recorded in the different  communities of the Northern, Central and  Southern Altiplano. Overall, the average  percentage of natural parasitism was  higher than 28%, with the communities of  the Central Altiplano (Viscachani,    Contorno Arriba and Cañaviri) recording  the highest percentages of parasitism,  with values above 40%, in comparison to  Colcha K, Vinto and Julaca (Southern  Altiplano), where the lowest percentages  of parasitism were observed, with values  below 5%. The rest of the communities:   Lacaya, Calpaya, Crucero Belén,  Contorno Centro and Villa Manquiri (the  first from the Northern Altiplano and the  rest from the Central Altiplano), recorded  natural parasitism of E. quinoae  fluctuating between 27% and 38%. The  average of 28% of parasitism is a value  that comes close to the efficiency levels of  control for this pest, which is obtained by  using botanical extracts and/or some  bioinsecticides available in local markets.  This shows the important role that these  parasitoids play in the natural regulation  of E. quinoae. Natural parasitism percentages recorded  in each of the communities was the  product of a joint action of a complex of  two to six parasitoids, regulating the larval  population of E. quinoae at different  levels (Annex 1). According to Table 1,  the parasitoids that contributed most to the  regulation of quinoa moth larvae in the  twelve communities are Cotesia sp. and  Meteorus sp., recording average  parasitism above 6%. In contrast, the  micro-wasp  Copidosoma sp. was the   species that contributed least to the  control of E. quinoae (1.2%). The communities that are characterized by  greater diversity of parasitoids are  Viscachani, Contorno Centro and Lacaya,  the first two located in the Central  Altiplano and the last in the Northern  Altiplano, recording a total of six  parasitoids. The communities Colcha K,  Vinto and Julaca in the Southern  Altiplano, recorded two and three  parasitoids (Table 1). Depending on the abundance of  parasitoids (Table 1) two groups can be  clearly observed. The first formed by the  communities of Central and Northern  Altiplano, where Viscachani and    Contorno Centro stand out with the largest  number of parasitoids. The second group  consists of the communities in the  Southern Altiplano with low amounts of  these biological control agents. The  differences can be explained by the  characteristics of agricultural production  in each of these areas, in addition to the  floristic composition of weeds and native  plants registered and distributed in these  areas. The distribution and relative importance  of the six parasitoids identified was highly  variable. Nevertheless, there clearly is one  species found in all locations: the  Tachinido  Phytomiptera sp. which   showed an average frequency of 5.3%,  being the most abundant parasitoid in  Cañaviri (14.3%) and the second most  abundant in Colquencha (11%). In this  regard, Stireman et al. (2009) state that  flies belonging to the Tachinidae family  are diverse and are important natural  enemies of many pests. All known species  of this family are parasitoids of  arthropods, mainly of lepidopteran larvae,  the taxonomic group to which E. quinoae  belongs to. The percentages of parasitism recorded in  this work are lower than those reported by  Mamani (1998) and PROINPA (2013),  who indicate that populations of quinoa  moth larvae in the Central Altiplano have  natural parasitism ranging between 43%  and 65%.   Conclusions   •   the sampled communities is being  regulated by a complex of six  parasitoids: five wasps (Hymenoptera)  and one fly (Diptera). Among the    wasps, the species registered were:  Cotesia sp. (Braconidae), Meteorus sp.  (Braconidae),  Deleboea sp.   (Ichneumonidae), Venturia sp.  (Ichneumonidae) and Copidosoma sp.  (Encyrtidae), and the fly was identified  as Phytomiptera sp. (Tachinidae).  • average of   parasitism was 28% in the twelve  communities, standing out Viscachani  with 44.7% of parasitism on average.  •  Cotesia sp. and Meteorus   sp. were the species with higher levels  of parasitism recorded in communities  of the Northern, Central and Southern  Altiplano.  • natural   percentages recorded in E. quinoae  larvae, in quinoa producing  communities of the Bolivian  Altiplano, show the need to implement  integrated pest management practices  that conserve and increase beneficial  organisms in these agroecosystems.  •   partial perspective of the natural  parasitism on  E. quinoae, as the   sampling period covered a limited time  span. Additionally, only parasitism on  the larval stage of one agricultural  campaign was studied. The possibility  of sampling new parasitoids in the  same places and at different times,  with the same or other collection  methods, is not ruled out.  • the of   elements that influence their control  capability are the effects of climate  change and environmental variability.  Insect pest species are able to respond  quickly to environmental changes.  However, the effect that this response    has on the populations of natural  enemies (parasitoids and predators) is  still unknown. This is an aspect to be  considered when thinking about  implementing biological control  programs.  • of limitations the of   parasitoids (directed releases) in  biological control programs is the  maintenance of massive rearing in the  laboratory. For this purpose, the first  step is to develop mass host (E.  quinoae) rearing and to generate  information on the biology and  reproduction of its parasitoids, to later  have available a tool of natural  biological control.   Cited references   Altieri, A., Nicholls, C. 2010. Diseños   agroecológicos para incrementar la  biodiversidad de entomofauna benéfica  en agroecosistemas. SOCLA. Medellín,  Colombia. 83 p.  Avalos, F. 1996. Identificación y dinámica   poblacional de la polilla de la quinua  Eurysacca melanocampta. Thesis for the  degree of Agricultural Engeneer. Faculty  of Agriculture, UMSA. 121 p.  Costa, F., Yabar, E., Gianoli, E. 2009.   Parasitismo sobre  Eurysacca   melanocampta Meyrick (Lepidoptera:  Gelechiidae) en dos localidades de  Cuzco, Perú. In.  Rev. Fac. Nal. Agr. de  Medellín,  Vol. 62, n. 1. , Medellin,  Colombia. Available at:  http://www.scielo.org.co/scielo.php?script =sci_arttext&pid=S0304-2847200900010 0008&lng=en&nrm=iso>. Retrieved May  23, 2014  Fernández, F., Sharkey, M. 2006. Sistemática   de los himenópteros de la Región  Neotropical: Estado del conocimiento y  perspectivas. In: Introducción a los  Hymenóptera de la Región Neotropical.  Fernández, F. y M. J. Sharkey (Eds.).    Sociedad Colombiana de Entomología y  Universidad Nacional de Colombia,  Bogotá, Colombia. pp. 7-35.  Gauld, I. 1991. The Ichneumonidae of Costa   Rica. 1 Introduction, keys to subfamilies,  and keys to the species of the lower  pimpliform subfamilies: Rhyssinae,  Pimplinae, Poemeniinae, Acaenitinae  and Cylloceriinae. The American  Entomological Institute. Florida, EEUU.  589 p.  IBTA, 1997. Instituto Boliviano de Tecnología   Agropecuaria. Annual Report,  1996-1997. Programa Quinua, IBTA. La  Paz, Bolivia. 185 p.  Mamani, D. 1998. Control biológico en forma   natural de la polilla de la quinua  (Eurysacca melanocampta Meyrick) por  parasitoides y perspectivas de cría para  su manipulación en el Altiplano Central.  Thesis for the degree of Agricultural  Engeneer. Faculty of Agriculture, UMSA.  La Paz, Bolivia. pp. 90-91.  PROINPA, 2003. Fundación para la   Promoción e Investigación de Productos  Andinos. Project Report: Desarrollo y  validación participativa de las  innovaciones tecnológicas que mejoren  las estrategias para manejo sostenible de  la quinua. The McKnight Foundation. La  Paz, Bolivia. 127 p.  PROINPA, 2013. Fundación para la   Promoción e Investigación de Productos  Andinos. Annual Report 2009-2010:  Proyecto Desarrollo y validación    participativa de las innovaciones  tecnológicas que mejoren las estrategias   para manejo sostenible del sistema  centrado en quinua en el Altiplano  boliviano. The McKnight Foundation. La  Paz, Bolivia. 145 p.  Saravia, R., Quispe, R. 2006. Manejo   integrado de las plagas insectiles del  cultivo de la quinua. In: Module 2: Manejo  agronómico de la quinua orgánica.  Fundación PROINPA. pp. 53-86.  Saravia, R., Quispe, R. 2003. Ciclo biológico   de la polilla de la quinua Eurysacca  melanocampta Meyrick. Technical Listing   No.6. PROINPA Foundation.  Cochabamba, Bolivia. 4 p.  Saravia, R., Mamani, A., Bonifacio, A., Alcon,   M. 2008. Diagnóstico de los enemigos  naturales de las plagas del cultivo de  quinua. PROINPA Foundation. Annual  Report 2008-2009. Rubro Granos  Altoandinos. Cochabamba, Bolivia, 215  p.  Sharkey, M. 2006. Two new genera of   Agathidinae (Hymenoptera: Braconidae)  with a key to the genera of the New  World. Zootaxa: 1185: 37-51.  Van Driesche, R., Hoddle, M., Center, D. 2007.   Control de plagas y malezas por  enemigos naturales. USDA. Translated  by E. Ruiz and J. Coronada. Universidad  de Tamaulipas. Cd. Victoria, México. 796  p.      ISSN 1998 - 9652   Area: Technology Development 34   Introduction   Quinoa has evolved in the Andes. It was  domesticated by men and women from  civilizations like the Tiwanaku and the  Inca. Until the early eighties, the Andean  people cultivated quinoa due to their  advantages in adaptation to altitudes  between 2800 to 4000 m.a.s.l., and  semi-arid climates, and for its nutritional  benefits. The main product of the quinoa plant is  the grain, highly appreciated for the  preparation of traditional dishes in a way    somewhat similar to rice.  The leaves can  also be eaten fresh and, by products from  harvesting and threshing are destined for  animal feed (llamas). Quinoa comprises a wide diversity of  native varieties adapted to specific areas  of the Central, Northern and Southern  Altiplano, and valleys. In the highlands,  quinoa is the main food crop for the  inhabitants of this area. In the Southern  Altiplano, quinoa is the only crop that  thrives acceptably, this is why researchers  describe the production system as a  quinoa monoculture.   With the discovery of its nutritional  properties and its promotion, quinoa has  become an important export product and  an important source of income generation. Currently, quinoa is a product with high  demand in the market, with encouraging  prices for producers, processors and  traders, creating an important economic  activity for the country. The demand and high prices of quinoa  have stimulated the expansion of acreage,  covering new areas of production. This  expansion involves changes in the  production process and new technological  needs on several fronts: management of  pests and diseases, plant nutrition, seed  varieties and agronomic management. Climate change, in turn, has led to  changes in rainfall and new technological  demands, such as earlier varieties. On the  other hand the market demands various  colors of quinoa and more suitable  varieties for industrial processing. In this context, PROINPA has undertaken  the development of a new generation of  varieties focused on the following  priorities: • large varieties the   Southern Altiplano, necessary for late  planting, for re planting in case of  drought losses or seedlings buried by  strong winds, and for their shorter time  to harvest.  • large varieties   mildew resistance for the Central  Altiplano.  • resistant for   Northern Altiplano and valleys.   • (with and   (saponin free) varieties for specific  market demands and, for local and  family consumption of quinoa.  These  varieties have the advantage of  facilitating grain processing.  • for (flour   flakes) and for nutritional objectives  (nutraceuticals).  • all varieties for   mechanical harvesting are also sought,  mainly due to their drive towards  competitive, sustainable and resilient  production in the occurrence of  adverse climate change phenomena.   Results and discussion   With the application of classical breeding  methods, a number of varieties with  common and differential characteristics  have been generated. Common characteristics relate to  performance, size and color of grain. The  differential characteristics refer to  adaptation to different agro-ecological  zones, earliness, resistance to mildew,  bitter or sweet quinoa, industrial quality  among others. Large grain varieties are directed to the  use of quinoa in ways similar to rice  (pearled quinoa), ie. for cooking in soups  and boiled grain.   For this purposes grain  may be preferably white, but also red and  black in color. Most ecotypes of Royal  Quinoa are suitable for pearled quinoa  (Bonifacio et al., 2012). The research on  industrial quality of these varieties is in  progress.  Adapting varieties implies an analysis of  options in terms of producing them in  different ecoregions such as the Southern,  Central, and Northern Altiplano, Valleys  and Sub Tropics. The precocity is a character that enables  the management of adverse environmental  factors through the following  mechanisms:  1) avoid frost through a shorter   production cycle.  2) possibility of delayed planting   caused by lack of moisture in the  planting season.  3)  prevent losses and enable replanting   in case of: seedlings buried by winds  in sandy soils, clay soils crusting,  seedling loss by frost or drought.  Mildew resistance is a key component to  produce organic quinoa in areas outside  the Southern Altiplano. Quinoa is  susceptible to disease under conditions of  high relative humidity and soil moisture  (Bonifacio, 2006) and susceptible  varieties (Utusaya) can register a severity  of 100% (Danielsen and Ames, 2000).  Therefore resistance to mildew is essential  to produce quinoa in areas of high relative  humidity, to reduce the use of fungicides  for disease control, reduce production  costs and promote grain filling. The bitter and sweet varieties have not  received differentiation until now.  Bitter  quinoa is produced, processed and sold in  greater proportion. However, given the  volumes of water that are used (not  recycled) to remove the saponin, the  difficulties of eliminating foamy water  and, the increased energy expenditure    (scarifying, washing and drying); the  interest in sweet quinoa is reemerging. This sweet quinoa, although it has its  limitations due to the preferences of a  couple of bird species, requires less time  for scarifying and/or washing; therefore it  produces less loses during processing.  It  does not generate foamy water and  pearled grain does not have the strong,  pungent odor that bitter varieties have.  Due to these qualities of sweet quinoa, it  becomes an alternative for production  areas in the Central and Northern  Altiplano, as well as for lines of grain  processing and transformation. Therefore  sweet varieties generated three decades  ago are currently subject of differentiated  demand.  Industrial quality refers to the physical  and chemical properties of specific grain  varieties. In that sense, the varieties for  flour, flakes, and for pasta among other  uses and varietal differentiation, require  the appropriate quality for each process.  Varieties with industrial quality give more    relevance to the criteria of varietal purity  and homogeneity, so often promoted by  instances of variety registration and seed  certification. According to Bodoin (2009), demand and  use of quinoa certified seed is very low  compared to the volume of local seed used  for commercial production, and for  cultivar expansion. Table 1 lists the varieties generated by  PROINPA, their adaptation, production    cycle, grain characteristics and potential  uses, and shows the varieties’  recommendation domains. This  information can be used in the context of a  risk management quinoa production  strategy, taking into account the effects of  climate change, disease prevalence  (mildew) and, the demands of producers  and the market (with and without saponin,  industrial quality, etc.).    Challenges   Today, consumers are looking for  information about the quality of the  products they consume (protein content,  protein quality, gluten-free); it is for that  reason that quinoa has a high international  demand. The challenge, for the Bolivian quinoa to  be more competitive in the international  market, is to research its nutraceutical  properties such as antioxidant content,  iron and zinc, etc., and incorporate such  features in new varieties. The growing quinoa production areas,  lead to a search for technology of easy  application over large areas. This is the  case of cropping areas that are  progressively using more combined  harvesters. Therefore, the demand for  genetic improvement seeks the  development of new varieties with plant  architecture suitable for mechanization  (uniform size and uniform maturity). The actors in the quinoa value chain that  are in the processing link, need to be  informed about the qualities of the new  varieties, in terms of protein content,  amylopectin, antioxidants, etc., in order to  specialize the use of varieties.  This would  give way to processed products with  better quality and identity, since they  would not be processed with varietal  mixtures, as it is currently done. Finally, to achieve extensive use of  varieties, it is necessary that actors  specialized in the industry become  involved in the production of high quality  seed. This would allow producers,  associations and companies in the quinoa  value chain to have constant availability    and access to these varieties, meeting the  standards required by the corresponding  authorities. Currently, the vast majority of  producers, uses farmers' own and local  seed, even for use on cultivar expansion  (Bodoin, 2009).   Participating institutions   •  •  • (Proyecto Inno   vación. Estratégica Nacional - Minis  terio de Desarrollo Rural Agropecua  rio y Medio Ambiente).  National  Estrategic Innovation Project –  Ministry of Rural Development,  Agriculture and Environment.  •  • (Universidad de   Andrés).    •  • (Proyecto Resis-   tencia Duradera para la Zona Andina -  Universidad de Wageningen). Project  of Lasting Resistance for the Andean  Region - Wageningen University.   Cited references   Bodoin, A. 2009. Evaluación y perspectivas del   mercado de semilla certificadas de quinua  en la región del Salar de Uyuni en el  Altiplano Sur de Bolivia. 2nd Year  Internship Thesis. Agroparis Tech. Paris,  France. 35 p.  Bonifacio, A., Vargas, A., Aroni, G. 2003.   Variedad de quinua Jach’a Grano.  PROINPA Foundation. Technical Listing  No 6. Cochabamba, Bolivia.   Bonifacio, A., Vargas, A. 2005. Variedad de   Quinua Kurmi. PROINPA Foundation -  The McKnight Foundation - MACA.  Tchnical Listing No. 12.  Bonifacio, A., Vargas, A., Rojas, J. (n/y).   Variedad de Quinua Kurmi. PROINPA  Foundation - The McKnight Foundation -  MACA. Technical Listing No. P/FTE/81.  Bonifacio, A., Vargas, A., Aroni, G., Quispe, R.   (n/y). Variedad de Quinua Horizontes.  PROINPA Foundation- MDRAyMA.  Technical Listing No. P/FTE/79.  Bonifacio, A. 2006. El futuro de los productos   andinos en la región alta y los valles  centrales de los Andes. Granos en el área    altoandina de Bolivia, Ecuador y Perú.  ONUDI, Subdivisión de Promoción de  Inversión y Tecnología. On Line.    Available at: http://quinua.pe   Retrieved on June 6, 2014. Bonifacio, A., Aroni, G., Villca, M. 2012.   Catálogo etnobotánico de la Quinua Real.  PROINPA Foundation. Cochabamba,  Bolivia. 123 p.  Danielsen, S., Ames, T. 2000. El mildiu   (Peronospora farinosa) de la quinua   (Chenopodium quinoa) en la zona andina.   CIP-KVL. Lima, Perú. 32 p.   Introduction   The quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd)  crop in the Bolivian Altiplano is attacked  by several species of pest insects. One of  these species is the quinoa moth or "qhona  qhona" Eurysacca quinoae Povolny 1997  (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae), listed as a key  pest of the crop (Avalos 1996) because it  causes losses of over 30% and  significantly reduces grain quality  (Saravia and Quispe, 2003; PROINPA,  2013). The first reports on parasitoid insects of  quinoa moths were registered in  Patacamaya in 1997, by the Quinoa  Programme from the ex - IBTA (IBTA,  1997). Later, specific pieces of work were  performed in some communities of the  Central and Southern Altiplano (Mamani,  1998, PROINPA 2003; PROINPA 2013). As a result of these studies it is known that  the percentage of natural parasitism in  larvae of Eurysacca quinoae reaches up to   40% and, that the parasitoid complex  consists of nine species.  Out of these nine  species, seven belong to the order  Hymenoptera from the families  Braconidae (Meteorus  sp., Apanteles sp.,   Microplitis sp.), Ichneumonidae  (Deleboea sp., Venturia sp., Diadegma  sp.) and Encyrtidae (Copidosoma  sp.),   and two belong to the order Diptera from  the families Tachinidae (Phytomiptera sp.  and  Dolichostoma sp.) (IBTA 1997;   Mamani 1998, and Saravia Quispe 2006;  Saravia et al., 2008;. PROINPA 2013). A parasitoid is understood as every insect,  which in the larval stage is parasitic of  other arthropod (host), while in the adult  phase it lives freely to breed and seek its  host.   Unlike the parasite, the parasitoid in most  cases ends up killing the host (Van  Driessche et al., 2007). The diversity of predators and parasitoids  of a given pest species is related to the  diversity of flowering plants associated to  a cultivar.  The nectar and pollen of these  flowers are important additional food  sources necessary for multiplication  (Altieri and Nicholls, 2010). Areas of quinoa production in the country  are located in three ecoregions: Northern,  Central and Southern Altiplano, these  differ mainly by the rainfall regime, the  quality of soils and crops produced.  The  Southern Altiplano is the driest region  (150-300 mm/year), with sandy soils and  low fertility where the main crop is the  Royal Quinoa. The Northern Altiplano  has higher rainfall (500 mm/year), soils  are more productive and crops produced  include potatoes, quinoa, barley, broad  beans among others. The Central  Altiplano presents intermediate weather  and soil conditions, relating to both  Northern and Southern Altiplano. Given the background mentioned and in  order to update information on the  parasitoids associated with the quinoa  moth, the present study was carried out in  three ecoregions of the Altiplano. The  objective was to identify the parasitoids  and determine natural parasitism on larvae  of  E. quinoae in quinoa plots of the   Bolivian Altiplano.   Materials and methods   Location. The work was implemented in  twelve quinoa producing communities of  the Altiplano, one from the Northern  Altiplano (Lacaya), eight from the Central    Altiplano (Contorno Centro, Contorno  Arriba, Cañaviri, Villa Manquiri,  Colquencha, Viscachani, Calpaya and  Crucero Belen) and three in the Southern  Altiplano (Colcha K, Vinto and Julaca)  (Figure 1). E. quinoae sampling and larval rearing.  The collection of larvae in the quinoa  plots of different communities was  conducted between February and March  2013, period of highest incidence of the  pest. This process was performed using the  method of "Entomological mantle", which  consists of a canvas of 1 m x 1 m stretched  at the base of the plant, then a careful    shaking of the the panicle to produce the  downfall of larvae on the canvas. Larvae  obtained were placed in 200 ml sized  plastic containers enclosing paper towels  at the base, and quinoa leaves and  branches as food for the larvae. These containers were placed in  Styrofoam carriers that were carried to the  Entomology Laboratory of PROINPA  Foundation in Quipaquipani Center  (Viacha-La Paz).  At the laboratory larvae  were selected by size, and placed in  specific quantities, in containers, to  continue their rearing until they reached  the phases of adult moths or parasitoids.   Percentage of natural parasitism and  taxonomic identification. To calculate the  percentage of natural parasitism by  species and community, the following  formula was used: The identification of parasitoids was made  by comparison and using taxonomic keys.  For identification by comparison,  representative specimens of these  biological controllers were mounted, and  compared to specimens described by  Mamani (1998), Saravia and Quispe  (2006) and Costa et al. (2009). In some cases the identification was  confirmed using taxonomic keys provided  by Sharkey (2006) for Braconidae, and  Gauld (1991) for Ichneumonidae, both  corresponding to the Neotropical region. In parallel specimens of interest were sent  to specialized centers (USDA) for  identification.   Results and discussion    Parasitoid complex associated with  larvae of E. quinoae   The parasitoid complex that is regulating  the population of E. quinoae in quinoa  plots located in the Bolivian Altiplano, is  composed of six species (Table 1, Figure  2). Of these six species, five correspond to  the order Hymenoptera and one to  Diptera. Among the wasps, all belong to the sub  order Apocrita, characterized by having  the first abdominal segment together with    the metathorax and separated from the rest  of the abdominal segments with a narrow  waist (Fernandez and Sharkey, 2006).  These wasps are grouped into two  superfamilies: • (medium large   wasps).   •  Cotesia sp. and Meteorus sp. correspond  to the Braconidae family; Venturia sp. and  Deleboea  sp. to Ichneumonidae, and   Copidosoma  sp. to Encyrtidae   (Chalcidoidea). The only Diptera species  Phytomiptera sp. belongs to the Tachinid  family, from the Oestroidae superfamily,  and the sub order Brachycera. Among the parasitoids, the micro-wasp  Copidosoma sp. (Encyrtidae), is a  polyembrionic egg parasitoid that  mummifies moth larvae before they reach  the pupal stage. From mummified larvae,  between 28 to 33 micro-wasps can  emerge. The rest of the wasps are larvo-pupal  endoparasitoids. They infect their host  (quinoa moth larvae) in the early larval  stages, but the effect can only be observed  when they kill the host in the pupal stage.  Biologically this parasitism strategy is  known as koinobiont. There is another  strategy called idiobiont parasitism that  occurs in species that permanently  paralyze their hosts, preventing them to  continue their development after being  parasitized.  This is a desirable feature for  parasitoids that are meant to be used in  biological control programs. In this study  no parasitoids with these characteristics  were found.   Table 1 shows the percentage of natural  parasitism recorded in the different  communities of the Northern, Central and  Southern Altiplano. Overall, the average  percentage of natural parasitism was  higher than 28%, with the communities of  the Central Altiplano (Viscachani,    Contorno Arriba and Cañaviri) recording  the highest percentages of parasitism,  with values above 40%, in comparison to  Colcha K, Vinto and Julaca (Southern  Altiplano), where the lowest percentages  of parasitism were observed, with values  below 5%. The rest of the communities:   Lacaya, Calpaya, Crucero Belén,  Contorno Centro and Villa Manquiri (the  first from the Northern Altiplano and the  rest from the Central Altiplano), recorded  natural parasitism of E. quinoae  fluctuating between 27% and 38%. The  average of 28% of parasitism is a value  that comes close to the efficiency levels of  control for this pest, which is obtained by  using botanical extracts and/or some  bioinsecticides available in local markets.  This shows the important role that these  parasitoids play in the natural regulation  of E. quinoae. Natural parasitism percentages recorded  in each of the communities was the  product of a joint action of a complex of  two to six parasitoids, regulating the larval  population of E. quinoae at different  levels (Annex 1). According to Table 1,  the parasitoids that contributed most to the  regulation of quinoa moth larvae in the  twelve communities are Cotesia sp. and  Meteorus sp., recording average  parasitism above 6%. In contrast, the  micro-wasp  Copidosoma sp. was the   species that contributed least to the  control of E. quinoae (1.2%). The communities that are characterized by  greater diversity of parasitoids are  Viscachani, Contorno Centro and Lacaya,  the first two located in the Central  Altiplano and the last in the Northern  Altiplano, recording a total of six  parasitoids. The communities Colcha K,  Vinto and Julaca in the Southern  Altiplano, recorded two and three  parasitoids (Table 1). Depending on the abundance of  parasitoids (Table 1) two groups can be  clearly observed. The first formed by the  communities of Central and Northern  Altiplano, where Viscachani and    Contorno Centro stand out with the largest  number of parasitoids. The second group  consists of the communities in the  Southern Altiplano with low amounts of  these biological control agents. The  differences can be explained by the  characteristics of agricultural production  in each of these areas, in addition to the  floristic composition of weeds and native  plants registered and distributed in these  areas. The distribution and relative importance  of the six parasitoids identified was highly  variable. Nevertheless, there clearly is one  species found in all locations: the  Tachinido  Phytomiptera sp. which   showed an average frequency of 5.3%,  being the most abundant parasitoid in  Cañaviri (14.3%) and the second most  abundant in Colquencha (11%). In this  regard, Stireman et al. (2009) state that  flies belonging to the Tachinidae family  are diverse and are important natural  enemies of many pests. All known species  of this family are parasitoids of  arthropods, mainly of lepidopteran larvae,  the taxonomic group to which E. quinoae  belongs to. The percentages of parasitism recorded in  this work are lower than those reported by  Mamani (1998) and PROINPA (2013),  who indicate that populations of quinoa  moth larvae in the Central Altiplano have  natural parasitism ranging between 43%  and 65%.   Conclusions   •   the sampled communities is being  regulated by a complex of six  parasitoids: five wasps (Hymenoptera)  and one fly (Diptera). Among the    wasps, the species registered were:  Cotesia sp. (Braconidae), Meteorus sp.  (Braconidae),  Deleboea sp.   (Ichneumonidae), Venturia sp.  (Ichneumonidae) and Copidosoma sp.   (Encyrtidae), and the fly was identified  as Phytomiptera sp. (Tachinidae).  • average of   parasitism was 28% in the twelve  communities, standing out Viscachani  with 44.7% of parasitism on average.  •  Cotesia sp. and Meteorus   sp. were the species with higher levels  of parasitism recorded in communities  of the Northern, Central and Southern  Altiplano.  • natural   percentages recorded in E. quinoae  larvae, in quinoa producing  communities of the Bolivian  Altiplano, show the need to implement  integrated pest management practices  that conserve and increase beneficial  organisms in these agroecosystems.  •   partial perspective of the natural  parasitism on  E. quinoae, as the   sampling period covered a limited time  span. Additionally, only parasitism on  the larval stage of one agricultural  campaign was studied. The possibility  of sampling new parasitoids in the  same places and at different times,  with the same or other collection  methods, is not ruled out.  • the of   elements that influence their control  capability are the effects of climate  change and environmental variability.  Insect pest species are able to respond  quickly to environmental changes.  However, the effect that this response    has on the populations of natural  enemies (parasitoids and predators) is  still unknown. This is an aspect to be  considered when thinking about  implementing biological control  programs.  • of limitations the of   parasitoids (directed releases) in  biological control programs is the  maintenance of massive rearing in the  laboratory. For this purpose, the first  step is to develop mass host (E.  quinoae) rearing and to generate  information on the biology and  reproduction of its parasitoids, to later  have available a tool of natural  biological control.   Cited references   Altieri, A., Nicholls, C. 2010. Diseños   agroecológicos para incrementar la  biodiversidad de entomofauna benéfica  en agroecosistemas. SOCLA. Medellín,  Colombia. 83 p.  Avalos, F. 1996. Identificación y dinámica   poblacional de la polilla de la quinua  Eurysacca melanocampta. Thesis for the  degree of Agricultural Engeneer. Faculty  of Agriculture, UMSA. 121 p.  Costa, F., Yabar, E., Gianoli, E. 2009.   Parasitismo sobre  Eurysacca   melanocampta Meyrick (Lepidoptera:  Gelechiidae) en dos localidades de  Cuzco, Perú. In.  Rev. Fac. Nal. Agr. de  Medellín,  Vol. 62, n. 1. , Medellin,  Colombia. Available at:  http://www.scielo.org.co/scielo.php?script =sci_arttext&pid=S0304-2847200900010 0008&lng=en&nrm=iso>. Retrieved May  23, 2014  Fernández, F., Sharkey, M. 2006. Sistemática   de los himenópteros de la Región  Neotropical: Estado del conocimiento y  perspectivas. In: Introducción a los  Hymenóptera de la Región Neotropical.  Fernández, F. y M. J. Sharkey (Eds.).    Sociedad Colombiana de Entomología y  Universidad Nacional de Colombia,  Bogotá, Colombia. pp. 7-35.  Gauld, I. 1991. The Ichneumonidae of Costa   Rica. 1 Introduction, keys to subfamilies,  and keys to the species of the lower  pimpliform subfamilies: Rhyssinae,  Pimplinae, Poemeniinae, Acaenitinae  and Cylloceriinae. The American  Entomological Institute. Florida, EEUU.  589 p.  IBTA, 1997. Instituto Boliviano de Tecnología   Agropecuaria. Annual Report,  1996-1997. Programa Quinua, IBTA. La  Paz, Bolivia. 185 p.  Mamani, D. 1998. Control biológico en forma   natural de la polilla de la quinua  (Eurysacca melanocampta Meyrick) por  parasitoides y perspectivas de cría para  su manipulación en el Altiplano Central.  Thesis for the degree of Agricultural  Engeneer. Faculty of Agriculture, UMSA.  La Paz, Bolivia. pp. 90-91.  PROINPA, 2003. Fundación para la   Promoción e Investigación de Productos  Andinos. Project Report: Desarrollo y  validación participativa de las  innovaciones tecnológicas que mejoren  las estrategias para manejo sostenible de  la quinua. The McKnight Foundation. La  Paz, Bolivia. 127 p.  PROINPA, 2013. Fundación para la   Promoción e Investigación de Productos  Andinos. Annual Report 2009-2010:  Proyecto Desarrollo y validación    participativa de las innovaciones  tecnológicas que mejoren las estrategias  para manejo sostenible del sistema  centrado en quinua en el Altiplano  boliviano. The McKnight Foundation. La  Paz, Bolivia. 145 p.  Saravia, R., Quispe, R. 2006. Manejo   integrado de las plagas insectiles del  cultivo de la quinua. In: Module 2: Manejo  agronómico de la quinua orgánica.  Fundación PROINPA. pp. 53-86.  Saravia, R., Quispe, R. 2003. Ciclo biológico   de la polilla de la quinua Eurysacca  melanocampta Meyrick. Technical Listing   No.6. PROINPA Foundation.  Cochabamba, Bolivia. 4 p.  Saravia, R., Mamani, A., Bonifacio, A., Alcon,   M. 2008. Diagnóstico de los enemigos  naturales de las plagas del cultivo de  quinua. PROINPA Foundation. Annual  Report 2008-2009. Rubro Granos  Altoandinos. Cochabamba, Bolivia, 215  p.  Sharkey, M. 2006. Two new genera of   Agathidinae (Hymenoptera: Braconidae)  with a key to the genera of the New  World. Zootaxa: 1185: 37-51.  Van Driesche, R., Hoddle, M., Center, D. 2007.   Control de plagas y malezas por  enemigos naturales. USDA. Translated  by E. Ruiz and J. Coronada. Universidad  de Tamaulipas. Cd. Victoria, México. 796  p.      Revista de Agricultura, Nro. 54 - Julio de 2014   Area: Technology Development 35   Article received on June 13, 2014 – Article accepted on June 30, 2014   Autor: Mario Coca Morante. Año de publicación: 2013. ISBN: 978-99954-2-772-6 Libro (94 páginas) que en su contenido proporciona  información resumida sobre la importancia del ajo  en Bolivia, tomando en cuenta la potencialidad del  cultivo, señalando algunas de las causas que están  afectando la producción. Esta publicación es una  herramienta práctica que ayudará a los  productores, técnicos y estudiantes a realizar una  correcta identificación de las enfermedades del ajo,  realizando una adecuada aplicación de medidas  para el manejo y control de las mismas.  Mayor información:  Laboratorio de Fitopatología FCAyP-UMSS agr.mcm10@gmail.com Telf. 4763302, Fax 47662385 (Cochabamba, Bolivia)   El cultivo del ajo  (Allium sativum L.)   en Bolivia   Introduction   Quinoa has evolved in the Andes. It was  domesticated by men and women from  civilizations like the Tiwanaku and the  Inca. Until the early eighties, the Andean  people cultivated quinoa due to their  advantages in adaptation to altitudes  between 2800 to 4000 m.a.s.l., and  semi-arid climates, and for its nutritional  benefits. The main product of the quinoa plant is  the grain, highly appreciated for the  preparation of traditional dishes in a way    somewhat similar to rice.  The leaves can  also be eaten fresh and, by products from  harvesting and threshing are destined for  animal feed (llamas). Quinoa comprises a wide diversity of  native varieties adapted to specific areas  of the Central, Northern and Southern  Altiplano, and valleys. In the highlands,  quinoa is the main food crop for the  inhabitants of this area. In the Southern  Altiplano, quinoa is the only crop that  thrives acceptably, this is why researchers  describe the production system as a  quinoa monoculture.   With the discovery of its nutritional  properties and its promotion, quinoa has  become an important export product and  an important source of income generation. Currently, quinoa is a product with high  demand in the market, with encouraging  prices for producers, processors and  traders, creating an important economic  activity for the country. The demand and high prices of quinoa  have stimulated the expansion of acreage,  covering new areas of production. This  expansion involves changes in the  production process and new technological  needs on several fronts: management of  pests and diseases, plant nutrition, seed  varieties and agronomic management. Climate change, in turn, has led to  changes in rainfall and new technological  demands, such as earlier varieties. On the  other hand the market demands various  colors of quinoa and more suitable  varieties for industrial processing. In this context, PROINPA has undertaken  the development of a new generation of  varieties focused on the following  priorities: • large varieties the   Southern Altiplano, necessary for late  planting, for re planting in case of  drought losses or seedlings buried by  strong winds, and for their shorter time  to harvest.  • large varieties   mildew resistance for the Central  Altiplano.  • resistant for   Northern Altiplano and valleys.   • (with and   (saponin free) varieties for specific  market demands and, for local and  family consumption of quinoa.  These  varieties have the advantage of  facilitating grain processing.  • for (flour   flakes) and for nutritional objectives  (nutraceuticals).  • all varieties for   mechanical harvesting are also sought,  mainly due to their drive towards  competitive, sustainable and resilient  production in the occurrence of  adverse climate change phenomena.   Results and discussion   With the application of classical breeding  methods, a number of varieties with  common and differential characteristics  have been generated. Common characteristics relate to  performance, size and color of grain. The  differential characteristics refer to  adaptation to different agro-ecological  zones, earliness, resistance to mildew,  bitter or sweet quinoa, industrial quality  among others. Large grain varieties are directed to the  use of quinoa in ways similar to rice  (pearled quinoa), ie. for cooking in soups  and boiled grain.   For this purposes grain  may be preferably white, but also red and  black in color. Most ecotypes of Royal  Quinoa are suitable for pearled quinoa  (Bonifacio et al., 2012). The research on  industrial quality of these varieties is in  progress.  Adapting varieties implies an analysis of  options in terms of producing them in  different ecoregions such as the Southern,  Central, and Northern Altiplano, Valleys  and Sub Tropics. The precocity is a character that enables  the management of adverse environmental  factors through the following  mechanisms:  1) avoid frost through a shorter   production cycle.  2) possibility of delayed planting   caused by lack of moisture in the  planting season.  3)  prevent losses and enable replanting   in case of: seedlings buried by winds  in sandy soils, clay soils crusting,  seedling loss by frost or drought.  Mildew resistance is a key component to  produce organic quinoa in areas outside  the Southern Altiplano. Quinoa is  susceptible to disease under conditions of  high relative humidity and soil moisture  (Bonifacio, 2006) and susceptible  varieties (Utusaya) can register a severity  of 100% (Danielsen and Ames, 2000).  Therefore resistance to mildew is essential  to produce quinoa in areas of high relative  humidity, to reduce the use of fungicides  for disease control, reduce production  costs and promote grain filling. The bitter and sweet varieties have not  received differentiation until now.  Bitter  quinoa is produced, processed and sold in  greater proportion. However, given the  volumes of water that are used (not  recycled) to remove the saponin, the  difficulties of eliminating foamy water  and, the increased energy expenditure    (scarifying, washing and drying); the  interest in sweet quinoa is reemerging. This sweet quinoa, although it has its  limitations due to the preferences of a  couple of bird species, requires less time  for scarifying and/or washing; therefore it  produces less loses during processing.  It  does not generate foamy water and  pearled grain does not have the strong,  pungent odor that bitter varieties have.  Due to these qualities of sweet quinoa, it  becomes an alternative for production  areas in the Central and Northern  Altiplano, as well as for lines of grain  processing and transformation. Therefore  sweet varieties generated three decades  ago are currently subject of differentiated  demand.  Industrial quality refers to the physical  and chemical properties of specific grain  varieties. In that sense, the varieties for  flour, flakes, and for pasta among other  uses and varietal differentiation, require  the appropriate quality for each process.  Varieties with industrial quality give more    relevance to the criteria of varietal purity  and homogeneity, so often promoted by  instances of variety registration and seed  certification. According to Bodoin (2009), demand and  use of quinoa certified seed is very low  compared to the volume of local seed used  for commercial production, and for  cultivar expansion. Table 1 lists the varieties generated by  PROINPA, their adaptation, production    cycle, grain characteristics and potential  uses, and shows the varieties’  recommendation domains. This  information can be used in the context of a  risk management quinoa production  strategy, taking into account the effects of  climate change, disease prevalence  (mildew) and, the demands of producers  and the market (with and without saponin,  industrial quality, etc.).    Challenges   Today, consumers are looking for  information about the quality of the  products they consume (protein content,  protein quality, gluten-free); it is for that  reason that quinoa has a high international  demand. The challenge, for the Bolivian quinoa to  be more competitive in the international  market, is to research its nutraceutical  properties such as antioxidant content,  iron and zinc, etc., and incorporate such  features in new varieties. The growing quinoa production areas,  lead to a search for technology of easy  application over large areas. This is the  case of cropping areas that are  progressively using more combined  harvesters. Therefore, the demand for  genetic improvement seeks the  development of new varieties with plant  architecture suitable for mechanization  (uniform size and uniform maturity). The actors in the quinoa value chain that  are in the processing link, need to be  informed about the qualities of the new  varieties, in terms of protein content,  amylopectin, antioxidants, etc., in order to  specialize the use of varieties.  This would  give way to processed products with  better quality and identity, since they  would not be processed with varietal  mixtures, as it is currently done. Finally, to achieve extensive use of  varieties, it is necessary that actors  specialized in the industry become  involved in the production of high quality  seed. This would allow producers,  associations and companies in the quinoa  value chain to have constant availability    and access to these varieties, meeting the  standards required by the corresponding  authorities. Currently, the vast majority of  producers, uses farmers' own and local  seed, even for use on cultivar expansion  (Bodoin, 2009).   Participating institutions   •  •  • (Proyecto Inno   vación. Estratégica Nacional - Minis  terio de Desarrollo Rural Agropecua  rio y Medio Ambiente).  National  Estrategic Innovation Project –  Ministry of Rural Development,  Agriculture and Environment.  •  • (Universidad de   Andrés).    •  • (Proyecto Resis-   tencia Duradera para la Zona Andina -  Universidad de Wageningen). Project  of Lasting Resistance for the Andean  Region - Wageningen University.   Cited references   Bodoin, A. 2009. Evaluación y perspectivas del   mercado de semilla certificadas de quinua  en la región del Salar de Uyuni en el  Altiplano Sur de Bolivia. 2nd Year  Internship Thesis. Agroparis Tech. Paris,  France. 35 p.  Bonifacio, A., Vargas, A., Aroni, G. 2003.   Variedad de quinua Jach’a Grano.  PROINPA Foundation. Technical Listing  No 6. Cochabamba, Bolivia.   Bonifacio, A., Vargas, A. 2005. Variedad de   Quinua Kurmi. PROINPA Foundation -  The McKnight Foundation - MACA.  Tchnical Listing No. 12.  Bonifacio, A., Vargas, A., Rojas, J. (n/y).   Variedad de Quinua Kurmi. PROINPA  Foundation - The McKnight Foundation -  MACA. Technical Listing No. P/FTE/81.  Bonifacio, A., Vargas, A., Aroni, G., Quispe, R.   (n/y). Variedad de Quinua Horizontes.  PROINPA Foundation- MDRAyMA.  Technical Listing No. P/FTE/79.  Bonifacio, A. 2006. El futuro de los productos   andinos en la región alta y los valles  centrales de los Andes. Granos en el área    altoandina de Bolivia, Ecuador y Perú.  ONUDI, Subdivisión de Promoción de  Inversión y Tecnología. On Line.    Available at: http://quinua.pe   Retrieved on June 6, 2014. Bonifacio, A., Aroni, G., Villca, M. 2012.   Catálogo etnobotánico de la Quinua Real.  PROINPA Foundation. Cochabamba,  Bolivia. 123 p.  Danielsen, S., Ames, T. 2000. El mildiu   (Peronospora farinosa) de la quinua   (Chenopodium quinoa) en la zona andina.   CIP-KVL. Lima, Perú. 32 p.   Introduction   The quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd)  crop in the Bolivian Altiplano is attacked  by several species of pest insects. One of  these species is the quinoa moth or "qhona  qhona" Eurysacca quinoae Povolny 1997  (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae), listed as a key  pest of the crop (Avalos 1996) because it  causes losses of over 30% and  significantly reduces grain quality  (Saravia and Quispe, 2003; PROINPA,  2013). The first reports on parasitoid insects of  quinoa moths were registered in  Patacamaya in 1997, by the Quinoa  Programme from the ex - IBTA (IBTA,  1997). Later, specific pieces of work were  performed in some communities of the  Central and Southern Altiplano (Mamani,  1998, PROINPA 2003; PROINPA 2013). As a result of these studies it is known that  the percentage of natural parasitism in  larvae of Eurysacca quinoae reaches up to   40% and, that the parasitoid complex  consists of nine species.  Out of these nine  species, seven belong to the order  Hymenoptera from the families  Braconidae (Meteorus  sp., Apanteles sp.,   Microplitis sp.), Ichneumonidae  (Deleboea sp., Venturia sp., Diadegma  sp.) and Encyrtidae (Copidosoma  sp.),   and two belong to the order Diptera from  the families Tachinidae (Phytomiptera sp.  and  Dolichostoma sp.) (IBTA 1997;   Mamani 1998, and Saravia Quispe 2006;  Saravia et al., 2008;. PROINPA 2013). A parasitoid is understood as every insect,  which in the larval stage is parasitic of  other arthropod (host), while in the adult  phase it lives freely to breed and seek its  host.   Unlike the parasite, the parasitoid in most  cases ends up killing the host (Van  Driessche et al., 2007). The diversity of predators and parasitoids  of a given pest species is related to the  diversity of flowering plants associated to  a cultivar.  The nectar and pollen of these  flowers are important additional food  sources necessary for multiplication  (Altieri and Nicholls, 2010). Areas of quinoa production in the country  are located in three ecoregions: Northern,  Central and Southern Altiplano, these  differ mainly by the rainfall regime, the  quality of soils and crops produced.  The  Southern Altiplano is the driest region  (150-300 mm/year), with sandy soils and  low fertility where the main crop is the  Royal Quinoa. The Northern Altiplano  has higher rainfall (500 mm/year), soils  are more productive and crops produced  include potatoes, quinoa, barley, broad  beans among others. The Central  Altiplano presents intermediate weather  and soil conditions, relating to both  Northern and Southern Altiplano. Given the background mentioned and in  order to update information on the  parasitoids associated with the quinoa  moth, the present study was carried out in  three ecoregions of the Altiplano. The  objective was to identify the parasitoids  and determine natural parasitism on larvae  of  E. quinoae in quinoa plots of the   Bolivian Altiplano.   Materials and methods   Location. The work was implemented in  twelve quinoa producing communities of  the Altiplano, one from the Northern  Altiplano (Lacaya), eight from the Central    Altiplano (Contorno Centro, Contorno  Arriba, Cañaviri, Villa Manquiri,  Colquencha, Viscachani, Calpaya and  Crucero Belen) and three in the Southern  Altiplano (Colcha K, Vinto and Julaca)  (Figure 1). E. quinoae sampling and larval rearing.  The collection of larvae in the quinoa  plots of different communities was  conducted between February and March  2013, period of highest incidence of the  pest. This process was performed using the  method of "Entomological mantle", which  consists of a canvas of 1 m x 1 m stretched  at the base of the plant, then a careful    shaking of the the panicle to produce the  downfall of larvae on the canvas. Larvae  obtained were placed in 200 ml sized  plastic containers enclosing paper towels  at the base, and quinoa leaves and  branches as food for the larvae. These containers were placed in  Styrofoam carriers that were carried to the  Entomology Laboratory of PROINPA  Foundation in Quipaquipani Center  (Viacha-La Paz).  At the laboratory larvae  were selected by size, and placed in  specific quantities, in containers, to  continue their rearing until they reached  the phases of adult moths or parasitoids.   Percentage of natural parasitism and  taxonomic identification. To calculate the  percentage of natural parasitism by  species and community, the following  formula was used: The identification of parasitoids was made  by comparison and using taxonomic keys.  For identification by comparison,  representative specimens of these  biological controllers were mounted, and  compared to specimens described by  Mamani (1998), Saravia and Quispe  (2006) and Costa et al. (2009). In some cases the identification was  confirmed using taxonomic keys provided  by Sharkey (2006) for Braconidae, and  Gauld (1991) for Ichneumonidae, both  corresponding to the Neotropical region. In parallel specimens of interest were sent  to specialized centers (USDA) for  identification.   Results and discussion    Parasitoid complex associated with  larvae of E. quinoae   The parasitoid complex that is regulating  the population of E. quinoae in quinoa  plots located in the Bolivian Altiplano, is  composed of six species (Table 1, Figure  2). Of these six species, five correspond to  the order Hymenoptera and one to  Diptera. Among the wasps, all belong to the sub  order Apocrita, characterized by having  the first abdominal segment together with    the metathorax and separated from the rest  of the abdominal segments with a narrow  waist (Fernandez and Sharkey, 2006).  These wasps are grouped into two  superfamilies: • (medium large   wasps).   •  Cotesia sp. and Meteorus sp. correspond  to the Braconidae family; Venturia sp. and  Deleboea  sp. to Ichneumonidae, and   Copidosoma  sp. to Encyrtidae   (Chalcidoidea). The only Diptera species  Phytomiptera sp. belongs to the Tachinid  family, from the Oestroidae superfamily,  and the sub order Brachycera. Among the parasitoids, the micro-wasp  Copidosoma sp. (Encyrtidae), is a  polyembrionic egg parasitoid that  mummifies moth larvae before they reach  the pupal stage. From mummified larvae,  between 28 to 33 micro-wasps can  emerge. The rest of the wasps are larvo-pupal  endoparasitoids. They infect their host  (quinoa moth larvae) in the early larval  stages, but the effect can only be observed  when they kill the host in the pupal stage.  Biologically this parasitism strategy is  known as koinobiont. There is another  strategy called idiobiont parasitism that  occurs in species that permanently  paralyze their hosts, preventing them to  continue their development after being  parasitized.  This is a desirable feature for  parasitoids that are meant to be used in  biological control programs. In this study  no parasitoids with these characteristics  were found.   Table 1 shows the percentage of natural  parasitism recorded in the different  communities of the Northern, Central and  Southern Altiplano. Overall, the average  percentage of natural parasitism was  higher than 28%, with the communities of  the Central Altiplano (Viscachani,    Contorno Arriba and Cañaviri) recording  the highest percentages of parasitism,  with values above 40%, in comparison to  Colcha K, Vinto and Julaca (Southern  Altiplano), where the lowest percentages  of parasitism were observed, with values  below 5%. The rest of the communities:   Lacaya, Calpaya, Crucero Belén,  Contorno Centro and Villa Manquiri (the  first from the Northern Altiplano and the  rest from the Central Altiplano), recorded  natural parasitism of E. quinoae  fluctuating between 27% and 38%. The  average of 28% of parasitism is a value  that comes close to the efficiency levels of  control for this pest, which is obtained by  using botanical extracts and/or some  bioinsecticides available in local markets.  This shows the important role that these  parasitoids play in the natural regulation  of E. quinoae. Natural parasitism percentages recorded  in each of the communities was the  product of a joint action of a complex of  two to six parasitoids, regulating the larval  population of E. quinoae at different  levels (Annex 1). According to Table 1,  the parasitoids that contributed most to the  regulation of quinoa moth larvae in the  twelve communities are Cotesia sp. and  Meteorus sp., recording average  parasitism above 6%. In contrast, the  micro-wasp  Copidosoma sp. was the   species that contributed least to the  control of E. quinoae (1.2%). The communities that are characterized by  greater diversity of parasitoids are  Viscachani, Contorno Centro and Lacaya,  the first two located in the Central  Altiplano and the last in the Northern  Altiplano, recording a total of six  parasitoids. The communities Colcha K,  Vinto and Julaca in the Southern  Altiplano, recorded two and three  parasitoids (Table 1). Depending on the abundance of  parasitoids (Table 1) two groups can be  clearly observed. The first formed by the  communities of Central and Northern  Altiplano, where Viscachani and    Contorno Centro stand out with the largest  number of parasitoids. The second group  consists of the communities in the  Southern Altiplano with low amounts of  these biological control agents. The  differences can be explained by the  characteristics of agricultural production  in each of these areas, in addition to the  floristic composition of weeds and native  plants registered and distributed in these  areas. The distribution and relative importance  of the six parasitoids identified was highly  variable. Nevertheless, there clearly is one  species found in all locations: the  Tachinido  Phytomiptera sp. which   showed an average frequency of 5.3%,  being the most abundant parasitoid in  Cañaviri (14.3%) and the second most  abundant in Colquencha (11%). In this  regard, Stireman et al. (2009) state that  flies belonging to the Tachinidae family  are diverse and are important natural  enemies of many pests. All known species  of this family are parasitoids of  arthropods, mainly of lepidopteran larvae,  the taxonomic group to which E. quinoae  belongs to. The percentages of parasitism recorded in  this work are lower than those reported by  Mamani (1998) and PROINPA (2013),  who indicate that populations of quinoa  moth larvae in the Central Altiplano have  natural parasitism ranging between 43%  and 65%.   Conclusions   •   the sampled communities is being  regulated by a complex of six  parasitoids: five wasps (Hymenoptera)  and one fly (Diptera). Among the    wasps, the species registered were:  Cotesia sp. (Braconidae), Meteorus sp.  (Braconidae),  Deleboea sp.   (Ichneumonidae), Venturia sp.  (Ichneumonidae) and Copidosoma sp.  (Encyrtidae), and the fly was identified  as Phytomiptera sp. (Tachinidae).  • average of   parasitism was 28% in the twelve  communities, standing out Viscachani  with 44.7% of parasitism on average.  •  Cotesia sp. and Meteorus   sp. were the species with higher levels  of parasitism recorded in communities  of the Northern, Central and Southern  Altiplano.  • natural   percentages recorded in E. quinoae  larvae, in quinoa producing  communities of the Bolivian  Altiplano, show the need to implement  integrated pest management practices  that conserve and increase beneficial  organisms in these agroecosystems.  •   partial perspective of the natural  parasitism on  E. quinoae, as the   sampling period covered a limited time  span. Additionally, only parasitism on   the larval stage of one agricultural  campaign was studied. The possibility  of sampling new parasitoids in the  same places and at different times,  with the same or other collection  methods, is not ruled out.  • the of   elements that influence their control  capability are the effects of climate  change and environmental variability.  Insect pest species are able to respond  quickly to environmental changes.  However, the effect that this response    has on the populations of natural  enemies (parasitoids and predators) is  still unknown. This is an aspect to be  considered when thinking about  implementing biological control  programs.  • of limitations the of   parasitoids (directed releases) in  biological control programs is the  maintenance of massive rearing in the  laboratory. For this purpose, the first  step is to develop mass host (E.  quinoae) rearing and to generate  information on the biology and  reproduction of its parasitoids, to later  have available a tool of natural  biological control.   Cited references   Altieri, A., Nicholls, C. 2010. Diseños   agroecológicos para incrementar la  biodiversidad de entomofauna benéfica  en agroecosistemas. SOCLA. Medellín,  Colombia. 83 p.  Avalos, F. 1996. Identificación y dinámica   poblacional de la polilla de la quinua  Eurysacca melanocampta. Thesis for the  degree of Agricultural Engeneer. Faculty  of Agriculture, UMSA. 121 p.  Costa, F., Yabar, E., Gianoli, E. 2009.   Parasitismo sobre  Eurysacca   melanocampta Meyrick (Lepidoptera:  Gelechiidae) en dos localidades de  Cuzco, Perú. In.  Rev. Fac. Nal. Agr. de  Medellín,  Vol. 62, n. 1. , Medellin,  Colombia. Available at:  http://www.scielo.org.co/scielo.php?script =sci_arttext&pid=S0304-2847200900010 0008&lng=en&nrm=iso>. Retrieved May  23, 2014  Fernández, F., Sharkey, M. 2006. Sistemática   de los himenópteros de la Región  Neotropical: Estado del conocimiento y  perspectivas. In: Introducción a los  Hymenóptera de la Región Neotropical.  Fernández, F. y M. J. Sharkey (Eds.).    Sociedad Colombiana de Entomología y  Universidad Nacional de Colombia,  Bogotá, Colombia. pp. 7-35.  Gauld, I. 1991. The Ichneumonidae of Costa   Rica. 1 Introduction, keys to subfamilies,  and keys to the species of the lower  pimpliform subfamilies: Rhyssinae,  Pimplinae, Poemeniinae, Acaenitinae  and Cylloceriinae. The American  Entomological Institute. Florida, EEUU.  589 p.  IBTA, 1997. Instituto Boliviano de Tecnología   Agropecuaria. Annual Report,  1996-1997. Programa Quinua, IBTA. La  Paz, Bolivia. 185 p.  Mamani, D. 1998. Control biológico en forma   natural de la polilla de la quinua  (Eurysacca melanocampta Meyrick) por  parasitoides y perspectivas de cría para  su manipulación en el Altiplano Central.  Thesis for the degree of Agricultural  Engeneer. Faculty of Agriculture, UMSA.  La Paz, Bolivia. pp. 90-91.  PROINPA, 2003. Fundación para la   Promoción e Investigación de Productos  Andinos. Project Report: Desarrollo y  validación participativa de las  innovaciones tecnológicas que mejoren  las estrategias para manejo sostenible de  la quinua. The McKnight Foundation. La  Paz, Bolivia. 127 p.  PROINPA, 2013. Fundación para la   Promoción e Investigación de Productos  Andinos. Annual Report 2009-2010:  Proyecto Desarrollo y validación    participativa de las innovaciones  tecnológicas que mejoren las estrategias  para manejo sostenible del sistema  centrado en quinua en el Altiplano  boliviano. The McKnight Foundation. La  Paz, Bolivia. 145 p.  Saravia, R., Quispe, R. 2006. Manejo   integrado de las plagas insectiles del  cultivo de la quinua. In: Module 2: Manejo  agronómico de la quinua orgánica.  Fundación PROINPA. pp. 53-86.  Saravia, R., Quispe, R. 2003. Ciclo biológico   de la polilla de la quinua Eurysacca  melanocampta Meyrick. Technical Listing   No.6. PROINPA Foundation.  Cochabamba, Bolivia. 4 p.  Saravia, R., Mamani, A., Bonifacio, A., Alcon,   M. 2008. Diagnóstico de los enemigos  naturales de las plagas del cultivo de  quinua. PROINPA Foundation. Annual  Report 2008-2009. Rubro Granos  Altoandinos. Cochabamba, Bolivia, 215  p.  Sharkey, M. 2006. Two new genera of   Agathidinae (Hymenoptera: Braconidae)  with a key to the genera of the New  World. Zootaxa: 1185: 37-51.  Van Driesche, R., Hoddle, M., Center, D. 2007.   Control de plagas y malezas por  enemigos naturales. USDA. Translated  by E. Ruiz and J. Coronada. Universidad  de Tamaulipas. Cd. Victoria, México. 796  p.      ISSN 1998 - 9652   Area: Technology Development 36   Parasitoid complex associated with the   quinoa moth - key crop pest   in the Bolivian Altiplano   Reinaldo Quispe; Raúl Saravia; Miguel Barrantes    Work funded by: The McKnight Foundation; Dutch embassy in Bolivia, PROINPA Foundation  E mail: r.quispe@proinpa.org    Introduction   Quinoa has evolved in the Andes. It was  domesticated by men and women from  civilizations like the Tiwanaku and the  Inca. Until the early eighties, the Andean  people cultivated quinoa due to their  advantages in adaptation to altitudes  between 2800 to 4000 m.a.s.l., and  semi-arid climates, and for its nutritional  benefits. The main product of the quinoa plant is  the grain, highly appreciated for the  preparation of traditional dishes in a way    somewhat similar to rice.  The leaves can  also be eaten fresh and, by products from  harvesting and threshing are destined for  animal feed (llamas). Quinoa comprises a wide diversity of  native varieties adapted to specific areas  of the Central, Northern and Southern  Altiplano, and valleys. In the highlands,  quinoa is the main food crop for the  inhabitants of this area. In the Southern  Altiplano, quinoa is the only crop that  thrives acceptably, this is why researchers  describe the production system as a  quinoa monoculture.   With the discovery of its nutritional  properties and its promotion, quinoa has  become an important export product and  an important source of income generation. Currently, quinoa is a product with high  demand in the market, with encouraging  prices for producers, processors and  traders, creating an important economic  activity for the country. The demand and high prices of quinoa  have stimulated the expansion of acreage,  covering new areas of production. This  expansion involves changes in the  production process and new technological  needs on several fronts: management of  pests and diseases, plant nutrition, seed  varieties and agronomic management. Climate change, in turn, has led to  changes in rainfall and new technological  demands, such as earlier varieties. On the  other hand the market demands various  colors of quinoa and more suitable  varieties for industrial processing. In this context, PROINPA has undertaken  the development of a new generation of  varieties focused on the following  priorities: • large varieties the   Southern Altiplano, necessary for late  planting, for re planting in case of  drought losses or seedlings buried by  strong winds, and for their shorter time  to harvest.  • large varieties   mildew resistance for the Central  Altiplano.  • resistant for   Northern Altiplano and valleys.   • (with and   (saponin free) varieties for specific  market demands and, for local and  family consumption of quinoa.  These  varieties have the advantage of  facilitating grain processing.  • for (flour   flakes) and for nutritional objectives  (nutraceuticals).  • all varieties for   mechanical harvesting are also sought,  mainly due to their drive towards  competitive, sustainable and resilient  production in the occurrence of  adverse climate change phenomena.   Results and discussion   With the application of classical breeding  methods, a number of varieties with  common and differential characteristics  have been generated. Common characteristics relate to  performance, size and color of grain. The  differential characteristics refer to  adaptation to different agro-ecological  zones, earliness, resistance to mildew,  bitter or sweet quinoa, industrial quality  among others. Large grain varieties are directed to the  use of quinoa in ways similar to rice  (pearled quinoa), ie. for cooking in soups  and boiled grain.   For this purposes grain  may be preferably white, but also red and  black in color. Most ecotypes of Royal  Quinoa are suitable for pearled quinoa  (Bonifacio et al., 2012). The research on  industrial quality of these varieties is in  progress.  Adapting varieties implies an analysis of  options in terms of producing them in  different ecoregions such as the Southern,  Central, and Northern Altiplano, Valleys  and Sub Tropics. The precocity is a character that enables  the management of adverse environmental  factors through the following  mechanisms:  1) avoid frost through a shorter   production cycle.  2) possibility of delayed planting   caused by lack of moisture in the  planting season.  3)  prevent losses and enable replanting   in case of: seedlings buried by winds  in sandy soils, clay soils crusting,  seedling loss by frost or drought.  Mildew resistance is a key component to  produce organic quinoa in areas outside  the Southern Altiplano. Quinoa is  susceptible to disease under conditions of  high relative humidity and soil moisture  (Bonifacio, 2006) and susceptible  varieties (Utusaya) can register a severity  of 100% (Danielsen and Ames, 2000).  Therefore resistance to mildew is essential  to produce quinoa in areas of high relative  humidity, to reduce the use of fungicides  for disease control, reduce production  costs and promote grain filling. The bitter and sweet varieties have not  received differentiation until now.  Bitter  quinoa is produced, processed and sold in  greater proportion. However, given the  volumes of water that are used (not  recycled) to remove the saponin, the  difficulties of eliminating foamy water  and, the increased energy expenditure    (scarifying, washing and drying); the  interest in sweet quinoa is reemerging. This sweet quinoa, although it has its  limitations due to the preferences of a  couple of bird species, requires less time  for scarifying and/or washing; therefore it  produces less loses during processing.  It  does not generate foamy water and  pearled grain does not have the strong,  pungent odor that bitter varieties have.  Due to these qualities of sweet quinoa, it  becomes an alternative for production  areas in the Central and Northern  Altiplano, as well as for lines of grain  processing and transformation. Therefore  sweet varieties generated three decades  ago are currently subject of differentiated  demand.  Industrial quality refers to the physical  and chemical properties of specific grain  varieties. In that sense, the varieties for  flour, flakes, and for pasta among other  uses and varietal differentiation, require  the appropriate quality for each process.  Varieties with industrial quality give more    relevance to the criteria of varietal purity  and homogeneity, so often promoted by  instances of variety registration and seed  certification. According to Bodoin (2009), demand and  use of quinoa certified seed is very low  compared to the volume of local seed used  for commercial production, and for  cultivar expansion. Table 1 lists the varieties generated by  PROINPA, their adaptation, production    cycle, grain characteristics and potential  uses, and shows the varieties’  recommendation domains. This  information can be used in the context of a  risk management quinoa production  strategy, taking into account the effects of  climate change, disease prevalence  (mildew) and, the demands of producers  and the market (with and without saponin,  industrial quality, etc.).    Challenges   Today, consumers are looking for  information about the quality of the  products they consume (protein content,  protein quality, gluten-free); it is for that  reason that quinoa has a high international  demand. The challenge, for the Bolivian quinoa to  be more competitive in the international  market, is to research its nutraceutical  properties such as antioxidant content,  iron and zinc, etc., and incorporate such  features in new varieties. The growing quinoa production areas,  lead to a search for technology of easy  application over large areas. This is the  case of cropping areas that are  progressively using more combined  harvesters. Therefore, the demand for  genetic improvement seeks the  development of new varieties with plant  architecture suitable for mechanization  (uniform size and uniform maturity). The actors in the quinoa value chain that  are in the processing link, need to be  informed about the qualities of the new  varieties, in terms of protein content,  amylopectin, antioxidants, etc., in order to  specialize the use of varieties.  This would  give way to processed products with  better quality and identity, since they  would not be processed with varietal  mixtures, as it is currently done. Finally, to achieve extensive use of  varieties, it is necessary that actors  specialized in the industry become  involved in the production of high quality  seed. This would allow producers,  associations and companies in the quinoa  value chain to have constant availability    and access to these varieties, meeting the  standards required by the corresponding  authorities. Currently, the vast majority of  producers, uses farmers' own and local  seed, even for use on cultivar expansion  (Bodoin, 2009).   Participating institutions   •  •  • (Proyecto Inno   vación. Estratégica Nacional - Minis  terio de Desarrollo Rural Agropecua  rio y Medio Ambiente).  National  Estrategic Innovation Project –  Ministry of Rural Development,  Agriculture and Environment.  •  • (Universidad de   Andrés).    •  • (Proyecto Resis-   tencia Duradera para la Zona Andina -  Universidad de Wageningen). Project  of Lasting Resistance for the Andean  Region - Wageningen University.   Cited references   Bodoin, A. 2009. Evaluación y perspectivas del   mercado de semilla certificadas de quinua  en la región del Salar de Uyuni en el  Altiplano Sur de Bolivia. 2nd Year  Internship Thesis. Agroparis Tech. Paris,  France. 35 p.  Bonifacio, A., Vargas, A., Aroni, G. 2003.   Variedad de quinua Jach’a Grano.  PROINPA Foundation. Technical Listing  No 6. Cochabamba, Bolivia.   Bonifacio, A., Vargas, A. 2005. Variedad de   Quinua Kurmi. PROINPA Foundation -  The McKnight Foundation - MACA.  Tchnical Listing No. 12.  Bonifacio, A., Vargas, A., Rojas, J. (n/y).   Variedad de Quinua Kurmi. PROINPA  Foundation - The McKnight Foundation -  MACA. Technical Listing No. P/FTE/81.  Bonifacio, A., Vargas, A., Aroni, G., Quispe, R.   (n/y). Variedad de Quinua Horizontes.  PROINPA Foundation- MDRAyMA.  Technical Listing No. P/FTE/79.  Bonifacio, A. 2006. El futuro de los productos   andinos en la región alta y los valles  centrales de los Andes. Granos en el área    altoandina de Bolivia, Ecuador y Perú.  ONUDI, Subdivisión de Promoción de  Inversión y Tecnología. On Line.    Available at: http://quinua.pe   Retrieved on June 6, 2014. Bonifacio, A., Aroni, G., Villca, M. 2012.   Catálogo etnobotánico de la Quinua Real.  PROINPA Foundation. Cochabamba,  Bolivia. 123 p.  Danielsen, S., Ames, T. 2000. El mildiu   (Peronospora farinosa) de la quinua   (Chenopodium quinoa) en la zona andina.   CIP-KVL. Lima, Perú. 32 p. Summary. The quinoa moth (Eurysacca quinoae) causes losses of over 30% in the cultivation of  quinoa, and significantly reduces grain quality. One of the alternative control methods in organic  production, is based in natural enemies; particularly parasitoids. The study was implemented in  communities in the Northern, Central and Southern Altiplano of Bolivia, seeking to update information  on associated parasitoids for E. quinoae. The collection of moth larvae was conducted in 2013, using  the method of entomological mantle. The larvae were placed in plastic containers of 200 ml capacity  containing quinoa branches. These containers were transferred to the laboratory for rearing until  adults and/or parasitoids were obtained. Identification was completed through morphological  comparison (adults and cocoons) and through the use of taxonomic keys. It was evidenced that the  larval population of  E. quinoae is regulated by a complex of six parasitoids: five wasp species   (Hymenoptera) and one fly species (Diptera). Average Natural parasitism of the twelve communities  was 28%, with a maximum of 44.7%.  Cotesia sp. and Meteorus sp. were the species that recorded   the highest levels of parasitism in the Northern, Central and Southern Altiplano. Parasitoids hold  great potential as an alternative for the integrated management of E. quinoae.  Keywords: Entomology; Organic Production; Natural Enemies, Parasitoids   Resumen. Complejo parasitoide asociado a la polilla de la quinua – plaga clave en el  Altiplano Boliviano.   La polilla de la quinua (Eurysacca quinoae) causa pérdidas mayores al 30%   en el cultivo de quinua y disminuye significativamente la calidad del grano. Una de las alternativas  de control, dentro de la producción orgánica, la constituyen sus enemigos naturales,  particularmente los parasitoides. Buscando actualizar información sobre los parasitoides  asociados a E. quinoae, se implementó el estudio en comunidades del Altiplano Norte, Centro y   Sur de Bolivia. La colecta de larvas de polilla se realizó el año 2013, utilizando el método del  manto entomológico. Las larvas se colocaron en recipientes de plástico de 200 cc de capacidad  que contenían ramas de quinua. Estos recipientes fueron trasladados a laboratorio para su cría  hasta la obtención de adultos y/o parasitoides, su identificación fue mediante comparaciones  morfológicas (adultas y cocones) y con ayuda de claves taxonómicas. Se evidencia que la  población larval de E. quinoae es regulada por un complejo de seis parasitoides: cinco especies   de avispas (Hymenoptera) y una especie de mosca (Diptera). El parasitismo natural promedio, de  las doce comunidades, fue de 28%, con un máximo de 44.7%.  Las especies de Cotesia sp. y  Meteorus sp. fueron las que registraron mayores niveles de parasitismo en el Altiplano Norte,  Centro y Sur. Los parasitoides tienen un importante potencial como alternativa para el manejo  integrado de E. quinoae. Palabras clave: Entomología; Producción Orgánica; Enemigos Naturales, Parasitoides   Introduction   The quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd)  crop in the Bolivian Altiplano is attacked  by several species of pest insects. One of  these species is the quinoa moth or "qhona  qhona" Eurysacca quinoae Povolny 1997  (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae), listed as a key  pest of the crop (Avalos 1996) because it  causes losses of over 30% and  significantly reduces grain quality  (Saravia and Quispe, 2003; PROINPA,  2013). The first reports on parasitoid insects of  quinoa moths were registered in  Patacamaya in 1997, by the Quinoa  Programme from the ex - IBTA (IBTA,  1997). Later, specific pieces of work were  performed in some communities of the  Central and Southern Altiplano (Mamani,  1998, PROINPA 2003; PROINPA 2013). As a result of these studies it is known that  the percentage of natural parasitism in  larvae of Eurysacca quinoae reaches up to   40% and, that the parasitoid complex  consists of nine species.  Out of these nine  species, seven belong to the order  Hymenoptera from the families  Braconidae (Meteorus  sp., Apanteles sp.,   Microplitis sp.), Ichneumonidae  (Deleboea sp., Venturia sp., Diadegma  sp.) and Encyrtidae (Copidosoma  sp.),   and two belong to the order Diptera from  the families Tachinidae (Phytomiptera sp.  and  Dolichostoma sp.) (IBTA 1997;   Mamani 1998, and Saravia Quispe 2006;  Saravia et al., 2008;. PROINPA 2013). A parasitoid is understood as every insect,  which in the larval stage is parasitic of  other arthropod (host), while in the adult  phase it lives freely to breed and seek its  host.   Unlike the parasite, the parasitoid in most  cases ends up killing the host (Van  Driessche et al., 2007). The diversity of predators and parasitoids  of a given pest species is related to the  diversity of flowering plants associated to  a cultivar.  The nectar and pollen of these  flowers are important additional food  sources necessary for multiplication  (Altieri and Nicholls, 2010). Areas of quinoa production in the country  are located in three ecoregions: Northern,  Central and Southern Altiplano, these  differ mainly by the rainfall regime, the  quality of soils and crops produced.  The  Southern Altiplano is the driest region  (150-300 mm/year), with sandy soils and  low fertility where the main crop is the  Royal Quinoa. The Northern Altiplano  has higher rainfall (500 mm/year), soils  are more productive and crops produced  include potatoes, quinoa, barley, broad  beans among others. The Central  Altiplano presents intermediate weather  and soil conditions, relating to both  Northern and Southern Altiplano. Given the background mentioned and in  order to update information on the  parasitoids associated with the quinoa  moth, the present study was carried out in  three ecoregions of the Altiplano. The  objective was to identify the parasitoids  and determine natural parasitism on larvae  of  E. quinoae in quinoa plots of the   Bolivian Altiplano.   Materials and methods   Location. The work was implemented in  twelve quinoa producing communities of  the Altiplano, one from the Northern  Altiplano (Lacaya), eight from the Central    Altiplano (Contorno Centro, Contorno  Arriba, Cañaviri, Villa Manquiri,  Colquencha, Viscachani, Calpaya and  Crucero Belen) and three in the Southern  Altiplano (Colcha K, Vinto and Julaca)  (Figure 1). E. quinoae sampling and larval rearing.  The collection of larvae in the quinoa  plots of different communities was  conducted between February and March  2013, period of highest incidence of the  pest. This process was performed using the  method of "Entomological mantle", which  consists of a canvas of 1 m x 1 m stretched  at the base of the plant, then a careful    shaking of the the panicle to produce the  downfall of larvae on the canvas. Larvae  obtained were placed in 200 ml sized  plastic containers enclosing paper towels  at the base, and quinoa leaves and  branches as food for the larvae. These containers were placed in  Styrofoam carriers that were carried to the  Entomology Laboratory of PROINPA  Foundation in Quipaquipani Center  (Viacha-La Paz).  At the laboratory larvae  were selected by size, and placed in  specific quantities, in containers, to  continue their rearing until they reached  the phases of adult moths or parasitoids.   Percentage of natural parasitism and  taxonomic identification. To calculate the  percentage of natural parasitism by  species and community, the following  formula was used: The identification of parasitoids was made  by comparison and using taxonomic keys.  For identification by comparison,  representative specimens of these  biological controllers were mounted, and  compared to specimens described by  Mamani (1998), Saravia and Quispe  (2006) and Costa et al. (2009). In some cases the identification was  confirmed using taxonomic keys provided  by Sharkey (2006) for Braconidae, and  Gauld (1991) for Ichneumonidae, both  corresponding to the Neotropical region. In parallel specimens of interest were sent  to specialized centers (USDA) for  identification.   Results and discussion    Parasitoid complex associated with  larvae of E. quinoae   The parasitoid complex that is regulating  the population of E. quinoae in quinoa  plots located in the Bolivian Altiplano, is  composed of six species (Table 1, Figure  2). Of these six species, five correspond to  the order Hymenoptera and one to  Diptera. Among the wasps, all belong to the sub  order Apocrita, characterized by having  the first abdominal segment together with    the metathorax and separated from the rest  of the abdominal segments with a narrow  waist (Fernandez and Sharkey, 2006).  These wasps are grouped into two  superfamilies: • (medium large   wasps).   •  Cotesia sp. and Meteorus sp. correspond  to the Braconidae family; Venturia sp. and  Deleboea  sp. to Ichneumonidae, and   Copidosoma  sp. to Encyrtidae   (Chalcidoidea). The only Diptera species  Phytomiptera sp. belongs to the Tachinid  family, from the Oestroidae superfamily,  and the sub order Brachycera. Among the parasitoids, the micro-wasp  Copidosoma sp. (Encyrtidae), is a  polyembrionic egg parasitoid that  mummifies moth larvae before they reach  the pupal stage. From mummified larvae,  between 28 to 33 micro-wasps can  emerge. The rest of the wasps are larvo-pupal  endoparasitoids. They infect their host  (quinoa moth larvae) in the early larval  stages, but the effect can only be observed  when they kill the host in the pupal stage.  Biologically this parasitism strategy is  known as koinobiont. There is another  strategy called idiobiont parasitism that  occurs in species that permanently  paralyze their hosts, preventing them to  continue their development after being  parasitized.  This is a desirable feature for  parasitoids that are meant to be used in  biological control programs. In this study  no parasitoids with these characteristics  were found.   Table 1 shows the percentage of natural  parasitism recorded in the different  communities of the Northern, Central and  Southern Altiplano. Overall, the average  percentage of natural parasitism was  higher than 28%, with the communities of  the Central Altiplano (Viscachani,    Contorno Arriba and Cañaviri) recording  the highest percentages of parasitism,  with values above 40%, in comparison to  Colcha K, Vinto and Julaca (Southern  Altiplano), where the lowest percentages  of parasitism were observed, with values  below 5%. The rest of the communities:   Lacaya, Calpaya, Crucero Belén,  Contorno Centro and Villa Manquiri (the  first from the Northern Altiplano and the  rest from the Central Altiplano), recorded  natural parasitism of E. quinoae  fluctuating between 27% and 38%. The  average of 28% of parasitism is a value  that comes close to the efficiency levels of  control for this pest, which is obtained by  using botanical extracts and/or some  bioinsecticides available in local markets.  This shows the important role that these  parasitoids play in the natural regulation  of E. quinoae. Natural parasitism percentages recorded  in each of the communities was the  product of a joint action of a complex of  two to six parasitoids, regulating the larval  population of E. quinoae at different  levels (Annex 1). According to Table 1,  the parasitoids that contributed most to the  regulation of quinoa moth larvae in the  twelve communities are Cotesia sp. and  Meteorus sp., recording average  parasitism above 6%. In contrast, the  micro-wasp  Copidosoma sp. was the   species that contributed least to the  control of E. quinoae (1.2%). The communities that are characterized by  greater diversity of parasitoids are  Viscachani, Contorno Centro and Lacaya,  the first two located in the Central  Altiplano and the last in the Northern  Altiplano, recording a total of six  parasitoids. The communities Colcha K,  Vinto and Julaca in the Southern  Altiplano, recorded two and three  parasitoids (Table 1). Depending on the abundance of  parasitoids (Table 1) two groups can be  clearly observed. The first formed by the  communities of Central and Northern  Altiplano, where Viscachani and    Contorno Centro stand out with the largest  number of parasitoids. The second group  consists of the communities in the  Southern Altiplano with low amounts of  these biological control agents. The  differences can be explained by the  characteristics of agricultural production  in each of these areas, in addition to the  floristic composition of weeds and native  plants registered and distributed in these  areas. The distribution and relative importance  of the six parasitoids identified was highly  variable. Nevertheless, there clearly is one  species found in all locations: the  Tachinido  Phytomiptera sp. which   showed an average frequency of 5.3%,  being the most abundant parasitoid in  Cañaviri (14.3%) and the second most  abundant in Colquencha (11%). In this  regard, Stireman et al. (2009) state that  flies belonging to the Tachinidae family  are diverse and are important natural  enemies of many pests. All known species  of this family are parasitoids of  arthropods, mainly of lepidopteran larvae,  the taxonomic group to which E. quinoae  belongs to. The percentages of parasitism recorded in  this work are lower than those reported by  Mamani (1998) and PROINPA (2013),  who indicate that populations of quinoa  moth larvae in the Central Altiplano have  natural parasitism ranging between 43%  and 65%.   Conclusions   •   the sampled communities is being  regulated by a complex of six  parasitoids: five wasps (Hymenoptera)  and one fly (Diptera). Among the    wasps, the species registered were:  Cotesia sp. (Braconidae), Meteorus sp.  (Braconidae),  Deleboea sp.   (Ichneumonidae), Venturia sp.  (Ichneumonidae) and Copidosoma sp.  (Encyrtidae), and the fly was identified  as Phytomiptera sp. (Tachinidae).  • average of   parasitism was 28% in the twelve  communities, standing out Viscachani  with 44.7% of parasitism on average.  •  Cotesia sp. and Meteorus   sp. were the species with higher levels  of parasitism recorded in communities  of the Northern, Central and Southern  Altiplano.  • natural   percentages recorded in E. quinoae  larvae, in quinoa producing  communities of the Bolivian  Altiplano, show the need to implement  integrated pest management practices  that conserve and increase beneficial  organisms in these agroecosystems.  •   partial perspective of the natural  parasitism on  E. quinoae, as the   sampling period covered a limited time  span. Additionally, only parasitism on   the larval stage of one agricultural  campaign was studied. The possibility  of sampling new parasitoids in the  same places and at different times,  with the same or other collection  methods, is not ruled out.  • the of   elements that influence their control  capability are the effects of climate  change and environmental variability.  Insect pest species are able to respond  quickly to environmental changes.  However, the effect that this response    has on the populations of natural  enemies (parasitoids and predators) is  still unknown. This is an aspect to be  considered when thinking about  implementing biological control  programs.  • of limitations the of   parasitoids (directed releases) in  biological control programs is the  maintenance of massive rearing in the  laboratory. For this purpose, the first  step is to develop mass host (E.  quinoae) rearing and to generate  information on the biology and  reproduction of its parasitoids, to later  have available a tool of natural  biological control.   Cited references   Altieri, A., Nicholls, C. 2010. Diseños   agroecológicos para incrementar la  biodiversidad de entomofauna benéfica  en agroecosistemas. SOCLA. Medellín,  Colombia. 83 p.  Avalos, F. 1996. Identificación y dinámica   poblacional de la polilla de la quinua  Eurysacca melanocampta. Thesis for the  degree of Agricultural Engeneer. Faculty  of Agriculture, UMSA. 121 p.  Costa, F., Yabar, E., Gianoli, E. 2009.   Parasitismo sobre  Eurysacca   melanocampta Meyrick (Lepidoptera:  Gelechiidae) en dos localidades de  Cuzco, Perú. In.  Rev. Fac. Nal. Agr. de  Medellín,  Vol. 62, n. 1. , Medellin,  Colombia. Available at:  http://www.scielo.org.co/scielo.php?script =sci_arttext&pid=S0304-2847200900010 0008&lng=en&nrm=iso>. Retrieved May  23, 2014  Fernández, F., Sharkey, M. 2006. Sistemática   de los himenópteros de la Región  Neotropical: Estado del conocimiento y  perspectivas. In: Introducción a los  Hymenóptera de la Región Neotropical.  Fernández, F. y M. J. Sharkey (Eds.).    Sociedad Colombiana de Entomología y  Universidad Nacional de Colombia,  Bogotá, Colombia. pp. 7-35.  Gauld, I. 1991. The Ichneumonidae of Costa   Rica. 1 Introduction, keys to subfamilies,  and keys to the species of the lower  pimpliform subfamilies: Rhyssinae,  Pimplinae, Poemeniinae, Acaenitinae  and Cylloceriinae. The American  Entomological Institute. Florida, EEUU.  589 p.  IBTA, 1997. Instituto Boliviano de Tecnología   Agropecuaria. Annual Report,  1996-1997. Programa Quinua, IBTA. La  Paz, Bolivia. 185 p.  Mamani, D. 1998. Control biológico en forma   natural de la polilla de la quinua  (Eurysacca melanocampta Meyrick) por  parasitoides y perspectivas de cría para  su manipulación en el Altiplano Central.  Thesis for the degree of Agricultural  Engeneer. Faculty of Agriculture, UMSA.  La Paz, Bolivia. pp. 90-91.  PROINPA, 2003. Fundación para la   Promoción e Investigación de Productos  Andinos. Project Report: Desarrollo y  validación participativa de las  innovaciones tecnológicas que mejoren  las estrategias para manejo sostenible de  la quinua. The McKnight Foundation. La  Paz, Bolivia. 127 p.  PROINPA, 2013. Fundación para la   Promoción e Investigación de Productos  Andinos. Annual Report 2009-2010:  Proyecto Desarrollo y validación    participativa de las innovaciones  tecnológicas que mejoren las estrategias  para manejo sostenible del sistema  centrado en quinua en el Altiplano  boliviano. The McKnight Foundation. La  Paz, Bolivia. 145 p.  Saravia, R., Quispe, R. 2006. Manejo   integrado de las plagas insectiles del  cultivo de la quinua. In: Module 2: Manejo  agronómico de la quinua orgánica.  Fundación PROINPA. pp. 53-86.  Saravia, R., Quispe, R. 2003. Ciclo biológico   de la polilla de la quinua Eurysacca  melanocampta Meyrick. Technical Listing   No.6. PROINPA Foundation.  Cochabamba, Bolivia. 4 p.  Saravia, R., Mamani, A., Bonifacio, A., Alcon,   M. 2008. Diagnóstico de los enemigos  naturales de las plagas del cultivo de  quinua. PROINPA Foundation. Annual  Report 2008-2009. Rubro Granos  Altoandinos. Cochabamba, Bolivia, 215  p.  Sharkey, M. 2006. Two new genera of   Agathidinae (Hymenoptera: Braconidae)  with a key to the genera of the New  World. Zootaxa: 1185: 37-51.  Van Driesche, R., Hoddle, M., Center, D. 2007.   Control de plagas y malezas por  enemigos naturales. USDA. Translated  by E. Ruiz and J. Coronada. Universidad  de Tamaulipas. Cd. Victoria, México. 796  p.      Revista de Agricultura, Nro. 54 - Julio de 2014   Area: Technology Development 37   Introduction   Quinoa has evolved in the Andes. It was  domesticated by men and women from  civilizations like the Tiwanaku and the  Inca. Until the early eighties, the Andean  people cultivated quinoa due to their  advantages in adaptation to altitudes  between 2800 to 4000 m.a.s.l., and  semi-arid climates, and for its nutritional  benefits. The main product of the quinoa plant is  the grain, highly appreciated for the  preparation of traditional dishes in a way    somewhat similar to rice.  The leaves can  also be eaten fresh and, by products from  harvesting and threshing are destined for  animal feed (llamas). Quinoa comprises a wide diversity of  native varieties adapted to specific areas  of the Central, Northern and Southern  Altiplano, and valleys. In the highlands,  quinoa is the main food crop for the  inhabitants of this area. In the Southern  Altiplano, quinoa is the only crop that  thrives acceptably, this is why researchers  describe the production system as a  quinoa monoculture.   With the discovery of its nutritional  properties and its promotion, quinoa has  become an important export product and  an important source of income generation. Currently, quinoa is a product with high  demand in the market, with encouraging  prices for producers, processors and  traders, creating an important economic  activity for the country. The demand and high prices of quinoa  have stimulated the expansion of acreage,  covering new areas of production. This  expansion involves changes in the  production process and new technological  needs on several fronts: management of  pests and diseases, plant nutrition, seed  varieties and agronomic management. Climate change, in turn, has led to  changes in rainfall and new technological  demands, such as earlier varieties. On the  other hand the market demands various  colors of quinoa and more suitable  varieties for industrial processing. In this context, PROINPA has undertaken  the development of a new generation of  varieties focused on the following  priorities: • large varieties the   Southern Altiplano, necessary for late  planting, for re planting in case of  drought losses or seedlings buried by  strong winds, and for their shorter time  to harvest.  • large varieties   mildew resistance for the Central  Altiplano.  • resistant for   Northern Altiplano and valleys.   • (with and   (saponin free) varieties for specific  market demands and, for local and  family consumption of quinoa.  These  varieties have the advantage of  facilitating grain processing.  • for (flour   flakes) and for nutritional objectives  (nutraceuticals).  • all varieties for   mechanical harvesting are also sought,  mainly due to their drive towards  competitive, sustainable and resilient  production in the occurrence of  adverse climate change phenomena.   Results and discussion   With the application of classical breeding  methods, a number of varieties with  common and differential characteristics  have been generated. Common characteristics relate to  performance, size and color of grain. The  differential characteristics refer to  adaptation to different agro-ecological  zones, earliness, resistance to mildew,  bitter or sweet quinoa, industrial quality  among others. Large grain varieties are directed to the  use of quinoa in ways similar to rice  (pearled quinoa), ie. for cooking in soups  and boiled grain.   For this purposes grain  may be preferably white, but also red and  black in color. Most ecotypes of Royal  Quinoa are suitable for pearled quinoa  (Bonifacio et al., 2012). The research on  industrial quality of these varieties is in  progress.  Adapting varieties implies an analysis of  options in terms of producing them in  different ecoregions such as the Southern,  Central, and Northern Altiplano, Valleys  and Sub Tropics. The precocity is a character that enables  the management of adverse environmental  factors through the following  mechanisms:  1) avoid frost through a shorter   production cycle.  2) possibility of delayed planting   caused by lack of moisture in the  planting season.  3)  prevent losses and enable replanting   in case of: seedlings buried by winds  in sandy soils, clay soils crusting,  seedling loss by frost or drought.  Mildew resistance is a key component to  produce organic quinoa in areas outside  the Southern Altiplano. Quinoa is  susceptible to disease under conditions of  high relative humidity and soil moisture  (Bonifacio, 2006) and susceptible  varieties (Utusaya) can register a severity  of 100% (Danielsen and Ames, 2000).  Therefore resistance to mildew is essential  to produce quinoa in areas of high relative  humidity, to reduce the use of fungicides  for disease control, reduce production  costs and promote grain filling. The bitter and sweet varieties have not  received differentiation until now.  Bitter  quinoa is produced, processed and sold in  greater proportion. However, given the  volumes of water that are used (not  recycled) to remove the saponin, the  difficulties of eliminating foamy water  and, the increased energy expenditure    (scarifying, washing and drying); the  interest in sweet quinoa is reemerging. This sweet quinoa, although it has its  limitations due to the preferences of a  couple of bird species, requires less time  for scarifying and/or washing; therefore it  produces less loses during processing.  It  does not generate foamy water and  pearled grain does not have the strong,  pungent odor that bitter varieties have.  Due to these qualities of sweet quinoa, it  becomes an alternative for production  areas in the Central and Northern  Altiplano, as well as for lines of grain  processing and transformation. Therefore  sweet varieties generated three decades  ago are currently subject of differentiated  demand.  Industrial quality refers to the physical  and chemical properties of specific grain  varieties. In that sense, the varieties for  flour, flakes, and for pasta among other  uses and varietal differentiation, require  the appropriate quality for each process.  Varieties with industrial quality give more    relevance to the criteria of varietal purity  and homogeneity, so often promoted by  instances of variety registration and seed  certification. According to Bodoin (2009), demand and  use of quinoa certified seed is very low  compared to the volume of local seed used  for commercial production, and for  cultivar expansion. Table 1 lists the varieties generated by  PROINPA, their adaptation, production    cycle, grain characteristics and potential  uses, and shows the varieties’  recommendation domains. This  information can be used in the context of a  risk management quinoa production  strategy, taking into account the effects of  climate change, disease prevalence  (mildew) and, the demands of producers  and the market (with and without saponin,  industrial quality, etc.).    Challenges   Today, consumers are looking for  information about the quality of the  products they consume (protein content,  protein quality, gluten-free); it is for that  reason that quinoa has a high international  demand. The challenge, for the Bolivian quinoa to  be more competitive in the international  market, is to research its nutraceutical  properties such as antioxidant content,  iron and zinc, etc., and incorporate such  features in new varieties. The growing quinoa production areas,  lead to a search for technology of easy  application over large areas. This is the  case of cropping areas that are  progressively using more combined  harvesters. Therefore, the demand for  genetic improvement seeks the  development of new varieties with plant  architecture suitable for mechanization  (uniform size and uniform maturity). The actors in the quinoa value chain that  are in the processing link, need to be  informed about the qualities of the new  varieties, in terms of protein content,  amylopectin, antioxidants, etc., in order to  specialize the use of varieties.  This would  give way to processed products with  better quality and identity, since they  would not be processed with varietal  mixtures, as it is currently done. Finally, to achieve extensive use of  varieties, it is necessary that actors  specialized in the industry become  involved in the production of high quality  seed. This would allow producers,  associations and companies in the quinoa  value chain to have constant availability    and access to these varieties, meeting the  standards required by the corresponding  authorities. Currently, the vast majority of  producers, uses farmers' own and local  seed, even for use on cultivar expansion  (Bodoin, 2009).   Participating institutions   •  •  • (Proyecto Inno   vación. Estratégica Nacional - Minis  terio de Desarrollo Rural Agropecua  rio y Medio Ambiente).  National  Estrategic Innovation Project –  Ministry of Rural Development,  Agriculture and Environment.  •  • (Universidad de   Andrés).    •  • (Proyecto Resis-   tencia Duradera para la Zona Andina -  Universidad de Wageningen). Project  of Lasting Resistance for the Andean  Region - Wageningen University.   Cited references   Bodoin, A. 2009. Evaluación y perspectivas del   mercado de semilla certificadas de quinua  en la región del Salar de Uyuni en el  Altiplano Sur de Bolivia. 2nd Year  Internship Thesis. Agroparis Tech. Paris,  France. 35 p.  Bonifacio, A., Vargas, A., Aroni, G. 2003.   Variedad de quinua Jach’a Grano.  PROINPA Foundation. Technical Listing  No 6. Cochabamba, Bolivia.   Bonifacio, A., Vargas, A. 2005. Variedad de   Quinua Kurmi. PROINPA Foundation -  The McKnight Foundation - MACA.  Tchnical Listing No. 12.  Bonifacio, A., Vargas, A., Rojas, J. (n/y).   Variedad de Quinua Kurmi. PROINPA  Foundation - The McKnight Foundation -  MACA. Technical Listing No. P/FTE/81.  Bonifacio, A., Vargas, A., Aroni, G., Quispe, R.   (n/y). Variedad de Quinua Horizontes.  PROINPA Foundation- MDRAyMA.  Technical Listing No. P/FTE/79.  Bonifacio, A. 2006. El futuro de los productos   andinos en la región alta y los valles  centrales de los Andes. Granos en el área    altoandina de Bolivia, Ecuador y Perú.  ONUDI, Subdivisión de Promoción de  Inversión y Tecnología. On Line.    Available at: http://quinua.pe   Retrieved on June 6, 2014. Bonifacio, A., Aroni, G., Villca, M. 2012.   Catálogo etnobotánico de la Quinua Real.  PROINPA Foundation. Cochabamba,  Bolivia. 123 p.  Danielsen, S., Ames, T. 2000. El mildiu   (Peronospora farinosa) de la quinua   (Chenopodium quinoa) en la zona andina.   CIP-KVL. Lima, Perú. 32 p.   Introduction   The quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd)  crop in the Bolivian Altiplano is attacked  by several species of pest insects. One of  these species is the quinoa moth or "qhona  qhona" Eurysacca quinoae Povolny 1997  (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae), listed as a key  pest of the crop (Avalos 1996) because it  causes losses of over 30% and  significantly reduces grain quality  (Saravia and Quispe, 2003; PROINPA,  2013). The first reports on parasitoid insects of  quinoa moths were registered in  Patacamaya in 1997, by the Quinoa  Programme from the ex - IBTA (IBTA,  1997). Later, specific pieces of work were  performed in some communities of the  Central and Southern Altiplano (Mamani,  1998, PROINPA 2003; PROINPA 2013). As a result of these studies it is known that  the percentage of natural parasitism in  larvae of Eurysacca quinoae reaches up to   40% and, that the parasitoid complex  consists of nine species.  Out of these nine  species, seven belong to the order  Hymenoptera from the families  Braconidae (Meteorus  sp., Apanteles sp.,   Microplitis sp.), Ichneumonidae  (Deleboea sp., Venturia sp., Diadegma  sp.) and Encyrtidae (Copidosoma  sp.),   and two belong to the order Diptera from  the families Tachinidae (Phytomiptera sp.  and  Dolichostoma sp.) (IBTA 1997;   Mamani 1998, and Saravia Quispe 2006;  Saravia et al., 2008;. PROINPA 2013). A parasitoid is understood as every insect,  which in the larval stage is parasitic of  other arthropod (host), while in the adult  phase it lives freely to breed and seek its  host.   Unlike the parasite, the parasitoid in most  cases ends up killing the host (Van  Driessche et al., 2007). The diversity of predators and parasitoids  of a given pest species is related to the  diversity of flowering plants associated to  a cultivar.  The nectar and pollen of these  flowers are important additional food  sources necessary for multiplication  (Altieri and Nicholls, 2010). Areas of quinoa production in the country  are located in three ecoregions: Northern,  Central and Southern Altiplano, these  differ mainly by the rainfall regime, the  quality of soils and crops produced.  The  Southern Altiplano is the driest region  (150-300 mm/year), with sandy soils and  low fertility where the main crop is the  Royal Quinoa. The Northern Altiplano  has higher rainfall (500 mm/year), soils  are more productive and crops produced  include potatoes, quinoa, barley, broad  beans among others. The Central  Altiplano presents intermediate weather  and soil conditions, relating to both  Northern and Southern Altiplano. Given the background mentioned and in  order to update information on the  parasitoids associated with the quinoa  moth, the present study was carried out in  three ecoregions of the Altiplano. The  objective was to identify the parasitoids  and determine natural parasitism on larvae  of  E. quinoae in quinoa plots of the   Bolivian Altiplano.   Materials and methods   Location. The work was implemented in   twelve quinoa producing communities of  the Altiplano, one from the Northern  Altiplano (Lacaya), eight from the Central    Altiplano (Contorno Centro, Contorno  Arriba, Cañaviri, Villa Manquiri,  Colquencha, Viscachani, Calpaya and  Crucero Belen) and three in the Southern  Altiplano (Colcha K, Vinto and Julaca)  (Figure 1). E. quinoae sampling and larval rearing.  The collection of larvae in the quinoa  plots of different communities was  conducted between February and March  2013, period of highest incidence of the  pest. This process was performed using the  method of "Entomological mantle", which  consists of a canvas of 1 m x 1 m stretched  at the base of the plant, then a careful    shaking of the the panicle to produce the  downfall of larvae on the canvas. Larvae  obtained were placed in 200 ml sized  plastic containers enclosing paper towels  at the base, and quinoa leaves and  branches as food for the larvae. These containers were placed in  Styrofoam carriers that were carried to the  Entomology Laboratory of PROINPA  Foundation in Quipaquipani Center  (Viacha-La Paz).  At the laboratory larvae  were selected by size, and placed in  specific quantities, in containers, to  continue their rearing until they reached  the phases of adult moths or parasitoids.   Percentage of natural parasitism and  taxonomic identification. To calculate the  percentage of natural parasitism by  species and community, the following  formula was used: The identification of parasitoids was made  by comparison and using taxonomic keys.  For identification by comparison,  representative specimens of these  biological controllers were mounted, and  compared to specimens described by  Mamani (1998), Saravia and Quispe  (2006) and Costa et al. (2009). In some cases the identification was  confirmed using taxonomic keys provided  by Sharkey (2006) for Braconidae, and  Gauld (1991) for Ichneumonidae, both  corresponding to the Neotropical region. In parallel specimens of interest were sent  to specialized centers (USDA) for  identification.   Results and discussion    Parasitoid complex associated with  larvae of E. quinoae   The parasitoid complex that is regulating  the population of E. quinoae in quinoa  plots located in the Bolivian Altiplano, is  composed of six species (Table 1, Figure  2). Of these six species, five correspond to  the order Hymenoptera and one to  Diptera. Among the wasps, all belong to the sub  order Apocrita, characterized by having  the first abdominal segment together with    the metathorax and separated from the rest  of the abdominal segments with a narrow  waist (Fernandez and Sharkey, 2006).  These wasps are grouped into two  superfamilies: • (medium large   wasps).   •  Cotesia sp. and Meteorus sp. correspond  to the Braconidae family; Venturia sp. and  Deleboea  sp. to Ichneumonidae, and   Copidosoma  sp. to Encyrtidae   (Chalcidoidea). The only Diptera species  Phytomiptera sp. belongs to the Tachinid  family, from the Oestroidae superfamily,  and the sub order Brachycera. Among the parasitoids, the micro-wasp  Copidosoma sp. (Encyrtidae), is a  polyembrionic egg parasitoid that  mummifies moth larvae before they reach  the pupal stage. From mummified larvae,  between 28 to 33 micro-wasps can  emerge. The rest of the wasps are larvo-pupal  endoparasitoids. They infect their host  (quinoa moth larvae) in the early larval  stages, but the effect can only be observed  when they kill the host in the pupal stage.  Biologically this parasitism strategy is  known as koinobiont. There is another  strategy called idiobiont parasitism that  occurs in species that permanently  paralyze their hosts, preventing them to  continue their development after being  parasitized.  This is a desirable feature for  parasitoids that are meant to be used in  biological control programs. In this study  no parasitoids with these characteristics  were found.   Table 1 shows the percentage of natural  parasitism recorded in the different  communities of the Northern, Central and  Southern Altiplano. Overall, the average  percentage of natural parasitism was  higher than 28%, with the communities of  the Central Altiplano (Viscachani,    Contorno Arriba and Cañaviri) recording  the highest percentages of parasitism,  with values above 40%, in comparison to  Colcha K, Vinto and Julaca (Southern  Altiplano), where the lowest percentages  of parasitism were observed, with values  below 5%. The rest of the communities:   Lacaya, Calpaya, Crucero Belén,  Contorno Centro and Villa Manquiri (the  first from the Northern Altiplano and the  rest from the Central Altiplano), recorded  natural parasitism of E. quinoae  fluctuating between 27% and 38%. The  average of 28% of parasitism is a value  that comes close to the efficiency levels of  control for this pest, which is obtained by  using botanical extracts and/or some  bioinsecticides available in local markets.  This shows the important role that these  parasitoids play in the natural regulation  of E. quinoae. Natural parasitism percentages recorded  in each of the communities was the  product of a joint action of a complex of  two to six parasitoids, regulating the larval  population of E. quinoae at different  levels (Annex 1). According to Table 1,  the parasitoids that contributed most to the  regulation of quinoa moth larvae in the  twelve communities are Cotesia sp. and  Meteorus sp., recording average  parasitism above 6%. In contrast, the  micro-wasp  Copidosoma sp. was the   species that contributed least to the  control of E. quinoae (1.2%). The communities that are characterized by  greater diversity of parasitoids are  Viscachani, Contorno Centro and Lacaya,  the first two located in the Central  Altiplano and the last in the Northern  Altiplano, recording a total of six  parasitoids. The communities Colcha K,  Vinto and Julaca in the Southern  Altiplano, recorded two and three  parasitoids (Table 1). Depending on the abundance of  parasitoids (Table 1) two groups can be  clearly observed. The first formed by the  communities of Central and Northern  Altiplano, where Viscachani and    Contorno Centro stand out with the largest  number of parasitoids. The second group  consists of the communities in the  Southern Altiplano with low amounts of  these biological control agents. The  differences can be explained by the  characteristics of agricultural production  in each of these areas, in addition to the  floristic composition of weeds and native  plants registered and distributed in these  areas. The distribution and relative importance  of the six parasitoids identified was highly  variable. Nevertheless, there clearly is one  species found in all locations: the  Tachinido  Phytomiptera sp. which   showed an average frequency of 5.3%,  being the most abundant parasitoid in  Cañaviri (14.3%) and the second most  abundant in Colquencha (11%). In this  regard, Stireman et al. (2009) state that  flies belonging to the Tachinidae family  are diverse and are important natural  enemies of many pests. All known species  of this family are parasitoids of  arthropods, mainly of lepidopteran larvae,  the taxonomic group to which E. quinoae  belongs to. The percentages of parasitism recorded in  this work are lower than those reported by  Mamani (1998) and PROINPA (2013),  who indicate that populations of quinoa  moth larvae in the Central Altiplano have  natural parasitism ranging between 43%  and 65%.   Conclusions   •   the sampled communities is being  regulated by a complex of six  parasitoids: five wasps (Hymenoptera)  and one fly (Diptera). Among the    wasps, the species registered were:  Cotesia sp. (Braconidae), Meteorus sp.  (Braconidae),  Deleboea sp.   (Ichneumonidae), Venturia sp.  (Ichneumonidae) and Copidosoma sp.  (Encyrtidae), and the fly was identified  as Phytomiptera sp. (Tachinidae).  • average of   parasitism was 28% in the twelve  communities, standing out Viscachani  with 44.7% of parasitism on average.  •  Cotesia sp. and Meteorus   sp. were the species with higher levels  of parasitism recorded in communities  of the Northern, Central and Southern  Altiplano.  • natural   percentages recorded in E. quinoae  larvae, in quinoa producing  communities of the Bolivian  Altiplano, show the need to implement  integrated pest management practices  that conserve and increase beneficial  organisms in these agroecosystems.  •   partial perspective of the natural  parasitism on  E. quinoae, as the   sampling period covered a limited time  span. Additionally, only parasitism on  the larval stage of one agricultural  campaign was studied. The possibility  of sampling new parasitoids in the  same places and at different times,  with the same or other collection  methods, is not ruled out.  • the of   elements that influence their control  capability are the effects of climate  change and environmental variability.  Insect pest species are able to respond  quickly to environmental changes.  However, the effect that this response    has on the populations of natural  enemies (parasitoids and predators) is  still unknown. This is an aspect to be  considered when thinking about  implementing biological control  programs.  • of limitations the of   parasitoids (directed releases) in  biological control programs is the  maintenance of massive rearing in the  laboratory. For this purpose, the first  step is to develop mass host (E.  quinoae) rearing and to generate  information on the biology and  reproduction of its parasitoids, to later  have available a tool of natural  biological control.   Cited references   Altieri, A., Nicholls, C. 2010. Diseños   agroecológicos para incrementar la  biodiversidad de entomofauna benéfica  en agroecosistemas. SOCLA. Medellín,  Colombia. 83 p.  Avalos, F. 1996. Identificación y dinámica   poblacional de la polilla de la quinua  Eurysacca melanocampta. Thesis for the  degree of Agricultural Engeneer. Faculty  of Agriculture, UMSA. 121 p.  Costa, F., Yabar, E., Gianoli, E. 2009.   Parasitismo sobre  Eurysacca   melanocampta Meyrick (Lepidoptera:  Gelechiidae) en dos localidades de  Cuzco, Perú. In.  Rev. Fac. Nal. Agr. de  Medellín,  Vol. 62, n. 1. , Medellin,  Colombia. Available at:  http://www.scielo.org.co/scielo.php?script =sci_arttext&pid=S0304-2847200900010 0008&lng=en&nrm=iso>. Retrieved May  23, 2014  Fernández, F., Sharkey, M. 2006. Sistemática   de los himenópteros de la Región  Neotropical: Estado del conocimiento y  perspectivas. In: Introducción a los  Hymenóptera de la Región Neotropical.  Fernández, F. y M. J. Sharkey (Eds.).    Sociedad Colombiana de Entomología y  Universidad Nacional de Colombia,  Bogotá, Colombia. pp. 7-35.  Gauld, I. 1991. The Ichneumonidae of Costa   Rica. 1 Introduction, keys to subfamilies,  and keys to the species of the lower  pimpliform subfamilies: Rhyssinae,  Pimplinae, Poemeniinae, Acaenitinae  and Cylloceriinae. The American  Entomological Institute. Florida, EEUU.  589 p.  IBTA, 1997. Instituto Boliviano de Tecnología   Agropecuaria. Annual Report,  1996-1997. Programa Quinua, IBTA. La  Paz, Bolivia. 185 p.  Mamani, D. 1998. Control biológico en forma   natural de la polilla de la quinua  (Eurysacca melanocampta Meyrick) por  parasitoides y perspectivas de cría para  su manipulación en el Altiplano Central.  Thesis for the degree of Agricultural  Engeneer. Faculty of Agriculture, UMSA.  La Paz, Bolivia. pp. 90-91.  PROINPA, 2003. Fundación para la   Promoción e Investigación de Productos  Andinos. Project Report: Desarrollo y  validación participativa de las  innovaciones tecnológicas que mejoren  las estrategias para manejo sostenible de  la quinua. The McKnight Foundation. La  Paz, Bolivia. 127 p.  PROINPA, 2013. Fundación para la   Promoción e Investigación de Productos  Andinos. Annual Report 2009-2010:  Proyecto Desarrollo y validación    participativa de las innovaciones  tecnológicas que mejoren las estrategias  para manejo sostenible del sistema  centrado en quinua en el Altiplano  boliviano. The McKnight Foundation. La  Paz, Bolivia. 145 p.  Saravia, R., Quispe, R. 2006. Manejo   integrado de las plagas insectiles del  cultivo de la quinua. In: Module 2: Manejo  agronómico de la quinua orgánica.  Fundación PROINPA. pp. 53-86.  Saravia, R., Quispe, R. 2003. Ciclo biológico   de la polilla de la quinua Eurysacca  melanocampta Meyrick. Technical Listing   No.6. PROINPA Foundation.  Cochabamba, Bolivia. 4 p.  Saravia, R., Mamani, A., Bonifacio, A., Alcon,   M. 2008. Diagnóstico de los enemigos  naturales de las plagas del cultivo de  quinua. PROINPA Foundation. Annual  Report 2008-2009. Rubro Granos  Altoandinos. Cochabamba, Bolivia, 215  p.  Sharkey, M. 2006. Two new genera of   Agathidinae (Hymenoptera: Braconidae)  with a key to the genera of the New  World. Zootaxa: 1185: 37-51.  Van Driesche, R., Hoddle, M., Center, D. 2007.   Control de plagas y malezas por  enemigos naturales. USDA. Translated  by E. Ruiz and J. Coronada. Universidad  de Tamaulipas. Cd. Victoria, México. 796  p.      ISSN 1998 - 9652   Area: Technology Development 38   Figure 1. Location map of sampling points of  E. quinoae larvae in the Bolivian Altiplano   Introduction   Quinoa has evolved in the Andes. It was  domesticated by men and women from  civilizations like the Tiwanaku and the  Inca. Until the early eighties, the Andean  people cultivated quinoa due to their  advantages in adaptation to altitudes  between 2800 to 4000 m.a.s.l., and  semi-arid climates, and for its nutritional  benefits. The main product of the quinoa plant is  the grain, highly appreciated for the  preparation of traditional dishes in a way    somewhat similar to rice.  The leaves can  also be eaten fresh and, by products from  harvesting and threshing are destined for  animal feed (llamas). Quinoa comprises a wide diversity of  native varieties adapted to specific areas  of the Central, Northern and Southern  Altiplano, and valleys. In the highlands,  quinoa is the main food crop for the  inhabitants of this area. In the Southern  Altiplano, quinoa is the only crop that  thrives acceptably, this is why researchers  describe the production system as a  quinoa monoculture.   With the discovery of its nutritional  properties and its promotion, quinoa has  become an important export product and  an important source of income generation. Currently, quinoa is a product with high  demand in the market, with encouraging  prices for producers, processors and  traders, creating an important economic  activity for the country. The demand and high prices of quinoa  have stimulated the expansion of acreage,  covering new areas of production. This  expansion involves changes in the  production process and new technological  needs on several fronts: management of  pests and diseases, plant nutrition, seed  varieties and agronomic management. Climate change, in turn, has led to  changes in rainfall and new technological  demands, such as earlier varieties. On the  other hand the market demands various  colors of quinoa and more suitable  varieties for industrial processing. In this context, PROINPA has undertaken  the development of a new generation of  varieties focused on the following  priorities: • large varieties the   Southern Altiplano, necessary for late  planting, for re planting in case of  drought losses or seedlings buried by  strong winds, and for their shorter time  to harvest.  • large varieties   mildew resistance for the Central  Altiplano.  • resistant for   Northern Altiplano and valleys.   • (with and   (saponin free) varieties for specific  market demands and, for local and  family consumption of quinoa.  These  varieties have the advantage of  facilitating grain processing.  • for (flour   flakes) and for nutritional objectives  (nutraceuticals).  • all varieties for   mechanical harvesting are also sought,  mainly due to their drive towards  competitive, sustainable and resilient  production in the occurrence of  adverse climate change phenomena.   Results and discussion   With the application of classical breeding  methods, a number of varieties with  common and differential characteristics  have been generated. Common characteristics relate to  performance, size and color of grain. The  differential characteristics refer to  adaptation to different agro-ecological  zones, earliness, resistance to mildew,  bitter or sweet quinoa, industrial quality  among others. Large grain varieties are directed to the  use of quinoa in ways similar to rice  (pearled quinoa), ie. for cooking in soups  and boiled grain.   For this purposes grain  may be preferably white, but also red and  black in color. Most ecotypes of Royal  Quinoa are suitable for pearled quinoa  (Bonifacio et al., 2012). The research on  industrial quality of these varieties is in  progress.  Adapting varieties implies an analysis of  options in terms of producing them in  different ecoregions such as the Southern,  Central, and Northern Altiplano, Valleys  and Sub Tropics. The precocity is a character that enables  the management of adverse environmental  factors through the following  mechanisms:  1) avoid frost through a shorter   production cycle.  2) possibility of delayed planting   caused by lack of moisture in the  planting season.  3)  prevent losses and enable replanting   in case of: seedlings buried by winds  in sandy soils, clay soils crusting,  seedling loss by frost or drought.  Mildew resistance is a key component to  produce organic quinoa in areas outside  the Southern Altiplano. Quinoa is  susceptible to disease under conditions of  high relative humidity and soil moisture  (Bonifacio, 2006) and susceptible  varieties (Utusaya) can register a severity  of 100% (Danielsen and Ames, 2000).  Therefore resistance to mildew is essential  to produce quinoa in areas of high relative  humidity, to reduce the use of fungicides  for disease control, reduce production  costs and promote grain filling. The bitter and sweet varieties have not  received differentiation until now.  Bitter  quinoa is produced, processed and sold in  greater proportion. However, given the  volumes of water that are used (not  recycled) to remove the saponin, the  difficulties of eliminating foamy water  and, the increased energy expenditure    (scarifying, washing and drying); the  interest in sweet quinoa is reemerging. This sweet quinoa, although it has its  limitations due to the preferences of a  couple of bird species, requires less time  for scarifying and/or washing; therefore it  produces less loses during processing.  It  does not generate foamy water and  pearled grain does not have the strong,  pungent odor that bitter varieties have.  Due to these qualities of sweet quinoa, it  becomes an alternative for production  areas in the Central and Northern  Altiplano, as well as for lines of grain  processing and transformation. Therefore  sweet varieties generated three decades  ago are currently subject of differentiated  demand.  Industrial quality refers to the physical  and chemical properties of specific grain  varieties. In that sense, the varieties for  flour, flakes, and for pasta among other  uses and varietal differentiation, require  the appropriate quality for each process.  Varieties with industrial quality give more    relevance to the criteria of varietal purity  and homogeneity, so often promoted by  instances of variety registration and seed  certification. According to Bodoin (2009), demand and  use of quinoa certified seed is very low  compared to the volume of local seed used  for commercial production, and for  cultivar expansion. Table 1 lists the varieties generated by  PROINPA, their adaptation, production    cycle, grain characteristics and potential  uses, and shows the varieties’  recommendation domains. This  information can be used in the context of a  risk management quinoa production  strategy, taking into account the effects of  climate change, disease prevalence  (mildew) and, the demands of producers  and the market (with and without saponin,  industrial quality, etc.).    Challenges   Today, consumers are looking for  information about the quality of the  products they consume (protein content,  protein quality, gluten-free); it is for that  reason that quinoa has a high international  demand. The challenge, for the Bolivian quinoa to  be more competitive in the international  market, is to research its nutraceutical  properties such as antioxidant content,  iron and zinc, etc., and incorporate such  features in new varieties. The growing quinoa production areas,  lead to a search for technology of easy  application over large areas. This is the  case of cropping areas that are  progressively using more combined  harvesters. Therefore, the demand for  genetic improvement seeks the  development of new varieties with plant  architecture suitable for mechanization  (uniform size and uniform maturity). The actors in the quinoa value chain that  are in the processing link, need to be  informed about the qualities of the new  varieties, in terms of protein content,  amylopectin, antioxidants, etc., in order to  specialize the use of varieties.  This would  give way to processed products with  better quality and identity, since they  would not be processed with varietal  mixtures, as it is currently done. Finally, to achieve extensive use of  varieties, it is necessary that actors  specialized in the industry become  involved in the production of high quality  seed. This would allow producers,  associations and companies in the quinoa  value chain to have constant availability    and access to these varieties, meeting the  standards required by the corresponding  authorities. Currently, the vast majority of  producers, uses farmers' own and local  seed, even for use on cultivar expansion  (Bodoin, 2009).   Participating institutions   •  •  • (Proyecto Inno   vación. Estratégica Nacional - Minis  terio de Desarrollo Rural Agropecua  rio y Medio Ambiente).  National  Estrategic Innovation Project –  Ministry of Rural Development,  Agriculture and Environment.  •  • (Universidad de   Andrés).    •  • (Proyecto Resis-   tencia Duradera para la Zona Andina -  Universidad de Wageningen). Project  of Lasting Resistance for the Andean  Region - Wageningen University.   Cited references   Bodoin, A. 2009. Evaluación y perspectivas del   mercado de semilla certificadas de quinua  en la región del Salar de Uyuni en el  Altiplano Sur de Bolivia. 2nd Year  Internship Thesis. Agroparis Tech. Paris,  France. 35 p.  Bonifacio, A., Vargas, A., Aroni, G. 2003.   Variedad de quinua Jach’a Grano.  PROINPA Foundation. Technical Listing  No 6. Cochabamba, Bolivia.   Bonifacio, A., Vargas, A. 2005. Variedad de   Quinua Kurmi. PROINPA Foundation -  The McKnight Foundation - MACA.  Tchnical Listing No. 12.  Bonifacio, A., Vargas, A., Rojas, J. (n/y).   Variedad de Quinua Kurmi. PROINPA  Foundation - The McKnight Foundation -  MACA. Technical Listing No. P/FTE/81.  Bonifacio, A., Vargas, A., Aroni, G., Quispe, R.   (n/y). Variedad de Quinua Horizontes.  PROINPA Foundation- MDRAyMA.  Technical Listing No. P/FTE/79.  Bonifacio, A. 2006. El futuro de los productos   andinos en la región alta y los valles  centrales de los Andes. Granos en el área    altoandina de Bolivia, Ecuador y Perú.  ONUDI, Subdivisión de Promoción de  Inversión y Tecnología. On Line.    Available at: http://quinua.pe   Retrieved on June 6, 2014. Bonifacio, A., Aroni, G., Villca, M. 2012.   Catálogo etnobotánico de la Quinua Real.  PROINPA Foundation. Cochabamba,  Bolivia. 123 p.  Danielsen, S., Ames, T. 2000. El mildiu   (Peronospora farinosa) de la quinua   (Chenopodium quinoa) en la zona andina.   CIP-KVL. Lima, Perú. 32 p.   Introduction   The quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd)  crop in the Bolivian Altiplano is attacked  by several species of pest insects. One of  these species is the quinoa moth or "qhona  qhona" Eurysacca quinoae Povolny 1997  (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae), listed as a key  pest of the crop (Avalos 1996) because it  causes losses of over 30% and  significantly reduces grain quality  (Saravia and Quispe, 2003; PROINPA,  2013). The first reports on parasitoid insects of  quinoa moths were registered in  Patacamaya in 1997, by the Quinoa  Programme from the ex - IBTA (IBTA,  1997). Later, specific pieces of work were  performed in some communities of the  Central and Southern Altiplano (Mamani,  1998, PROINPA 2003; PROINPA 2013). As a result of these studies it is known that  the percentage of natural parasitism in  larvae of Eurysacca quinoae reaches up to   40% and, that the parasitoid complex  consists of nine species.  Out of these nine  species, seven belong to the order  Hymenoptera from the families  Braconidae (Meteorus  sp., Apanteles sp.,   Microplitis sp.), Ichneumonidae  (Deleboea sp., Venturia sp., Diadegma  sp.) and Encyrtidae (Copidosoma  sp.),   and two belong to the order Diptera from  the families Tachinidae (Phytomiptera sp.  and  Dolichostoma sp.) (IBTA 1997;   Mamani 1998, and Saravia Quispe 2006;  Saravia et al., 2008;. PROINPA 2013). A parasitoid is understood as every insect,  which in the larval stage is parasitic of  other arthropod (host), while in the adult  phase it lives freely to breed and seek its  host.   Unlike the parasite, the parasitoid in most  cases ends up killing the host (Van  Driessche et al., 2007). The diversity of predators and parasitoids  of a given pest species is related to the  diversity of flowering plants associated to  a cultivar.  The nectar and pollen of these  flowers are important additional food  sources necessary for multiplication  (Altieri and Nicholls, 2010). Areas of quinoa production in the country  are located in three ecoregions: Northern,  Central and Southern Altiplano, these  differ mainly by the rainfall regime, the  quality of soils and crops produced.  The  Southern Altiplano is the driest region  (150-300 mm/year), with sandy soils and  low fertility where the main crop is the  Royal Quinoa. The Northern Altiplano  has higher rainfall (500 mm/year), soils  are more productive and crops produced  include potatoes, quinoa, barley, broad  beans among others. The Central  Altiplano presents intermediate weather  and soil conditions, relating to both  Northern and Southern Altiplano. Given the background mentioned and in  order to update information on the  parasitoids associated with the quinoa  moth, the present study was carried out in  three ecoregions of the Altiplano. The  objective was to identify the parasitoids  and determine natural parasitism on larvae   of  E. quinoae in quinoa plots of the   Bolivian Altiplano.   Materials and methods   Location. The work was implemented in  twelve quinoa producing communities of  the Altiplano, one from the Northern  Altiplano (Lacaya), eight from the Central    Altiplano (Contorno Centro, Contorno  Arriba, Cañaviri, Villa Manquiri,  Colquencha, Viscachani, Calpaya and  Crucero Belen) and three in the Southern  Altiplano (Colcha K, Vinto and Julaca)  (Figure 1). E. quinoae sampling and larval rearing.   The collection of larvae in the quinoa  plots of different communities was  conducted between February and March  2013, period of highest incidence of the  pest. This process was performed using the  method of "Entomological mantle", which  consists of a canvas of 1 m x 1 m stretched  at the base of the plant, then a careful    shaking of the the panicle to produce the  downfall of larvae on the canvas. Larvae  obtained were placed in 200 ml sized  plastic containers enclosing paper towels  at the base, and quinoa leaves and  branches as food for the larvae. These containers were placed in  Styrofoam carriers that were carried to the  Entomology Laboratory of PROINPA  Foundation in Quipaquipani Center  (Viacha-La Paz).  At the laboratory larvae  were selected by size, and placed in  specific quantities, in containers, to  continue their rearing until they reached  the phases of adult moths or parasitoids.   Percentage of natural parasitism and  taxonomic identification. To calculate the  percentage of natural parasitism by  species and community, the following  formula was used: The identification of parasitoids was made  by comparison and using taxonomic keys.  For identification by comparison,  representative specimens of these  biological controllers were mounted, and  compared to specimens described by  Mamani (1998), Saravia and Quispe  (2006) and Costa et al. (2009). In some cases the identification was  confirmed using taxonomic keys provided  by Sharkey (2006) for Braconidae, and  Gauld (1991) for Ichneumonidae, both  corresponding to the Neotropical region. In parallel specimens of interest were sent  to specialized centers (USDA) for  identification.   Results and discussion    Parasitoid complex associated with  larvae of E. quinoae   The parasitoid complex that is regulating  the population of E. quinoae in quinoa  plots located in the Bolivian Altiplano, is  composed of six species (Table 1, Figure  2). Of these six species, five correspond to  the order Hymenoptera and one to  Diptera. Among the wasps, all belong to the sub  order Apocrita, characterized by having  the first abdominal segment together with    the metathorax and separated from the rest  of the abdominal segments with a narrow  waist (Fernandez and Sharkey, 2006).  These wasps are grouped into two  superfamilies: • (medium large   wasps).   •  Cotesia sp. and Meteorus sp. correspond  to the Braconidae family; Venturia sp. and  Deleboea  sp. to Ichneumonidae, and   Copidosoma  sp. to Encyrtidae   (Chalcidoidea). The only Diptera species  Phytomiptera sp. belongs to the Tachinid  family, from the Oestroidae superfamily,  and the sub order Brachycera. Among the parasitoids, the micro-wasp  Copidosoma sp. (Encyrtidae), is a  polyembrionic egg parasitoid that  mummifies moth larvae before they reach  the pupal stage. From mummified larvae,  between 28 to 33 micro-wasps can  emerge. The rest of the wasps are larvo-pupal  endoparasitoids. They infect their host  (quinoa moth larvae) in the early larval  stages, but the effect can only be observed  when they kill the host in the pupal stage.  Biologically this parasitism strategy is  known as koinobiont. There is another  strategy called idiobiont parasitism that  occurs in species that permanently  paralyze their hosts, preventing them to  continue their development after being  parasitized.  This is a desirable feature for  parasitoids that are meant to be used in  biological control programs. In this study  no parasitoids with these characteristics  were found.   Table 1 shows the percentage of natural  parasitism recorded in the different  communities of the Northern, Central and  Southern Altiplano. Overall, the average  percentage of natural parasitism was  higher than 28%, with the communities of  the Central Altiplano (Viscachani,    Contorno Arriba and Cañaviri) recording  the highest percentages of parasitism,  with values above 40%, in comparison to  Colcha K, Vinto and Julaca (Southern  Altiplano), where the lowest percentages  of parasitism were observed, with values  below 5%. The rest of the communities:   Lacaya, Calpaya, Crucero Belén,  Contorno Centro and Villa Manquiri (the  first from the Northern Altiplano and the  rest from the Central Altiplano), recorded  natural parasitism of E. quinoae  fluctuating between 27% and 38%. The  average of 28% of parasitism is a value  that comes close to the efficiency levels of  control for this pest, which is obtained by  using botanical extracts and/or some  bioinsecticides available in local markets.  This shows the important role that these  parasitoids play in the natural regulation  of E. quinoae. Natural parasitism percentages recorded  in each of the communities was the  product of a joint action of a complex of  two to six parasitoids, regulating the larval  population of E. quinoae at different  levels (Annex 1). According to Table 1,  the parasitoids that contributed most to the  regulation of quinoa moth larvae in the  twelve communities are Cotesia sp. and  Meteorus sp., recording average  parasitism above 6%. In contrast, the  micro-wasp  Copidosoma sp. was the   species that contributed least to the  control of E. quinoae (1.2%). The communities that are characterized by  greater diversity of parasitoids are  Viscachani, Contorno Centro and Lacaya,  the first two located in the Central  Altiplano and the last in the Northern  Altiplano, recording a total of six  parasitoids. The communities Colcha K,  Vinto and Julaca in the Southern  Altiplano, recorded two and three  parasitoids (Table 1). Depending on the abundance of  parasitoids (Table 1) two groups can be  clearly observed. The first formed by the  communities of Central and Northern  Altiplano, where Viscachani and    Contorno Centro stand out with the largest  number of parasitoids. The second group  consists of the communities in the  Southern Altiplano with low amounts of  these biological control agents. The  differences can be explained by the  characteristics of agricultural production  in each of these areas, in addition to the  floristic composition of weeds and native  plants registered and distributed in these  areas. The distribution and relative importance  of the six parasitoids identified was highly  variable. Nevertheless, there clearly is one  species found in all locations: the  Tachinido  Phytomiptera sp. which   showed an average frequency of 5.3%,  being the most abundant parasitoid in  Cañaviri (14.3%) and the second most  abundant in Colquencha (11%). In this  regard, Stireman et al. (2009) state that  flies belonging to the Tachinidae family  are diverse and are important natural  enemies of many pests. All known species  of this family are parasitoids of  arthropods, mainly of lepidopteran larvae,  the taxonomic group to which E. quinoae  belongs to. The percentages of parasitism recorded in  this work are lower than those reported by  Mamani (1998) and PROINPA (2013),  who indicate that populations of quinoa  moth larvae in the Central Altiplano have  natural parasitism ranging between 43%  and 65%.   Conclusions   •   the sampled communities is being  regulated by a complex of six  parasitoids: five wasps (Hymenoptera)  and one fly (Diptera). Among the    wasps, the species registered were:  Cotesia sp. (Braconidae), Meteorus sp.  (Braconidae),  Deleboea sp.   (Ichneumonidae), Venturia sp.  (Ichneumonidae) and Copidosoma sp.  (Encyrtidae), and the fly was identified  as Phytomiptera sp. (Tachinidae).  • average of   parasitism was 28% in the twelve  communities, standing out Viscachani  with 44.7% of parasitism on average.  •  Cotesia sp. and Meteorus   sp. were the species with higher levels  of parasitism recorded in communities  of the Northern, Central and Southern  Altiplano.  • natural   percentages recorded in E. quinoae  larvae, in quinoa producing  communities of the Bolivian  Altiplano, show the need to implement  integrated pest management practices  that conserve and increase beneficial  organisms in these agroecosystems.  •   partial perspective of the natural  parasitism on  E. quinoae, as the   sampling period covered a limited time  span. Additionally, only parasitism on  the larval stage of one agricultural  campaign was studied. The possibility  of sampling new parasitoids in the  same places and at different times,  with the same or other collection  methods, is not ruled out.  • the of   elements that influence their control  capability are the effects of climate  change and environmental variability.  Insect pest species are able to respond  quickly to environmental changes.  However, the effect that this response    has on the populations of natural  enemies (parasitoids and predators) is  still unknown. This is an aspect to be  considered when thinking about  implementing biological control  programs.  • of limitations the of   parasitoids (directed releases) in  biological control programs is the  maintenance of massive rearing in the  laboratory. For this purpose, the first  step is to develop mass host (E.  quinoae) rearing and to generate  information on the biology and  reproduction of its parasitoids, to later  have available a tool of natural  biological control.   Cited references   Altieri, A., Nicholls, C. 2010. Diseños   agroecológicos para incrementar la  biodiversidad de entomofauna benéfica  en agroecosistemas. SOCLA. Medellín,  Colombia. 83 p.  Avalos, F. 1996. Identificación y dinámica   poblacional de la polilla de la quinua  Eurysacca melanocampta. Thesis for the  degree of Agricultural Engeneer. Faculty  of Agriculture, UMSA. 121 p.  Costa, F., Yabar, E., Gianoli, E. 2009.   Parasitismo sobre  Eurysacca   melanocampta Meyrick (Lepidoptera:  Gelechiidae) en dos localidades de  Cuzco, Perú. In.  Rev. Fac. Nal. Agr. de  Medellín,  Vol. 62, n. 1. , Medellin,  Colombia. Available at:  http://www.scielo.org.co/scielo.php?script =sci_arttext&pid=S0304-2847200900010 0008&lng=en&nrm=iso>. Retrieved May  23, 2014  Fernández, F., Sharkey, M. 2006. Sistemática   de los himenópteros de la Región  Neotropical: Estado del conocimiento y  perspectivas. In: Introducción a los  Hymenóptera de la Región Neotropical.  Fernández, F. y M. J. Sharkey (Eds.).    Sociedad Colombiana de Entomología y  Universidad Nacional de Colombia,  Bogotá, Colombia. pp. 7-35.  Gauld, I. 1991. The Ichneumonidae of Costa   Rica. 1 Introduction, keys to subfamilies,  and keys to the species of the lower  pimpliform subfamilies: Rhyssinae,  Pimplinae, Poemeniinae, Acaenitinae  and Cylloceriinae. The American  Entomological Institute. Florida, EEUU.  589 p.  IBTA, 1997. Instituto Boliviano de Tecnología   Agropecuaria. Annual Report,  1996-1997. Programa Quinua, IBTA. La  Paz, Bolivia. 185 p.  Mamani, D. 1998. Control biológico en forma   natural de la polilla de la quinua  (Eurysacca melanocampta Meyrick) por  parasitoides y perspectivas de cría para  su manipulación en el Altiplano Central.  Thesis for the degree of Agricultural  Engeneer. Faculty of Agriculture, UMSA.  La Paz, Bolivia. pp. 90-91.  PROINPA, 2003. Fundación para la   Promoción e Investigación de Productos  Andinos. Project Report: Desarrollo y  validación participativa de las  innovaciones tecnológicas que mejoren  las estrategias para manejo sostenible de  la quinua. The McKnight Foundation. La  Paz, Bolivia. 127 p.  PROINPA, 2013. Fundación para la   Promoción e Investigación de Productos  Andinos. Annual Report 2009-2010:  Proyecto Desarrollo y validación    participativa de las innovaciones  tecnológicas que mejoren las estrategias  para manejo sostenible del sistema  centrado en quinua en el Altiplano  boliviano. The McKnight Foundation. La  Paz, Bolivia. 145 p.  Saravia, R., Quispe, R. 2006. Manejo   integrado de las plagas insectiles del  cultivo de la quinua. In: Module 2: Manejo  agronómico de la quinua orgánica.  Fundación PROINPA. pp. 53-86.  Saravia, R., Quispe, R. 2003. Ciclo biológico   de la polilla de la quinua Eurysacca  melanocampta Meyrick. Technical Listing   No.6. PROINPA Foundation.  Cochabamba, Bolivia. 4 p.  Saravia, R., Mamani, A., Bonifacio, A., Alcon,   M. 2008. Diagnóstico de los enemigos  naturales de las plagas del cultivo de  quinua. PROINPA Foundation. Annual  Report 2008-2009. Rubro Granos  Altoandinos. Cochabamba, Bolivia, 215  p.  Sharkey, M. 2006. Two new genera of   Agathidinae (Hymenoptera: Braconidae)  with a key to the genera of the New  World. Zootaxa: 1185: 37-51.  Van Driesche, R., Hoddle, M., Center, D. 2007.   Control de plagas y malezas por  enemigos naturales. USDA. Translated  by E. Ruiz and J. Coronada. Universidad  de Tamaulipas. Cd. Victoria, México. 796  p.      Revista de Agricultura, Nro. 54 - Julio de 2014   Area: Technology Development 39   Introduction   Quinoa has evolved in the Andes. It was  domesticated by men and women from  civilizations like the Tiwanaku and the  Inca. Until the early eighties, the Andean  people cultivated quinoa due to their  advantages in adaptation to altitudes  between 2800 to 4000 m.a.s.l., and  semi-arid climates, and for its nutritional  benefits. The main product of the quinoa plant is  the grain, highly appreciated for the  preparation of traditional dishes in a way    somewhat similar to rice.  The leaves can  also be eaten fresh and, by products from  harvesting and threshing are destined for  animal feed (llamas). Quinoa comprises a wide diversity of  native varieties adapted to specific areas  of the Central, Northern and Southern  Altiplano, and valleys. In the highlands,  quinoa is the main food crop for the  inhabitants of this area. In the Southern  Altiplano, quinoa is the only crop that  thrives acceptably, this is why researchers  describe the production system as a  quinoa monoculture.   With the discovery of its nutritional  properties and its promotion, quinoa has  become an important export product and  an important source of income generation. Currently, quinoa is a product with high  demand in the market, with encouraging  prices for producers, processors and  traders, creating an important economic  activity for the country. The demand and high prices of quinoa  have stimulated the expansion of acreage,  covering new areas of production. This  expansion involves changes in the  production process and new technological  needs on several fronts: management of  pests and diseases, plant nutrition, seed  varieties and agronomic management. Climate change, in turn, has led to  changes in rainfall and new technological  demands, such as earlier varieties. On the  other hand the market demands various  colors of quinoa and more suitable  varieties for industrial processing. In this context, PROINPA has undertaken  the development of a new generation of  varieties focused on the following  priorities: • large varieties the   Southern Altiplano, necessary for late  planting, for re planting in case of  drought losses or seedlings buried by  strong winds, and for their shorter time  to harvest.  • large varieties   mildew resistance for the Central  Altiplano.  • resistant for   Northern Altiplano and valleys.   • (with and   (saponin free) varieties for specific  market demands and, for local and  family consumption of quinoa.  These  varieties have the advantage of  facilitating grain processing.  • for (flour   flakes) and for nutritional objectives  (nutraceuticals).  • all varieties for   mechanical harvesting are also sought,  mainly due to their drive towards  competitive, sustainable and resilient  production in the occurrence of  adverse climate change phenomena.   Results and discussion   With the application of classical breeding  methods, a number of varieties with  common and differential characteristics  have been generated. Common characteristics relate to  performance, size and color of grain. The  differential characteristics refer to  adaptation to different agro-ecological  zones, earliness, resistance to mildew,  bitter or sweet quinoa, industrial quality  among others. Large grain varieties are directed to the  use of quinoa in ways similar to rice  (pearled quinoa), ie. for cooking in soups  and boiled grain.   For this purposes grain  may be preferably white, but also red and  black in color. Most ecotypes of Royal  Quinoa are suitable for pearled quinoa  (Bonifacio et al., 2012). The research on  industrial quality of these varieties is in  progress.  Adapting varieties implies an analysis of  options in terms of producing them in  different ecoregions such as the Southern,  Central, and Northern Altiplano, Valleys  and Sub Tropics. The precocity is a character that enables  the management of adverse environmental  factors through the following  mechanisms:  1) avoid frost through a shorter   production cycle.  2) possibility of delayed planting   caused by lack of moisture in the  planting season.  3)  prevent losses and enable replanting   in case of: seedlings buried by winds  in sandy soils, clay soils crusting,  seedling loss by frost or drought.  Mildew resistance is a key component to  produce organic quinoa in areas outside  the Southern Altiplano. Quinoa is  susceptible to disease under conditions of  high relative humidity and soil moisture  (Bonifacio, 2006) and susceptible  varieties (Utusaya) can register a severity  of 100% (Danielsen and Ames, 2000).  Therefore resistance to mildew is essential  to produce quinoa in areas of high relative  humidity, to reduce the use of fungicides  for disease control, reduce production  costs and promote grain filling. The bitter and sweet varieties have not  received differentiation until now.  Bitter  quinoa is produced, processed and sold in  greater proportion. However, given the  volumes of water that are used (not  recycled) to remove the saponin, the  difficulties of eliminating foamy water  and, the increased energy expenditure    (scarifying, washing and drying); the  interest in sweet quinoa is reemerging. This sweet quinoa, although it has its  limitations due to the preferences of a  couple of bird species, requires less time  for scarifying and/or washing; therefore it  produces less loses during processing.  It  does not generate foamy water and  pearled grain does not have the strong,  pungent odor that bitter varieties have.  Due to these qualities of sweet quinoa, it  becomes an alternative for production  areas in the Central and Northern  Altiplano, as well as for lines of grain  processing and transformation. Therefore  sweet varieties generated three decades  ago are currently subject of differentiated  demand.  Industrial quality refers to the physical  and chemical properties of specific grain  varieties. In that sense, the varieties for  flour, flakes, and for pasta among other  uses and varietal differentiation, require  the appropriate quality for each process.  Varieties with industrial quality give more    relevance to the criteria of varietal purity  and homogeneity, so often promoted by  instances of variety registration and seed  certification. According to Bodoin (2009), demand and  use of quinoa certified seed is very low  compared to the volume of local seed used  for commercial production, and for  cultivar expansion. Table 1 lists the varieties generated by  PROINPA, their adaptation, production    cycle, grain characteristics and potential  uses, and shows the varieties’  recommendation domains. This  information can be used in the context of a  risk management quinoa production  strategy, taking into account the effects of  climate change, disease prevalence  (mildew) and, the demands of producers  and the market (with and without saponin,  industrial quality, etc.).    Challenges   Today, consumers are looking for  information about the quality of the  products they consume (protein content,  protein quality, gluten-free); it is for that  reason that quinoa has a high international  demand. The challenge, for the Bolivian quinoa to  be more competitive in the international  market, is to research its nutraceutical  properties such as antioxidant content,  iron and zinc, etc., and incorporate such  features in new varieties. The growing quinoa production areas,  lead to a search for technology of easy  application over large areas. This is the  case of cropping areas that are  progressively using more combined  harvesters. Therefore, the demand for  genetic improvement seeks the  development of new varieties with plant  architecture suitable for mechanization  (uniform size and uniform maturity). The actors in the quinoa value chain that  are in the processing link, need to be  informed about the qualities of the new  varieties, in terms of protein content,  amylopectin, antioxidants, etc., in order to  specialize the use of varieties.  This would  give way to processed products with  better quality and identity, since they  would not be processed with varietal  mixtures, as it is currently done. Finally, to achieve extensive use of  varieties, it is necessary that actors  specialized in the industry become  involved in the production of high quality  seed. This would allow producers,  associations and companies in the quinoa  value chain to have constant availability    and access to these varieties, meeting the  standards required by the corresponding  authorities. Currently, the vast majority of  producers, uses farmers' own and local  seed, even for use on cultivar expansion  (Bodoin, 2009).   Participating institutions   •  •  • (Proyecto Inno   vación. Estratégica Nacional - Minis  terio de Desarrollo Rural Agropecua  rio y Medio Ambiente).  National  Estrategic Innovation Project –  Ministry of Rural Development,  Agriculture and Environment.  •  • (Universidad de   Andrés).    •  • (Proyecto Resis-   tencia Duradera para la Zona Andina -  Universidad de Wageningen). Project  of Lasting Resistance for the Andean  Region - Wageningen University.   Cited references   Bodoin, A. 2009. Evaluación y perspectivas del   mercado de semilla certificadas de quinua  en la región del Salar de Uyuni en el  Altiplano Sur de Bolivia. 2nd Year  Internship Thesis. Agroparis Tech. Paris,  France. 35 p.  Bonifacio, A., Vargas, A., Aroni, G. 2003.   Variedad de quinua Jach’a Grano.  PROINPA Foundation. Technical Listing  No 6. Cochabamba, Bolivia.   Bonifacio, A., Vargas, A. 2005. Variedad de   Quinua Kurmi. PROINPA Foundation -  The McKnight Foundation - MACA.  Tchnical Listing No. 12.  Bonifacio, A., Vargas, A., Rojas, J. (n/y).   Variedad de Quinua Kurmi. PROINPA  Foundation - The McKnight Foundation -  MACA. Technical Listing No. P/FTE/81.  Bonifacio, A., Vargas, A., Aroni, G., Quispe, R.   (n/y). Variedad de Quinua Horizontes.  PROINPA Foundation- MDRAyMA.  Technical Listing No. P/FTE/79.  Bonifacio, A. 2006. El futuro de los productos   andinos en la región alta y los valles  centrales de los Andes. Granos en el área    altoandina de Bolivia, Ecuador y Perú.  ONUDI, Subdivisión de Promoción de  Inversión y Tecnología. On Line.    Available at: http://quinua.pe   Retrieved on June 6, 2014. Bonifacio, A., Aroni, G., Villca, M. 2012.   Catálogo etnobotánico de la Quinua Real.  PROINPA Foundation. Cochabamba,  Bolivia. 123 p.  Danielsen, S., Ames, T. 2000. El mildiu   (Peronospora farinosa) de la quinua   (Chenopodium quinoa) en la zona andina.   CIP-KVL. Lima, Perú. 32 p.   Introduction   The quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd)  crop in the Bolivian Altiplano is attacked  by several species of pest insects. One of  these species is the quinoa moth or "qhona  qhona" Eurysacca quinoae Povolny 1997  (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae), listed as a key  pest of the crop (Avalos 1996) because it  causes losses of over 30% and  significantly reduces grain quality  (Saravia and Quispe, 2003; PROINPA,  2013). The first reports on parasitoid insects of  quinoa moths were registered in  Patacamaya in 1997, by the Quinoa  Programme from the ex - IBTA (IBTA,  1997). Later, specific pieces of work were  performed in some communities of the  Central and Southern Altiplano (Mamani,  1998, PROINPA 2003; PROINPA 2013). As a result of these studies it is known that  the percentage of natural parasitism in  larvae of Eurysacca quinoae reaches up to   40% and, that the parasitoid complex  consists of nine species.  Out of these nine  species, seven belong to the order  Hymenoptera from the families  Braconidae (Meteorus  sp., Apanteles sp.,   Microplitis sp.), Ichneumonidae  (Deleboea sp., Venturia sp., Diadegma  sp.) and Encyrtidae (Copidosoma  sp.),   and two belong to the order Diptera from  the families Tachinidae (Phytomiptera sp.  and  Dolichostoma sp.) (IBTA 1997;   Mamani 1998, and Saravia Quispe 2006;  Saravia et al., 2008;. PROINPA 2013). A parasitoid is understood as every insect,  which in the larval stage is parasitic of  other arthropod (host), while in the adult  phase it lives freely to breed and seek its  host.   Unlike the parasite, the parasitoid in most  cases ends up killing the host (Van  Driessche et al., 2007). The diversity of predators and parasitoids  of a given pest species is related to the  diversity of flowering plants associated to  a cultivar.  The nectar and pollen of these  flowers are important additional food  sources necessary for multiplication  (Altieri and Nicholls, 2010). Areas of quinoa production in the country  are located in three ecoregions: Northern,  Central and Southern Altiplano, these  differ mainly by the rainfall regime, the  quality of soils and crops produced.  The  Southern Altiplano is the driest region  (150-300 mm/year), with sandy soils and  low fertility where the main crop is the  Royal Quinoa. The Northern Altiplano  has higher rainfall (500 mm/year), soils  are more productive and crops produced  include potatoes, quinoa, barley, broad  beans among others. The Central  Altiplano presents intermediate weather  and soil conditions, relating to both  Northern and Southern Altiplano. Given the background mentioned and in  order to update information on the  parasitoids associated with the quinoa  moth, the present study was carried out in  three ecoregions of the Altiplano. The  objective was to identify the parasitoids  and determine natural parasitism on larvae   of  E. quinoae in quinoa plots of the   Bolivian Altiplano.   Materials and methods   Location. The work was implemented in  twelve quinoa producing communities of  the Altiplano, one from the Northern  Altiplano (Lacaya), eight from the Central    Altiplano (Contorno Centro, Contorno  Arriba, Cañaviri, Villa Manquiri,  Colquencha, Viscachani, Calpaya and  Crucero Belen) and three in the Southern  Altiplano (Colcha K, Vinto and Julaca)  (Figure 1). E. quinoae sampling and larval rearing.  The collection of larvae in the quinoa  plots of different communities was  conducted between February and March  2013, period of highest incidence of the  pest. This process was performed using the  method of "Entomological mantle", which  consists of a canvas of 1 m x 1 m stretched  at the base of the plant, then a careful    shaking of the the panicle to produce the  downfall of larvae on the canvas. Larvae  obtained were placed in 200 ml sized  plastic containers enclosing paper towels  at the base, and quinoa leaves and  branches as food for the larvae. These containers were placed in  Styrofoam carriers that were carried to the  Entomology Laboratory of PROINPA  Foundation in Quipaquipani Center  (Viacha-La Paz).  At the laboratory larvae  were selected by size, and placed in  specific quantities, in containers, to  continue their rearing until they reached  the phases of adult moths or parasitoids.   Percentage of natural parasitism and   taxonomic identification. To calculate the   percentage of natural parasitism by  species and community, the following  formula was used: The identification of parasitoids was made  by comparison and using taxonomic keys.  For identification by comparison,  representative specimens of these  biological controllers were mounted, and  compared to specimens described by  Mamani (1998), Saravia and Quispe  (2006) and Costa et al. (2009). In some cases the identification was  confirmed using taxonomic keys provided  by Sharkey (2006) for Braconidae, and  Gauld (1991) for Ichneumonidae, both  corresponding to the Neotropical region. In parallel specimens of interest were sent  to specialized centers (USDA) for  identification.   Results and discussion    Parasitoid complex associated with  larvae of E. quinoae   The parasitoid complex that is regulating  the population of E. quinoae in quinoa  plots located in the Bolivian Altiplano, is  composed of six species (Table 1, Figure  2). Of these six species, five correspond to  the order Hymenoptera and one to  Diptera. Among the wasps, all belong to the sub  order Apocrita, characterized by having  the first abdominal segment together with    the metathorax and separated from the rest  of the abdominal segments with a narrow  waist (Fernandez and Sharkey, 2006).  These wasps are grouped into two  superfamilies: • (medium large   wasps).   •  Cotesia sp. and Meteorus sp. correspond  to the Braconidae family; Venturia sp. and  Deleboea  sp. to Ichneumonidae, and   Copidosoma  sp. to Encyrtidae   (Chalcidoidea). The only Diptera species  Phytomiptera sp. belongs to the Tachinid  family, from the Oestroidae superfamily,  and the sub order Brachycera. Among the parasitoids, the micro-wasp  Copidosoma sp. (Encyrtidae), is a  polyembrionic egg parasitoid that  mummifies moth larvae before they reach  the pupal stage. From mummified larvae,  between 28 to 33 micro-wasps can  emerge. The rest of the wasps are larvo-pupal  endoparasitoids. They infect their host  (quinoa moth larvae) in the early larval  stages, but the effect can only be observed  when they kill the host in the pupal stage.  Biologically this parasitism strategy is  known as koinobiont. There is another  strategy called idiobiont parasitism that  occurs in species that permanently  paralyze their hosts, preventing them to  continue their development after being  parasitized.  This is a desirable feature for  parasitoids that are meant to be used in  biological control programs. In this study  no parasitoids with these characteristics  were found.    Parasitized larvae  Collected larvae      Parasitism (%) =  x 100   Table 1 shows the percentage of natural  parasitism recorded in the different  communities of the Northern, Central and  Southern Altiplano. Overall, the average  percentage of natural parasitism was  higher than 28%, with the communities of  the Central Altiplano (Viscachani,    Contorno Arriba and Cañaviri) recording  the highest percentages of parasitism,  with values above 40%, in comparison to  Colcha K, Vinto and Julaca (Southern  Altiplano), where the lowest percentages  of parasitism were observed, with values  below 5%. The rest of the communities:   Lacaya, Calpaya, Crucero Belén,  Contorno Centro and Villa Manquiri (the  first from the Northern Altiplano and the  rest from the Central Altiplano), recorded  natural parasitism of E. quinoae  fluctuating between 27% and 38%. The  average of 28% of parasitism is a value  that comes close to the efficiency levels of  control for this pest, which is obtained by  using botanical extracts and/or some  bioinsecticides available in local markets.  This shows the important role that these  parasitoids play in the natural regulation  of E. quinoae. Natural parasitism percentages recorded  in each of the communities was the  product of a joint action of a complex of  two to six parasitoids, regulating the larval  population of E. quinoae at different  levels (Annex 1). According to Table 1,  the parasitoids that contributed most to the  regulation of quinoa moth larvae in the  twelve communities are Cotesia sp. and  Meteorus sp., recording average  parasitism above 6%. In contrast, the  micro-wasp  Copidosoma sp. was the   species that contributed least to the  control of E. quinoae (1.2%). The communities that are characterized by  greater diversity of parasitoids are  Viscachani, Contorno Centro and Lacaya,  the first two located in the Central  Altiplano and the last in the Northern  Altiplano, recording a total of six  parasitoids. The communities Colcha K,  Vinto and Julaca in the Southern  Altiplano, recorded two and three  parasitoids (Table 1). Depending on the abundance of  parasitoids (Table 1) two groups can be  clearly observed. The first formed by the  communities of Central and Northern  Altiplano, where Viscachani and    Contorno Centro stand out with the largest  number of parasitoids. The second group  consists of the communities in the  Southern Altiplano with low amounts of  these biological control agents. The  differences can be explained by the  characteristics of agricultural production  in each of these areas, in addition to the  floristic composition of weeds and native  plants registered and distributed in these  areas. The distribution and relative importance  of the six parasitoids identified was highly  variable. Nevertheless, there clearly is one  species found in all locations: the  Tachinido  Phytomiptera sp. which   showed an average frequency of 5.3%,  being the most abundant parasitoid in  Cañaviri (14.3%) and the second most  abundant in Colquencha (11%). In this  regard, Stireman et al. (2009) state that  flies belonging to the Tachinidae family  are diverse and are important natural  enemies of many pests. All known species  of this family are parasitoids of  arthropods, mainly of lepidopteran larvae,  the taxonomic group to which E. quinoae  belongs to. The percentages of parasitism recorded in  this work are lower than those reported by  Mamani (1998) and PROINPA (2013),  who indicate that populations of quinoa  moth larvae in the Central Altiplano have  natural parasitism ranging between 43%  and 65%.   Conclusions   •   the sampled communities is being  regulated by a complex of six  parasitoids: five wasps (Hymenoptera)  and one fly (Diptera). Among the    wasps, the species registered were:  Cotesia sp. (Braconidae), Meteorus sp.  (Braconidae),  Deleboea sp.   (Ichneumonidae), Venturia sp.  (Ichneumonidae) and Copidosoma sp.  (Encyrtidae), and the fly was identified  as Phytomiptera sp. (Tachinidae).  • average of   parasitism was 28% in the twelve  communities, standing out Viscachani  with 44.7% of parasitism on average.  •  Cotesia sp. and Meteorus   sp. were the species with higher levels  of parasitism recorded in communities  of the Northern, Central and Southern  Altiplano.  • natural   percentages recorded in E. quinoae  larvae, in quinoa producing  communities of the Bolivian  Altiplano, show the need to implement  integrated pest management practices  that conserve and increase beneficial  organisms in these agroecosystems.  •   partial perspective of the natural  parasitism on  E. quinoae, as the   sampling period covered a limited time  span. Additionally, only parasitism on  the larval stage of one agricultural  campaign was studied. The possibility  of sampling new parasitoids in the  same places and at different times,  with the same or other collection  methods, is not ruled out.  • the of   elements that influence their control  capability are the effects of climate  change and environmental variability.  Insect pest species are able to respond  quickly to environmental changes.  However, the effect that this response    has on the populations of natural  enemies (parasitoids and predators) is  still unknown. This is an aspect to be  considered when thinking about  implementing biological control  programs.  • of limitations the of   parasitoids (directed releases) in  biological control programs is the  maintenance of massive rearing in the  laboratory. For this purpose, the first  step is to develop mass host (E.  quinoae) rearing and to generate  information on the biology and  reproduction of its parasitoids, to later  have available a tool of natural  biological control.   Cited references   Altieri, A., Nicholls, C. 2010. Diseños   agroecológicos para incrementar la  biodiversidad de entomofauna benéfica  en agroecosistemas. SOCLA. Medellín,  Colombia. 83 p.  Avalos, F. 1996. Identificación y dinámica   poblacional de la polilla de la quinua  Eurysacca melanocampta. Thesis for the  degree of Agricultural Engeneer. Faculty  of Agriculture, UMSA. 121 p.  Costa, F., Yabar, E., Gianoli, E. 2009.   Parasitismo sobre  Eurysacca   melanocampta Meyrick (Lepidoptera:  Gelechiidae) en dos localidades de  Cuzco, Perú. In.  Rev. Fac. Nal. Agr. de  Medellín,  Vol. 62, n. 1. , Medellin,  Colombia. Available at:  http://www.scielo.org.co/scielo.php?script =sci_arttext&pid=S0304-2847200900010 0008&lng=en&nrm=iso>. Retrieved May  23, 2014  Fernández, F., Sharkey, M. 2006. Sistemática   de los himenópteros de la Región  Neotropical: Estado del conocimiento y  perspectivas. In: Introducción a los  Hymenóptera de la Región Neotropical.  Fernández, F. y M. J. Sharkey (Eds.).    Sociedad Colombiana de Entomología y  Universidad Nacional de Colombia,  Bogotá, Colombia. pp. 7-35.  Gauld, I. 1991. The Ichneumonidae of Costa   Rica. 1 Introduction, keys to subfamilies,  and keys to the species of the lower  pimpliform subfamilies: Rhyssinae,  Pimplinae, Poemeniinae, Acaenitinae  and Cylloceriinae. The American  Entomological Institute. Florida, EEUU.  589 p.  IBTA, 1997. Instituto Boliviano de Tecnología   Agropecuaria. Annual Report,  1996-1997. Programa Quinua, IBTA. La  Paz, Bolivia. 185 p.  Mamani, D. 1998. Control biológico en forma   natural de la polilla de la quinua  (Eurysacca melanocampta Meyrick) por  parasitoides y perspectivas de cría para  su manipulación en el Altiplano Central.  Thesis for the degree of Agricultural  Engeneer. Faculty of Agriculture, UMSA.  La Paz, Bolivia. pp. 90-91.  PROINPA, 2003. Fundación para la   Promoción e Investigación de Productos  Andinos. Project Report: Desarrollo y  validación participativa de las  innovaciones tecnológicas que mejoren  las estrategias para manejo sostenible de  la quinua. The McKnight Foundation. La  Paz, Bolivia. 127 p.  PROINPA, 2013. Fundación para la   Promoción e Investigación de Productos  Andinos. Annual Report 2009-2010:  Proyecto Desarrollo y validación    participativa de las innovaciones  tecnológicas que mejoren las estrategias  para manejo sostenible del sistema  centrado en quinua en el Altiplano  boliviano. The McKnight Foundation. La  Paz, Bolivia. 145 p.  Saravia, R., Quispe, R. 2006. Manejo   integrado de las plagas insectiles del  cultivo de la quinua. In: Module 2: Manejo  agronómico de la quinua orgánica.  Fundación PROINPA. pp. 53-86.  Saravia, R., Quispe, R. 2003. Ciclo biológico   de la polilla de la quinua Eurysacca  melanocampta Meyrick. Technical Listing   No.6. PROINPA Foundation.  Cochabamba, Bolivia. 4 p.  Saravia, R., Mamani, A., Bonifacio, A., Alcon,   M. 2008. Diagnóstico de los enemigos  naturales de las plagas del cultivo de  quinua. PROINPA Foundation. Annual  Report 2008-2009. Rubro Granos  Altoandinos. Cochabamba, Bolivia, 215  p.  Sharkey, M. 2006. Two new genera of   Agathidinae (Hymenoptera: Braconidae)  with a key to the genera of the New  World. Zootaxa: 1185: 37-51.  Van Driesche, R., Hoddle, M., Center, D. 2007.   Control de plagas y malezas por  enemigos naturales. USDA. Translated  by E. Ruiz and J. Coronada. Universidad  de Tamaulipas. Cd. Victoria, México. 796  p.      ISSN 1998 - 9652   Area:Technology Development 40   a) Adult and cocon of Cotesia sp.  (Braconidae)  b) Adult and cocon of Meteorus sp.  (Braconidae)  c) Adult and cocon of Venturia sp. (Ichneumonidae)  d) Adult and cocon of Deleboea sp.  (Ichneumonidae)  e) Adult and mummified larvae of  Copidosoma sp. (Encyrtidae)   f) Adult and puparium of Phytomiptera sp. (Tachinidae)   Introduction   Quinoa has evolved in the Andes. It was  domesticated by men and women from  civilizations like the Tiwanaku and the  Inca. Until the early eighties, the Andean  people cultivated quinoa due to their  advantages in adaptation to altitudes  between 2800 to 4000 m.a.s.l., and  semi-arid climates, and for its nutritional  benefits. The main product of the quinoa plant is  the grain, highly appreciated for the  preparation of traditional dishes in a way    somewhat similar to rice.  The leaves can  also be eaten fresh and, by products from  harvesting and threshing are destined for  animal feed (llamas). Quinoa comprises a wide diversity of  native varieties adapted to specific areas  of the Central, Northern and Southern  Altiplano, and valleys. In the highlands,  quinoa is the main food crop for the  inhabitants of this area. In the Southern  Altiplano, quinoa is the only crop that  thrives acceptably, this is why researchers  describe the production system as a  quinoa monoculture.   With the discovery of its nutritional  properties and its promotion, quinoa has  become an important export product and  an important source of income generation. Currently, quinoa is a product with high  demand in the market, with encouraging  prices for producers, processors and  traders, creating an important economic  activity for the country. The demand and high prices of quinoa  have stimulated the expansion of acreage,  covering new areas of production. This  expansion involves changes in the  production process and new technological  needs on several fronts: management of  pests and diseases, plant nutrition, seed  varieties and agronomic management. Climate change, in turn, has led to  changes in rainfall and new technological  demands, such as earlier varieties. On the  other hand the market demands various  colors of quinoa and more suitable  varieties for industrial processing. In this context, PROINPA has undertaken  the development of a new generation of  varieties focused on the following  priorities: • large varieties the   Southern Altiplano, necessary for late  planting, for re planting in case of  drought losses or seedlings buried by  strong winds, and for their shorter time  to harvest.  • large varieties   mildew resistance for the Central  Altiplano.  • resistant for   Northern Altiplano and valleys.   • (with and   (saponin free) varieties for specific  market demands and, for local and  family consumption of quinoa.  These  varieties have the advantage of  facilitating grain processing.  • for (flour   flakes) and for nutritional objectives  (nutraceuticals).  • all varieties for   mechanical harvesting are also sought,  mainly due to their drive towards  competitive, sustainable and resilient  production in the occurrence of  adverse climate change phenomena.   Results and discussion   With the application of classical breeding  methods, a number of varieties with  common and differential characteristics  have been generated. Common characteristics relate to  performance, size and color of grain. The  differential characteristics refer to  adaptation to different agro-ecological  zones, earliness, resistance to mildew,  bitter or sweet quinoa, industrial quality  among others. Large grain varieties are directed to the  use of quinoa in ways similar to rice  (pearled quinoa), ie. for cooking in soups  and boiled grain.   For this purposes grain  may be preferably white, but also red and  black in color. Most ecotypes of Royal  Quinoa are suitable for pearled quinoa  (Bonifacio et al., 2012). The research on  industrial quality of these varieties is in  progress.  Adapting varieties implies an analysis of  options in terms of producing them in  different ecoregions such as the Southern,  Central, and Northern Altiplano, Valleys  and Sub Tropics. The precocity is a character that enables  the management of adverse environmental  factors through the following  mechanisms:  1) avoid frost through a shorter   production cycle.  2) possibility of delayed planting   caused by lack of moisture in the  planting season.  3)  prevent losses and enable replanting   in case of: seedlings buried by winds  in sandy soils, clay soils crusting,  seedling loss by frost or drought.  Mildew resistance is a key component to  produce organic quinoa in areas outside  the Southern Altiplano. Quinoa is  susceptible to disease under conditions of  high relative humidity and soil moisture  (Bonifacio, 2006) and susceptible  varieties (Utusaya) can register a severity  of 100% (Danielsen and Ames, 2000).  Therefore resistance to mildew is essential  to produce quinoa in areas of high relative  humidity, to reduce the use of fungicides  for disease control, reduce production  costs and promote grain filling. The bitter and sweet varieties have not  received differentiation until now.  Bitter  quinoa is produced, processed and sold in  greater proportion. However, given the  volumes of water that are used (not  recycled) to remove the saponin, the  difficulties of eliminating foamy water  and, the increased energy expenditure    (scarifying, washing and drying); the  interest in sweet quinoa is reemerging. This sweet quinoa, although it has its  limitations due to the preferences of a  couple of bird species, requires less time  for scarifying and/or washing; therefore it  produces less loses during processing.  It  does not generate foamy water and  pearled grain does not have the strong,  pungent odor that bitter varieties have.  Due to these qualities of sweet quinoa, it  becomes an alternative for production  areas in the Central and Northern  Altiplano, as well as for lines of grain  processing and transformation. Therefore  sweet varieties generated three decades  ago are currently subject of differentiated  demand.  Industrial quality refers to the physical  and chemical properties of specific grain  varieties. In that sense, the varieties for  flour, flakes, and for pasta among other  uses and varietal differentiation, require  the appropriate quality for each process.  Varieties with industrial quality give more    relevance to the criteria of varietal purity  and homogeneity, so often promoted by  instances of variety registration and seed  certification. According to Bodoin (2009), demand and  use of quinoa certified seed is very low  compared to the volume of local seed used  for commercial production, and for  cultivar expansion. Table 1 lists the varieties generated by  PROINPA, their adaptation, production    cycle, grain characteristics and potential  uses, and shows the varieties’  recommendation domains. This  information can be used in the context of a  risk management quinoa production  strategy, taking into account the effects of  climate change, disease prevalence  (mildew) and, the demands of producers  and the market (with and without saponin,  industrial quality, etc.).    Challenges   Today, consumers are looking for  information about the quality of the  products they consume (protein content,  protein quality, gluten-free); it is for that  reason that quinoa has a high international  demand. The challenge, for the Bolivian quinoa to  be more competitive in the international  market, is to research its nutraceutical  properties such as antioxidant content,  iron and zinc, etc., and incorporate such  features in new varieties. The growing quinoa production areas,  lead to a search for technology of easy  application over large areas. This is the  case of cropping areas that are  progressively using more combined  harvesters. Therefore, the demand for  genetic improvement seeks the  development of new varieties with plant  architecture suitable for mechanization  (uniform size and uniform maturity). The actors in the quinoa value chain that  are in the processing link, need to be  informed about the qualities of the new  varieties, in terms of protein content,  amylopectin, antioxidants, etc., in order to  specialize the use of varieties.  This would  give way to processed products with  better quality and identity, since they  would not be processed with varietal  mixtures, as it is currently done. Finally, to achieve extensive use of  varieties, it is necessary that actors  specialized in the industry become  involved in the production of high quality  seed. This would allow producers,  associations and companies in the quinoa  value chain to have constant availability    and access to these varieties, meeting the  standards required by the corresponding  authorities. Currently, the vast majority of  producers, uses farmers' own and local  seed, even for use on cultivar expansion  (Bodoin, 2009).   Participating institutions   •  •  • (Proyecto Inno   vación. Estratégica Nacional - Minis  terio de Desarrollo Rural Agropecua  rio y Medio Ambiente).  National  Estrategic Innovation Project –  Ministry of Rural Development,  Agriculture and Environment.  •  • (Universidad de   Andrés).    •  • (Proyecto Resis-   tencia Duradera para la Zona Andina -  Universidad de Wageningen). Project  of Lasting Resistance for the Andean  Region - Wageningen University.   Cited references   Bodoin, A. 2009. Evaluación y perspectivas del   mercado de semilla certificadas de quinua  en la región del Salar de Uyuni en el  Altiplano Sur de Bolivia. 2nd Year  Internship Thesis. Agroparis Tech. Paris,  France. 35 p.  Bonifacio, A., Vargas, A., Aroni, G. 2003.   Variedad de quinua Jach’a Grano.  PROINPA Foundation. Technical Listing  No 6. Cochabamba, Bolivia.   Bonifacio, A., Vargas, A. 2005. Variedad de   Quinua Kurmi. PROINPA Foundation -  The McKnight Foundation - MACA.  Tchnical Listing No. 12.  Bonifacio, A., Vargas, A., Rojas, J. (n/y).   Variedad de Quinua Kurmi. PROINPA  Foundation - The McKnight Foundation -  MACA. Technical Listing No. P/FTE/81.  Bonifacio, A., Vargas, A., Aroni, G., Quispe, R.   (n/y). Variedad de Quinua Horizontes.  PROINPA Foundation- MDRAyMA.  Technical Listing No. P/FTE/79.  Bonifacio, A. 2006. El futuro de los productos   andinos en la región alta y los valles  centrales de los Andes. Granos en el área    altoandina de Bolivia, Ecuador y Perú.  ONUDI, Subdivisión de Promoción de  Inversión y Tecnología. On Line.    Available at: http://quinua.pe   Retrieved on June 6, 2014. Bonifacio, A., Aroni, G., Villca, M. 2012.   Catálogo etnobotánico de la Quinua Real.  PROINPA Foundation. Cochabamba,  Bolivia. 123 p.  Danielsen, S., Ames, T. 2000. El mildiu   (Peronospora farinosa) de la quinua   (Chenopodium quinoa) en la zona andina.   CIP-KVL. Lima, Perú. 32 p.   Introduction   The quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd)  crop in the Bolivian Altiplano is attacked  by several species of pest insects. One of  these species is the quinoa moth or "qhona  qhona" Eurysacca quinoae Povolny 1997  (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae), listed as a key  pest of the crop (Avalos 1996) because it  causes losses of over 30% and  significantly reduces grain quality  (Saravia and Quispe, 2003; PROINPA,  2013). The first reports on parasitoid insects of  quinoa moths were registered in  Patacamaya in 1997, by the Quinoa  Programme from the ex - IBTA (IBTA,  1997). Later, specific pieces of work were  performed in some communities of the  Central and Southern Altiplano (Mamani,  1998, PROINPA 2003; PROINPA 2013). As a result of these studies it is known that  the percentage of natural parasitism in  larvae of Eurysacca quinoae reaches up to   40% and, that the parasitoid complex  consists of nine species.  Out of these nine  species, seven belong to the order  Hymenoptera from the families  Braconidae (Meteorus  sp., Apanteles sp.,   Microplitis sp.), Ichneumonidae  (Deleboea sp., Venturia sp., Diadegma  sp.) and Encyrtidae (Copidosoma  sp.),   and two belong to the order Diptera from  the families Tachinidae (Phytomiptera sp.  and  Dolichostoma sp.) (IBTA 1997;   Mamani 1998, and Saravia Quispe 2006;  Saravia et al., 2008;. PROINPA 2013). A parasitoid is understood as every insect,  which in the larval stage is parasitic of  other arthropod (host), while in the adult  phase it lives freely to breed and seek its  host.   Unlike the parasite, the parasitoid in most  cases ends up killing the host (Van  Driessche et al., 2007). The diversity of predators and parasitoids  of a given pest species is related to the  diversity of flowering plants associated to  a cultivar.  The nectar and pollen of these  flowers are important additional food  sources necessary for multiplication  (Altieri and Nicholls, 2010). Areas of quinoa production in the country  are located in three ecoregions: Northern,  Central and Southern Altiplano, these  differ mainly by the rainfall regime, the  quality of soils and crops produced.  The  Southern Altiplano is the driest region  (150-300 mm/year), with sandy soils and  low fertility where the main crop is the  Royal Quinoa. The Northern Altiplano  has higher rainfall (500 mm/year), soils  are more productive and crops produced  include potatoes, quinoa, barley, broad  beans among others. The Central  Altiplano presents intermediate weather  and soil conditions, relating to both  Northern and Southern Altiplano. Given the background mentioned and in  order to update information on the  parasitoids associated with the quinoa  moth, the present study was carried out in  three ecoregions of the Altiplano. The  objective was to identify the parasitoids  and determine natural parasitism on larvae   of  E. quinoae in quinoa plots of the   Bolivian Altiplano.   Materials and methods   Location. The work was implemented in  twelve quinoa producing communities of  the Altiplano, one from the Northern  Altiplano (Lacaya), eight from the Central    Altiplano (Contorno Centro, Contorno  Arriba, Cañaviri, Villa Manquiri,  Colquencha, Viscachani, Calpaya and  Crucero Belen) and three in the Southern  Altiplano (Colcha K, Vinto and Julaca)  (Figure 1). E. quinoae sampling and larval rearing.  The collection of larvae in the quinoa  plots of different communities was  conducted between February and March  2013, period of highest incidence of the  pest. This process was performed using the  method of "Entomological mantle", which  consists of a canvas of 1 m x 1 m stretched  at the base of the plant, then a careful    shaking of the the panicle to produce the  downfall of larvae on the canvas. Larvae  obtained were placed in 200 ml sized  plastic containers enclosing paper towels  at the base, and quinoa leaves and  branches as food for the larvae. These containers were placed in  Styrofoam carriers that were carried to the  Entomology Laboratory of PROINPA  Foundation in Quipaquipani Center  (Viacha-La Paz).  At the laboratory larvae  were selected by size, and placed in  specific quantities, in containers, to  continue their rearing until they reached  the phases of adult moths or parasitoids.   Percentage of natural parasitism and  taxonomic identification. To calculate the  percentage of natural parasitism by  species and community, the following  formula was used: The identification of parasitoids was made  by comparison and using taxonomic keys.  For identification by comparison,  representative specimens of these  biological controllers were mounted, and  compared to specimens described by  Mamani (1998), Saravia and Quispe  (2006) and Costa et al. (2009). In some cases the identification was  confirmed using taxonomic keys provided  by Sharkey (2006) for Braconidae, and  Gauld (1991) for Ichneumonidae, both  corresponding to the Neotropical region. In parallel specimens of interest were sent  to specialized centers (USDA) for  identification.   Results and discussion    Parasitoid complex associated with  larvae of E. quinoae   The parasitoid complex that is regulating  the population of E. quinoae in quinoa  plots located in the Bolivian Altiplano, is  composed of six species (Table 1, Figure  2). Of these six species, five correspond to  the order Hymenoptera and one to  Diptera. Among the wasps, all belong to the sub  order Apocrita, characterized by having  the first abdominal segment together with    the metathorax and separated from the rest  of the abdominal segments with a narrow  waist (Fernandez and Sharkey, 2006).  These wasps are grouped into two  superfamilies: • (medium large   wasps).   •  Cotesia sp. and Meteorus sp. correspond  to the Braconidae family; Venturia sp. and  Deleboea  sp. to Ichneumonidae, and   Copidosoma  sp. to Encyrtidae   (Chalcidoidea). The only Diptera species  Phytomiptera sp. belongs to the Tachinid  family, from the Oestroidae superfamily,  and the sub order Brachycera. Among the parasitoids, the micro-wasp  Copidosoma sp. (Encyrtidae), is a  polyembrionic egg parasitoid that  mummifies moth larvae before they reach  the pupal stage. From mummified larvae,  between 28 to 33 micro-wasps can  emerge. The rest of the wasps are larvo-pupal  endoparasitoids. They infect their host  (quinoa moth larvae) in the early larval  stages, but the effect can only be observed  when they kill the host in the pupal stage.  Biologically this parasitism strategy is  known as koinobiont. There is another  strategy called idiobiont parasitism that  occurs in species that permanently  paralyze their hosts, preventing them to  continue their development after being  parasitized.  This is a desirable feature for  parasitoids that are meant to be used in  biological control programs. In this study  no parasitoids with these characteristics  were found.   Table 1 shows the percentage of natural  parasitism recorded in the different  communities of the Northern, Central and  Southern Altiplano. Overall, the average  percentage of natural parasitism was  higher than 28%, with the communities of  the Central Altiplano (Viscachani,    Contorno Arriba and Cañaviri) recording  the highest percentages of parasitism,  with values above 40%, in comparison to  Colcha K, Vinto and Julaca (Southern  Altiplano), where the lowest percentages  of parasitism were observed, with values  below 5%. The rest of the communities:    Lacaya, Calpaya, Crucero Belén,  Contorno Centro and Villa Manquiri (the  first from the Northern Altiplano and the  rest from the Central Altiplano), recorded  natural parasitism of E. quinoae  fluctuating between 27% and 38%. The  average of 28% of parasitism is a value  that comes close to the efficiency levels of  control for this pest, which is obtained by  using botanical extracts and/or some  bioinsecticides available in local markets.  This shows the important role that these  parasitoids play in the natural regulation  of E. quinoae. Natural parasitism percentages recorded  in each of the communities was the  product of a joint action of a complex of  two to six parasitoids, regulating the larval  population of E. quinoae at different  levels (Annex 1). According to Table 1,  the parasitoids that contributed most to the  regulation of quinoa moth larvae in the  twelve communities are Cotesia sp. and  Meteorus sp., recording average  parasitism above 6%. In contrast, the  micro-wasp  Copidosoma sp. was the   species that contributed least to the  control of E. quinoae (1.2%). The communities that are characterized by  greater diversity of parasitoids are  Viscachani, Contorno Centro and Lacaya,  the first two located in the Central  Altiplano and the last in the Northern  Altiplano, recording a total of six  parasitoids. The communities Colcha K,  Vinto and Julaca in the Southern  Altiplano, recorded two and three  parasitoids (Table 1). Depending on the abundance of  parasitoids (Table 1) two groups can be  clearly observed. The first formed by the  communities of Central and Northern  Altiplano, where Viscachani and    Contorno Centro stand out with the largest  number of parasitoids. The second group  consists of the communities in the  Southern Altiplano with low amounts of  these biological control agents. The  differences can be explained by the  characteristics of agricultural production  in each of these areas, in addition to the  floristic composition of weeds and native  plants registered and distributed in these  areas. The distribution and relative importance  of the six parasitoids identified was highly  variable. Nevertheless, there clearly is one  species found in all locations: the  Tachinido  Phytomiptera sp. which   showed an average frequency of 5.3%,  being the most abundant parasitoid in  Cañaviri (14.3%) and the second most  abundant in Colquencha (11%). In this  regard, Stireman et al. (2009) state that  flies belonging to the Tachinidae family  are diverse and are important natural  enemies of many pests. All known species  of this family are parasitoids of  arthropods, mainly of lepidopteran larvae,  the taxonomic group to which E. quinoae  belongs to. The percentages of parasitism recorded in  this work are lower than those reported by  Mamani (1998) and PROINPA (2013),  who indicate that populations of quinoa  moth larvae in the Central Altiplano have  natural parasitism ranging between 43%  and 65%.   Conclusions   •   the sampled communities is being  regulated by a complex of six  parasitoids: five wasps (Hymenoptera)  and one fly (Diptera). Among the    wasps, the species registered were:  Cotesia sp. (Braconidae), Meteorus sp.  (Braconidae),  Deleboea sp.   (Ichneumonidae), Venturia sp.  (Ichneumonidae) and Copidosoma sp.  (Encyrtidae), and the fly was identified  as Phytomiptera sp. (Tachinidae).  • average of   parasitism was 28% in the twelve  communities, standing out Viscachani  with 44.7% of parasitism on average.  •  Cotesia sp. and Meteorus   sp. were the species with higher levels  of parasitism recorded in communities  of the Northern, Central and Southern  Altiplano.  • natural   percentages recorded in E. quinoae  larvae, in quinoa producing  communities of the Bolivian  Altiplano, show the need to implement  integrated pest management practices  that conserve and increase beneficial  organisms in these agroecosystems.  •   partial perspective of the natural  parasitism on  E. quinoae, as the   sampling period covered a limited time  span. Additionally, only parasitism on  the larval stage of one agricultural  campaign was studied. The possibility  of sampling new parasitoids in the  same places and at different times,  with the same or other collection  methods, is not ruled out.  • the of   elements that influence their control  capability are the effects of climate  change and environmental variability.  Insect pest species are able to respond  quickly to environmental changes.  However, the effect that this response    has on the populations of natural  enemies (parasitoids and predators) is  still unknown. This is an aspect to be  considered when thinking about  implementing biological control  programs.  • of limitations the of   parasitoids (directed releases) in  biological control programs is the  maintenance of massive rearing in the  laboratory. For this purpose, the first  step is to develop mass host (E.  quinoae) rearing and to generate  information on the biology and  reproduction of its parasitoids, to later  have available a tool of natural  biological control.   Cited references   Altieri, A., Nicholls, C. 2010. Diseños   agroecológicos para incrementar la  biodiversidad de entomofauna benéfica  en agroecosistemas. SOCLA. Medellín,  Colombia. 83 p.  Avalos, F. 1996. Identificación y dinámica   poblacional de la polilla de la quinua  Eurysacca melanocampta. Thesis for the  degree of Agricultural Engeneer. Faculty  of Agriculture, UMSA. 121 p.  Costa, F., Yabar, E., Gianoli, E. 2009.   Parasitismo sobre  Eurysacca   melanocampta Meyrick (Lepidoptera:  Gelechiidae) en dos localidades de  Cuzco, Perú. In.  Rev. Fac. Nal. Agr. de  Medellín,  Vol. 62, n. 1. , Medellin,  Colombia. Available at:  http://www.scielo.org.co/scielo.php?script =sci_arttext&pid=S0304-2847200900010 0008&lng=en&nrm=iso>. Retrieved May  23, 2014  Fernández, F., Sharkey, M. 2006. Sistemática   de los himenópteros de la Región  Neotropical: Estado del conocimiento y  perspectivas. In: Introducción a los  Hymenóptera de la Región Neotropical.  Fernández, F. y M. J. Sharkey (Eds.).    Sociedad Colombiana de Entomología y  Universidad Nacional de Colombia,  Bogotá, Colombia. pp. 7-35.  Gauld, I. 1991. The Ichneumonidae of Costa   Rica. 1 Introduction, keys to subfamilies,  and keys to the species of the lower  pimpliform subfamilies: Rhyssinae,  Pimplinae, Poemeniinae, Acaenitinae  and Cylloceriinae. The American  Entomological Institute. Florida, EEUU.  589 p.  IBTA, 1997. Instituto Boliviano de Tecnología   Agropecuaria. Annual Report,  1996-1997. Programa Quinua, IBTA. La  Paz, Bolivia. 185 p.  Mamani, D. 1998. Control biológico en forma   natural de la polilla de la quinua  (Eurysacca melanocampta Meyrick) por  parasitoides y perspectivas de cría para  su manipulación en el Altiplano Central.  Thesis for the degree of Agricultural  Engeneer. Faculty of Agriculture, UMSA.  La Paz, Bolivia. pp. 90-91.  PROINPA, 2003. Fundación para la   Promoción e Investigación de Productos  Andinos. Project Report: Desarrollo y  validación participativa de las  innovaciones tecnológicas que mejoren  las estrategias para manejo sostenible de  la quinua. The McKnight Foundation. La  Paz, Bolivia. 127 p.  PROINPA, 2013. Fundación para la   Promoción e Investigación de Productos  Andinos. Annual Report 2009-2010:  Proyecto Desarrollo y validación    participativa de las innovaciones  tecnológicas que mejoren las estrategias  para manejo sostenible del sistema  centrado en quinua en el Altiplano  boliviano. The McKnight Foundation. La  Paz, Bolivia. 145 p.  Saravia, R., Quispe, R. 2006. Manejo   integrado de las plagas insectiles del  cultivo de la quinua. In: Module 2: Manejo  agronómico de la quinua orgánica.  Fundación PROINPA. pp. 53-86.  Saravia, R., Quispe, R. 2003. Ciclo biológico   de la polilla de la quinua Eurysacca  melanocampta Meyrick. Technical Listing   No.6. PROINPA Foundation.  Cochabamba, Bolivia. 4 p.  Saravia, R., Mamani, A., Bonifacio, A., Alcon,   M. 2008. Diagnóstico de los enemigos  naturales de las plagas del cultivo de  quinua. PROINPA Foundation. Annual  Report 2008-2009. Rubro Granos  Altoandinos. Cochabamba, Bolivia, 215  p.  Sharkey, M. 2006. Two new genera of   Agathidinae (Hymenoptera: Braconidae)  with a key to the genera of the New  World. Zootaxa: 1185: 37-51.  Van Driesche, R., Hoddle, M., Center, D. 2007.   Control de plagas y malezas por  enemigos naturales. USDA. Translated  by E. Ruiz and J. Coronada. Universidad  de Tamaulipas. Cd. Victoria, México. 796  p.      Revista de Agricultura, Nro. 54 - Julio de 2014   Area: Technology Development 41   Introduction   The quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd)  crop in the Bolivian Altiplano is attacked  by several species of pest insects. One of  these species is the quinoa moth or "qhona  qhona" Eurysacca quinoae Povolny 1997  (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae), listed as a key  pest of the crop (Avalos 1996) because it  causes losses of over 30% and  significantly reduces grain quality  (Saravia and Quispe, 2003; PROINPA,  2013). The first reports on parasitoid insects of  quinoa moths were registered in  Patacamaya in 1997, by the Quinoa  Programme from the ex - IBTA (IBTA,  1997). Later, specific pieces of work were  performed in some communities of the  Central and Southern Altiplano (Mamani,  1998, PROINPA 2003; PROINPA 2013). As a result of these studies it is known that  the percentage of natural parasitism in  larvae of Eurysacca quinoae reaches up to   40% and, that the parasitoid complex  consists of nine species.  Out of these nine  species, seven belong to the order  Hymenoptera from the families  Braconidae (Meteorus  sp., Apanteles sp.,   Microplitis sp.), Ichneumonidae  (Deleboea sp., Venturia sp., Diadegma  sp.) and Encyrtidae (Copidosoma  sp.),   and two belong to the order Diptera from  the families Tachinidae (Phytomiptera sp.  and  Dolichostoma sp.) (IBTA 1997;   Mamani 1998, and Saravia Quispe 2006;  Saravia et al., 2008;. PROINPA 2013). A parasitoid is understood as every insect,  which in the larval stage is parasitic of  other arthropod (host), while in the adult  phase it lives freely to breed and seek its  host.   Unlike the parasite, the parasitoid in most  cases ends up killing the host (Van  Driessche et al., 2007). The diversity of predators and parasitoids  of a given pest species is related to the  diversity of flowering plants associated to  a cultivar.  The nectar and pollen of these  flowers are important additional food  sources necessary for multiplication  (Altieri and Nicholls, 2010). Areas of quinoa production in the country  are located in three ecoregions: Northern,  Central and Southern Altiplano, these  differ mainly by the rainfall regime, the  quality of soils and crops produced.  The  Southern Altiplano is the driest region  (150-300 mm/year), with sandy soils and  low fertility where the main crop is the  Royal Quinoa. The Northern Altiplano  has higher rainfall (500 mm/year), soils  are more productive and crops produced  include potatoes, quinoa, barley, broad  beans among others. The Central  Altiplano presents intermediate weather  and soil conditions, relating to both  Northern and Southern Altiplano. Given the background mentioned and in  order to update information on the  parasitoids associated with the quinoa  moth, the present study was carried out in  three ecoregions of the Altiplano. The  objective was to identify the parasitoids  and determine natural parasitism on larvae  of  E. quinoae in quinoa plots of the   Bolivian Altiplano.   Materials and methods   Location. The work was implemented in  twelve quinoa producing communities of  the Altiplano, one from the Northern  Altiplano (Lacaya), eight from the Central    Altiplano (Contorno Centro, Contorno  Arriba, Cañaviri, Villa Manquiri,  Colquencha, Viscachani, Calpaya and  Crucero Belen) and three in the Southern  Altiplano (Colcha K, Vinto and Julaca)  (Figure 1). E. quinoae sampling and larval rearing.  The collection of larvae in the quinoa  plots of different communities was  conducted between February and March  2013, period of highest incidence of the  pest. This process was performed using the  method of "Entomological mantle", which  consists of a canvas of 1 m x 1 m stretched  at the base of the plant, then a careful    shaking of the the panicle to produce the  downfall of larvae on the canvas. Larvae  obtained were placed in 200 ml sized  plastic containers enclosing paper towels  at the base, and quinoa leaves and  branches as food for the larvae. These containers were placed in  Styrofoam carriers that were carried to the  Entomology Laboratory of PROINPA  Foundation in Quipaquipani Center  (Viacha-La Paz).  At the laboratory larvae  were selected by size, and placed in  specific quantities, in containers, to  continue their rearing until they reached  the phases of adult moths or parasitoids.   Percentage of natural parasitism and  taxonomic identification. To calculate the  percentage of natural parasitism by  species and community, the following  formula was used: The identification of parasitoids was made  by comparison and using taxonomic keys.  For identification by comparison,  representative specimens of these  biological controllers were mounted, and  compared to specimens described by  Mamani (1998), Saravia and Quispe  (2006) and Costa et al. (2009). In some cases the identification was  confirmed using taxonomic keys provided  by Sharkey (2006) for Braconidae, and  Gauld (1991) for Ichneumonidae, both  corresponding to the Neotropical region. In parallel specimens of interest were sent  to specialized centers (USDA) for  identification.   Results and discussion    Parasitoid complex associated with  larvae of E. quinoae   The parasitoid complex that is regulating  the population of E. quinoae in quinoa  plots located in the Bolivian Altiplano, is  composed of six species (Table 1, Figure  2). Of these six species, five correspond to  the order Hymenoptera and one to  Diptera. Among the wasps, all belong to the sub  order Apocrita, characterized by having  the first abdominal segment together with    the metathorax and separated from the rest  of the abdominal segments with a narrow  waist (Fernandez and Sharkey, 2006).  These wasps are grouped into two  superfamilies: • (medium large   wasps).   •  Cotesia sp. and Meteorus sp. correspond  to the Braconidae family; Venturia sp. and  Deleboea  sp. to Ichneumonidae, and   Copidosoma  sp. to Encyrtidae   (Chalcidoidea). The only Diptera species  Phytomiptera sp. belongs to the Tachinid  family, from the Oestroidae superfamily,  and the sub order Brachycera. Among the parasitoids, the micro-wasp  Copidosoma sp. (Encyrtidae), is a  polyembrionic egg parasitoid that  mummifies moth larvae before they reach  the pupal stage. From mummified larvae,  between 28 to 33 micro-wasps can  emerge. The rest of the wasps are larvo-pupal  endoparasitoids. They infect their host  (quinoa moth larvae) in the early larval  stages, but the effect can only be observed  when they kill the host in the pupal stage.  Biologically this parasitism strategy is  known as koinobiont. There is another  strategy called idiobiont parasitism that  occurs in species that permanently  paralyze their hosts, preventing them to  continue their development after being  parasitized.  This is a desirable feature for  parasitoids that are meant to be used in  biological control programs. In this study  no parasitoids with these characteristics  were found.   Table 1 shows the percentage of natural  parasitism recorded in the different  communities of the Northern, Central and  Southern Altiplano. Overall, the average  percentage of natural parasitism was  higher than 28%, with the communities of  the Central Altiplano (Viscachani,    Contorno Arriba and Cañaviri) recording  the highest percentages of parasitism,  with values above 40%, in comparison to  Colcha K, Vinto and Julaca (Southern  Altiplano), where the lowest percentages  of parasitism were observed, with values  below 5%. The rest of the communities:    Lacaya, Calpaya, Crucero Belén,  Contorno Centro and Villa Manquiri (the  first from the Northern Altiplano and the  rest from the Central Altiplano), recorded  natural parasitism of E. quinoae  fluctuating between 27% and 38%. The  average of 28% of parasitism is a value  that comes close to the efficiency levels of  control for this pest, which is obtained by  using botanical extracts and/or some  bioinsecticides available in local markets.  This shows the important role that these  parasitoids play in the natural regulation  of E. quinoae. Natural parasitism percentages recorded  in each of the communities was the  product of a joint action of a complex of  two to six parasitoids, regulating the larval  population of E. quinoae at different  levels (Annex 1). According to Table 1,  the parasitoids that contributed most to the  regulation of quinoa moth larvae in the  twelve communities are Cotesia sp. and  Meteorus sp., recording average  parasitism above 6%. In contrast, the  micro-wasp  Copidosoma sp. was the   species that contributed least to the  control of E. quinoae (1.2%). The communities that are characterized by  greater diversity of parasitoids are  Viscachani, Contorno Centro and Lacaya,  the first two located in the Central  Altiplano and the last in the Northern  Altiplano, recording a total of six  parasitoids. The communities Colcha K,  Vinto and Julaca in the Southern  Altiplano, recorded two and three  parasitoids (Table 1). Depending on the abundance of  parasitoids (Table 1) two groups can be  clearly observed. The first formed by the  communities of Central and Northern  Altiplano, where Viscachani and    Contorno Centro stand out with the largest  number of parasitoids. The second group  consists of the communities in the  Southern Altiplano with low amounts of  these biological control agents. The  differences can be explained by the  characteristics of agricultural production  in each of these areas, in addition to the  floristic composition of weeds and native  plants registered and distributed in these  areas. The distribution and relative importance  of the six parasitoids identified was highly  variable. Nevertheless, there clearly is one  species found in all locations: the  Tachinido  Phytomiptera sp. which   showed an average frequency of 5.3%,  being the most abundant parasitoid in  Cañaviri (14.3%) and the second most  abundant in Colquencha (11%). In this  regard, Stireman et al. (2009) state that  flies belonging to the Tachinidae family  are diverse and are important natural  enemies of many pests. All known species  of this family are parasitoids of  arthropods, mainly of lepidopteran larvae,  the taxonomic group to which E. quinoae  belongs to. The percentages of parasitism recorded in  this work are lower than those reported by  Mamani (1998) and PROINPA (2013),  who indicate that populations of quinoa  moth larvae in the Central Altiplano have  natural parasitism ranging between 43%  and 65%.   Conclusions   •   the sampled communities is being  regulated by a complex of six  parasitoids: five wasps (Hymenoptera)  and one fly (Diptera). Among the    wasps, the species registered were:  Cotesia sp. (Braconidae), Meteorus sp.  (Braconidae),  Deleboea sp.   (Ichneumonidae), Venturia sp.  (Ichneumonidae) and Copidosoma sp.  (Encyrtidae), and the fly was identified  as Phytomiptera sp. (Tachinidae).  • average of   parasitism was 28% in the twelve  communities, standing out Viscachani  with 44.7% of parasitism on average.  •  Cotesia sp. and Meteorus   sp. were the species with higher levels  of parasitism recorded in communities  of the Northern, Central and Southern  Altiplano.  • natural   percentages recorded in E. quinoae  larvae, in quinoa producing  communities of the Bolivian  Altiplano, show the need to implement  integrated pest management practices  that conserve and increase beneficial  organisms in these agroecosystems.  •   partial perspective of the natural  parasitism on  E. quinoae, as the   sampling period covered a limited time  span. Additionally, only parasitism on  the larval stage of one agricultural  campaign was studied. The possibility  of sampling new parasitoids in the  same places and at different times,  with the same or other collection  methods, is not ruled out.  • the of   elements that influence their control  capability are the effects of climate  change and environmental variability.  Insect pest species are able to respond  quickly to environmental changes.  However, the effect that this response    has on the populations of natural  enemies (parasitoids and predators) is  still unknown. This is an aspect to be  considered when thinking about  implementing biological control  programs.  • of limitations the of   parasitoids (directed releases) in  biological control programs is the  maintenance of massive rearing in the  laboratory. For this purpose, the first  step is to develop mass host (E.  quinoae) rearing and to generate  information on the biology and  reproduction of its parasitoids, to later  have available a tool of natural  biological control.   Cited references   Altieri, A., Nicholls, C. 2010. Diseños   agroecológicos para incrementar la  biodiversidad de entomofauna benéfica  en agroecosistemas. SOCLA. Medellín,  Colombia. 83 p.  Avalos, F. 1996. Identificación y dinámica   poblacional de la polilla de la quinua  Eurysacca melanocampta. Thesis for the  degree of Agricultural Engeneer. Faculty  of Agriculture, UMSA. 121 p.  Costa, F., Yabar, E., Gianoli, E. 2009.   Parasitismo sobre  Eurysacca   melanocampta Meyrick (Lepidoptera:  Gelechiidae) en dos localidades de  Cuzco, Perú. In.  Rev. Fac. Nal. Agr. de  Medellín,  Vol. 62, n. 1. , Medellin,  Colombia. Available at:  http://www.scielo.org.co/scielo.php?script =sci_arttext&pid=S0304-2847200900010 0008&lng=en&nrm=iso>. Retrieved May  23, 2014  Fernández, F., Sharkey, M. 2006. Sistemática   de los himenópteros de la Región  Neotropical: Estado del conocimiento y  perspectivas. In: Introducción a los  Hymenóptera de la Región Neotropical.  Fernández, F. y M. J. Sharkey (Eds.).    Sociedad Colombiana de Entomología y  Universidad Nacional de Colombia,  Bogotá, Colombia. pp. 7-35.  Gauld, I. 1991. The Ichneumonidae of Costa   Rica. 1 Introduction, keys to subfamilies,  and keys to the species of the lower  pimpliform subfamilies: Rhyssinae,  Pimplinae, Poemeniinae, Acaenitinae  and Cylloceriinae. The American  Entomological Institute. Florida, EEUU.  589 p.  IBTA, 1997. Instituto Boliviano de Tecnología   Agropecuaria. Annual Report,  1996-1997. Programa Quinua, IBTA. La  Paz, Bolivia. 185 p.  Mamani, D. 1998. Control biológico en forma   natural de la polilla de la quinua  (Eurysacca melanocampta Meyrick) por  parasitoides y perspectivas de cría para  su manipulación en el Altiplano Central.  Thesis for the degree of Agricultural  Engeneer. Faculty of Agriculture, UMSA.  La Paz, Bolivia. pp. 90-91.  PROINPA, 2003. Fundación para la   Promoción e Investigación de Productos  Andinos. Project Report: Desarrollo y  validación participativa de las  innovaciones tecnológicas que mejoren  las estrategias para manejo sostenible de  la quinua. The McKnight Foundation. La  Paz, Bolivia. 127 p.  PROINPA, 2013. Fundación para la   Promoción e Investigación de Productos  Andinos. Annual Report 2009-2010:  Proyecto Desarrollo y validación    participativa de las innovaciones  tecnológicas que mejoren las estrategias  para manejo sostenible del sistema  centrado en quinua en el Altiplano  boliviano. The McKnight Foundation. La  Paz, Bolivia. 145 p.  Saravia, R., Quispe, R. 2006. Manejo   integrado de las plagas insectiles del  cultivo de la quinua. In: Module 2: Manejo  agronómico de la quinua orgánica.  Fundación PROINPA. pp. 53-86.  Saravia, R., Quispe, R. 2003. Ciclo biológico   de la polilla de la quinua Eurysacca  melanocampta Meyrick. Technical Listing   No.6. PROINPA Foundation.  Cochabamba, Bolivia. 4 p.  Saravia, R., Mamani, A., Bonifacio, A., Alcon,   M. 2008. Diagnóstico de los enemigos  naturales de las plagas del cultivo de  quinua. PROINPA Foundation. Annual  Report 2008-2009. Rubro Granos  Altoandinos. Cochabamba, Bolivia, 215  p.  Sharkey, M. 2006. Two new genera of   Agathidinae (Hymenoptera: Braconidae)  with a key to the genera of the New  World. Zootaxa: 1185: 37-51.  Van Driesche, R., Hoddle, M., Center, D. 2007.   Control de plagas y malezas por  enemigos naturales. USDA. Translated  by E. Ruiz and J. Coronada. Universidad  de Tamaulipas. Cd. Victoria, México. 796  p.      In Table 1 it is important to note that the  species identified as H. gelotopoeon, in  2008, was currently identified as  Helicoverpa quinoa by the same author.   This new species was reported as a quinoa  pests based on morphological characters,  genitalia dissection and mitochondrial  analysis. This author suggests that it is  difficult to distinguish between H. quinoa  and H. gelotopoen only by their  morphological differences and that  analysis of genitalia is required. Other  species that have undergone changes in  taxonomy are Heliothis titicaquensis and  Agrotis andina, which were identified as  Helicoverpa titicacae and Agrotis  peruviana according to a morphological  and phylogenetic analysis performed by  Pogue (2014) and San Blas (2014).  Another aspect that stands out is the  inclusion of Copitarsia patagonica in the    2014 list. The other species listed in the  Table maintained their identification.   Geographical distribution of the  identified species    Table 2 shows the list of lepidopteran  pests species associated with the quinoa  crop in the Bolivian Altiplano, detailing  the family to which they belong, the  method of collection, the type of pest and  its geographical distribution. This table  shows that five species of Lepidoptera:  Eurysacca melanocampta, Eurysacca  quinoae, Copitarsia incommoda,  Helicoverpa titicacae and Helicoverpa  quinoa, were listed as key crop pests of  quinoa in the Bolivian Altiplano, four as  casual pests: Copitarsia patagonica,  Helicoverpa atacamae, Dargida  acanthus, Tatochila mercedis and one as  potential pest: Agrotis peruviana.   Figure 1 describes, in detail, the  geographical distribution and abundance  of the species Helicoverpa titicacae and  H. quinoa in the Bolivian Altiplano. It can  be observed that Helicoverpa titicacae is  found mainly in the Northern Altiplano  and extends into the Central Altiplano.  Conversely  H. quinoa is distributed in   quinoa production areas located between  the salt flats of Uyuni and Coipasa  (Southern Altiplano), extending into the  Central Altiplano without reaching the  Northern Altiplano.   Figure 2 shows the distribution and  abundance of Eurysacca melanocampta  and E. quinoae in different quinoa  production areas of the Bolivian  Altiplano. According to this figure, Eurysacca  melanocampta is abundant in the  Northern Altiplano and extends into the  Central Altiplano. In contrast, E. quinoae  is abundant in the South and Central  Altiplano where it is found in high  populations.      ISSN 1998 - 9652   Area: Technology Development 42   Introduction   The quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd)  crop in the Bolivian Altiplano is attacked  by several species of pest insects. One of  these species is the quinoa moth or "qhona  qhona" Eurysacca quinoae Povolny 1997  (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae), listed as a key  pest of the crop (Avalos 1996) because it  causes losses of over 30% and  significantly reduces grain quality  (Saravia and Quispe, 2003; PROINPA,  2013). The first reports on parasitoid insects of  quinoa moths were registered in  Patacamaya in 1997, by the Quinoa  Programme from the ex - IBTA (IBTA,  1997). Later, specific pieces of work were  performed in some communities of the  Central and Southern Altiplano (Mamani,  1998, PROINPA 2003; PROINPA 2013). As a result of these studies it is known that  the percentage of natural parasitism in  larvae of Eurysacca quinoae reaches up to   40% and, that the parasitoid complex  consists of nine species.  Out of these nine  species, seven belong to the order  Hymenoptera from the families  Braconidae (Meteorus  sp., Apanteles sp.,   Microplitis sp.), Ichneumonidae  (Deleboea sp., Venturia sp., Diadegma  sp.) and Encyrtidae (Copidosoma  sp.),   and two belong to the order Diptera from  the families Tachinidae (Phytomiptera sp.  and  Dolichostoma sp.) (IBTA 1997;   Mamani 1998, and Saravia Quispe 2006;  Saravia et al., 2008;. PROINPA 2013). A parasitoid is understood as every insect,  which in the larval stage is parasitic of  other arthropod (host), while in the adult  phase it lives freely to breed and seek its  host.   Unlike the parasite, the parasitoid in most  cases ends up killing the host (Van  Driessche et al., 2007). The diversity of predators and parasitoids  of a given pest species is related to the  diversity of flowering plants associated to  a cultivar.  The nectar and pollen of these  flowers are important additional food  sources necessary for multiplication  (Altieri and Nicholls, 2010). Areas of quinoa production in the country  are located in three ecoregions: Northern,  Central and Southern Altiplano, these  differ mainly by the rainfall regime, the  quality of soils and crops produced.  The  Southern Altiplano is the driest region  (150-300 mm/year), with sandy soils and  low fertility where the main crop is the  Royal Quinoa. The Northern Altiplano  has higher rainfall (500 mm/year), soils  are more productive and crops produced  include potatoes, quinoa, barley, broad  beans among others. The Central  Altiplano presents intermediate weather  and soil conditions, relating to both  Northern and Southern Altiplano. Given the background mentioned and in  order to update information on the  parasitoids associated with the quinoa  moth, the present study was carried out in  three ecoregions of the Altiplano. The  objective was to identify the parasitoids  and determine natural parasitism on larvae  of  E. quinoae in quinoa plots of the   Bolivian Altiplano.   Materials and methods   Location. The work was implemented in  twelve quinoa producing communities of  the Altiplano, one from the Northern  Altiplano (Lacaya), eight from the Central    Altiplano (Contorno Centro, Contorno  Arriba, Cañaviri, Villa Manquiri,  Colquencha, Viscachani, Calpaya and  Crucero Belen) and three in the Southern  Altiplano (Colcha K, Vinto and Julaca)  (Figure 1). E. quinoae sampling and larval rearing.  The collection of larvae in the quinoa  plots of different communities was  conducted between February and March  2013, period of highest incidence of the  pest. This process was performed using the  method of "Entomological mantle", which  consists of a canvas of 1 m x 1 m stretched  at the base of the plant, then a careful    shaking of the the panicle to produce the  downfall of larvae on the canvas. Larvae  obtained were placed in 200 ml sized  plastic containers enclosing paper towels  at the base, and quinoa leaves and  branches as food for the larvae. These containers were placed in  Styrofoam carriers that were carried to the  Entomology Laboratory of PROINPA  Foundation in Quipaquipani Center  (Viacha-La Paz).  At the laboratory larvae  were selected by size, and placed in  specific quantities, in containers, to  continue their rearing until they reached  the phases of adult moths or parasitoids.   Percentage of natural parasitism and  taxonomic identification. To calculate the  percentage of natural parasitism by  species and community, the following  formula was used: The identification of parasitoids was made  by comparison and using taxonomic keys.  For identification by comparison,  representative specimens of these  biological controllers were mounted, and  compared to specimens described by  Mamani (1998), Saravia and Quispe  (2006) and Costa et al. (2009). In some cases the identification was  confirmed using taxonomic keys provided  by Sharkey (2006) for Braconidae, and  Gauld (1991) for Ichneumonidae, both  corresponding to the Neotropical region. In parallel specimens of interest were sent  to specialized centers (USDA) for  identification.   Results and discussion    Parasitoid complex associated with  larvae of E. quinoae   The parasitoid complex that is regulating  the population of E. quinoae in quinoa  plots located in the Bolivian Altiplano, is  composed of six species (Table 1, Figure  2). Of these six species, five correspond to  the order Hymenoptera and one to  Diptera. Among the wasps, all belong to the sub  order Apocrita, characterized by having  the first abdominal segment together with    the metathorax and separated from the rest  of the abdominal segments with a narrow  waist (Fernandez and Sharkey, 2006).  These wasps are grouped into two  superfamilies: • (medium large   wasps).   •  Cotesia sp. and Meteorus sp. correspond  to the Braconidae family; Venturia sp. and  Deleboea  sp. to Ichneumonidae, and   Copidosoma  sp. to Encyrtidae   (Chalcidoidea). The only Diptera species  Phytomiptera sp. belongs to the Tachinid  family, from the Oestroidae superfamily,  and the sub order Brachycera. Among the parasitoids, the micro-wasp  Copidosoma sp. (Encyrtidae), is a  polyembrionic egg parasitoid that  mummifies moth larvae before they reach  the pupal stage. From mummified larvae,  between 28 to 33 micro-wasps can  emerge. The rest of the wasps are larvo-pupal  endoparasitoids. They infect their host  (quinoa moth larvae) in the early larval  stages, but the effect can only be observed  when they kill the host in the pupal stage.  Biologically this parasitism strategy is  known as koinobiont. There is another  strategy called idiobiont parasitism that  occurs in species that permanently  paralyze their hosts, preventing them to  continue their development after being  parasitized.  This is a desirable feature for  parasitoids that are meant to be used in  biological control programs. In this study  no parasitoids with these characteristics  were found.   Table 1 shows the percentage of natural  parasitism recorded in the different  communities of the Northern, Central and  Southern Altiplano. Overall, the average  percentage of natural parasitism was  higher than 28%, with the communities of  the Central Altiplano (Viscachani,    Contorno Arriba and Cañaviri) recording  the highest percentages of parasitism,  with values above 40%, in comparison to  Colcha K, Vinto and Julaca (Southern  Altiplano), where the lowest percentages  of parasitism were observed, with values  below 5%. The rest of the communities:   Lacaya, Calpaya, Crucero Belén,  Contorno Centro and Villa Manquiri (the  first from the Northern Altiplano and the  rest from the Central Altiplano), recorded  natural parasitism of E. quinoae  fluctuating between 27% and 38%. The  average of 28% of parasitism is a value  that comes close to the efficiency levels of  control for this pest, which is obtained by  using botanical extracts and/or some  bioinsecticides available in local markets.  This shows the important role that these  parasitoids play in the natural regulation  of E. quinoae. Natural parasitism percentages recorded  in each of the communities was the  product of a joint action of a complex of  two to six parasitoids, regulating the larval  population of E. quinoae at different  levels (Annex 1). According to Table 1,  the parasitoids that contributed most to the  regulation of quinoa moth larvae in the  twelve communities are Cotesia sp. and  Meteorus sp., recording average  parasitism above 6%. In contrast, the  micro-wasp  Copidosoma sp. was the   species that contributed least to the  control of E. quinoae (1.2%). The communities that are characterized by  greater diversity of parasitoids are  Viscachani, Contorno Centro and Lacaya,  the first two located in the Central  Altiplano and the last in the Northern  Altiplano, recording a total of six  parasitoids. The communities Colcha K,  Vinto and Julaca in the Southern  Altiplano, recorded two and three  parasitoids (Table 1). Depending on the abundance of  parasitoids (Table 1) two groups can be  clearly observed. The first formed by the  communities of Central and Northern  Altiplano, where Viscachani and    Contorno Centro stand out with the largest  number of parasitoids. The second group  consists of the communities in the  Southern Altiplano with low amounts of  these biological control agents. The  differences can be explained by the  characteristics of agricultural production  in each of these areas, in addition to the  floristic composition of weeds and native  plants registered and distributed in these  areas. The distribution and relative importance  of the six parasitoids identified was highly  variable. Nevertheless, there clearly is one  species found in all locations: the  Tachinido  Phytomiptera sp. which   showed an average frequency of 5.3%,  being the most abundant parasitoid in  Cañaviri (14.3%) and the second most  abundant in Colquencha (11%). In this  regard, Stireman et al. (2009) state that  flies belonging to the Tachinidae family  are diverse and are important natural  enemies of many pests. All known species  of this family are parasitoids of  arthropods, mainly of lepidopteran larvae,  the taxonomic group to which E. quinoae  belongs to. The percentages of parasitism recorded in  this work are lower than those reported by  Mamani (1998) and PROINPA (2013),  who indicate that populations of quinoa  moth larvae in the Central Altiplano have  natural parasitism ranging between 43%  and 65%.   Conclusions   •   the sampled communities is being  regulated by a complex of six  parasitoids: five wasps (Hymenoptera)  and one fly (Diptera). Among the    wasps, the species registered were:  Cotesia sp. (Braconidae), Meteorus sp.  (Braconidae),  Deleboea sp.   (Ichneumonidae), Venturia sp.  (Ichneumonidae) and Copidosoma sp.  (Encyrtidae), and the fly was identified  as Phytomiptera sp. (Tachinidae).  • average of   parasitism was 28% in the twelve  communities, standing out Viscachani  with 44.7% of parasitism on average.  •  Cotesia sp. and Meteorus   sp. were the species with higher levels  of parasitism recorded in communities  of the Northern, Central and Southern  Altiplano.  • natural   percentages recorded in E. quinoae  larvae, in quinoa producing  communities of the Bolivian  Altiplano, show the need to implement  integrated pest management practices  that conserve and increase beneficial  organisms in these agroecosystems.  •   partial perspective of the natural  parasitism on  E. quinoae, as the   sampling period covered a limited time  span. Additionally, only parasitism on  the larval stage of one agricultural  campaign was studied. The possibility  of sampling new parasitoids in the  same places and at different times,  with the same or other collection  methods, is not ruled out.  • the of   elements that influence their control  capability are the effects of climate  change and environmental variability.  Insect pest species are able to respond  quickly to environmental changes.  However, the effect that this response    has on the populations of natural  enemies (parasitoids and predators) is  still unknown. This is an aspect to be  considered when thinking about  implementing biological control  programs.  • of limitations the of   parasitoids (directed releases) in  biological control programs is the  maintenance of massive rearing in the  laboratory. For this purpose, the first  step is to develop mass host (E.  quinoae) rearing and to generate  information on the biology and  reproduction of its parasitoids, to later  have available a tool of natural  biological control.   Cited references   Altieri, A., Nicholls, C. 2010. Diseños   agroecológicos para incrementar la  biodiversidad de entomofauna benéfica  en agroecosistemas. SOCLA. Medellín,  Colombia. 83 p.  Avalos, F. 1996. Identificación y dinámica   poblacional de la polilla de la quinua  Eurysacca melanocampta. Thesis for the  degree of Agricultural Engeneer. Faculty  of Agriculture, UMSA. 121 p.  Costa, F., Yabar, E., Gianoli, E. 2009.   Parasitismo sobre  Eurysacca   melanocampta Meyrick (Lepidoptera:  Gelechiidae) en dos localidades de  Cuzco, Perú. In.  Rev. Fac. Nal. Agr. de  Medellín,  Vol. 62, n. 1. , Medellin,  Colombia. Available at:  http://www.scielo.org.co/scielo.php?script =sci_arttext&pid=S0304-2847200900010 0008&lng=en&nrm=iso>. Retrieved May  23, 2014  Fernández, F., Sharkey, M. 2006. Sistemática   de los himenópteros de la Región  Neotropical: Estado del conocimiento y  perspectivas. In: Introducción a los  Hymenóptera de la Región Neotropical.  Fernández, F. y M. J. Sharkey (Eds.).    Sociedad Colombiana de Entomología y  Universidad Nacional de Colombia,  Bogotá, Colombia. pp. 7-35.  Gauld, I. 1991. The Ichneumonidae of Costa   Rica. 1 Introduction, keys to subfamilies,  and keys to the species of the lower  pimpliform subfamilies: Rhyssinae,  Pimplinae, Poemeniinae, Acaenitinae  and Cylloceriinae. The American  Entomological Institute. Florida, EEUU.  589 p.  IBTA, 1997. Instituto Boliviano de Tecnología   Agropecuaria. Annual Report,  1996-1997. Programa Quinua, IBTA. La  Paz, Bolivia. 185 p.  Mamani, D. 1998. Control biológico en forma   natural de la polilla de la quinua  (Eurysacca melanocampta Meyrick) por  parasitoides y perspectivas de cría para  su manipulación en el Altiplano Central.  Thesis for the degree of Agricultural  Engeneer. Faculty of Agriculture, UMSA.  La Paz, Bolivia. pp. 90-91.  PROINPA, 2003. Fundación para la   Promoción e Investigación de Productos  Andinos. Project Report: Desarrollo y  validación participativa de las  innovaciones tecnológicas que mejoren  las estrategias para manejo sostenible de  la quinua. The McKnight Foundation. La  Paz, Bolivia. 127 p.  PROINPA, 2013. Fundación para la   Promoción e Investigación de Productos  Andinos. Annual Report 2009-2010:  Proyecto Desarrollo y validación    participativa de las innovaciones  tecnológicas que mejoren las estrategias  para manejo sostenible del sistema  centrado en quinua en el Altiplano  boliviano. The McKnight Foundation. La  Paz, Bolivia. 145 p.  Saravia, R., Quispe, R. 2006. Manejo   integrado de las plagas insectiles del  cultivo de la quinua. In: Module 2: Manejo  agronómico de la quinua orgánica.  Fundación PROINPA. pp. 53-86.  Saravia, R., Quispe, R. 2003. Ciclo biológico   de la polilla de la quinua Eurysacca  melanocampta Meyrick. Technical Listing   No.6. PROINPA Foundation.  Cochabamba, Bolivia. 4 p.  Saravia, R., Mamani, A., Bonifacio, A., Alcon,   M. 2008. Diagnóstico de los enemigos  naturales de las plagas del cultivo de  quinua. PROINPA Foundation. Annual  Report 2008-2009. Rubro Granos  Altoandinos. Cochabamba, Bolivia, 215  p.  Sharkey, M. 2006. Two new genera of   Agathidinae (Hymenoptera: Braconidae)  with a key to the genera of the New  World. Zootaxa: 1185: 37-51.  Van Driesche, R., Hoddle, M., Center, D. 2007.   Control de plagas y malezas por  enemigos naturales. USDA. Translated  by E. Ruiz and J. Coronada. Universidad  de Tamaulipas. Cd. Victoria, México. 796  p.      In Table 1 it is important to note that the  species identified as H. gelotopoeon, in  2008, was currently identified as  Helicoverpa quinoa by the same author.   This new species was reported as a quinoa  pests based on morphological characters,  genitalia dissection and mitochondrial  analysis. This author suggests that it is  difficult to distinguish between H. quinoa  and H. gelotopoen only by their  morphological differences and that  analysis of genitalia is required. Other  species that have undergone changes in  taxonomy are Heliothis titicaquensis and  Agrotis andina, which were identified as  Helicoverpa titicacae and Agrotis  peruviana according to a morphological  and phylogenetic analysis performed by  Pogue (2014) and San Blas (2014).  Another aspect that stands out is the  inclusion of Copitarsia patagonica in the    2014 list. The other species listed in the  Table maintained their identification.   Geographical distribution of the  identified species    Table 2 shows the list of lepidopteran  pests species associated with the quinoa  crop in the Bolivian Altiplano, detailing  the family to which they belong, the  method of collection, the type of pest and  its geographical distribution. This table  shows that five species of Lepidoptera:  Eurysacca melanocampta, Eurysacca  quinoae, Copitarsia incommoda,  Helicoverpa titicacae and Helicoverpa  quinoa, were listed as key crop pests of  quinoa in the Bolivian Altiplano, four as  casual pests: Copitarsia patagonica,  Helicoverpa atacamae, Dargida  acanthus, Tatochila mercedis and one as  potential pest: Agrotis peruviana.   Figure 1 describes, in detail, the  geographical distribution and abundance  of the species Helicoverpa titicacae and  H. quinoa in the Bolivian Altiplano. It can  be observed that Helicoverpa titicacae is  found mainly in the Northern Altiplano  and extends into the Central Altiplano.  Conversely  H. quinoa is distributed in   quinoa production areas located between  the salt flats of Uyuni and Coipasa  (Southern Altiplano), extending into the  Central Altiplano without reaching the  Northern Altiplano.   Figure 2 shows the distribution and  abundance of Eurysacca melanocampta  and E. quinoae in different quinoa  production areas of the Bolivian  Altiplano. According to this figure, Eurysacca  melanocampta is abundant in the  Northern Altiplano and extends into the  Central Altiplano. In contrast, E. quinoae  is abundant in the South and Central  Altiplano where it is found in high  populations.      Revista de Agricultura, Nro. 54 - Julio de 2014    Area: Technology Development 43   Article received on June, 2014 – Article accepted on June 18, 2014   Introduction   The quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd)  crop in the Bolivian Altiplano is attacked  by several species of pest insects. One of  these species is the quinoa moth or "qhona  qhona" Eurysacca quinoae Povolny 1997  (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae), listed as a key  pest of the crop (Avalos 1996) because it  causes losses of over 30% and  significantly reduces grain quality  (Saravia and Quispe, 2003; PROINPA,  2013). The first reports on parasitoid insects of  quinoa moths were registered in  Patacamaya in 1997, by the Quinoa  Programme from the ex - IBTA (IBTA,  1997). Later, specific pieces of work were  performed in some communities of the  Central and Southern Altiplano (Mamani,  1998, PROINPA 2003; PROINPA 2013). As a result of these studies it is known that  the percentage of natural parasitism in  larvae of Eurysacca quinoae reaches up to   40% and, that the parasitoid complex  consists of nine species.  Out of these nine  species, seven belong to the order  Hymenoptera from the families  Braconidae (Meteorus  sp., Apanteles sp.,   Microplitis sp.), Ichneumonidae  (Deleboea sp., Venturia sp., Diadegma  sp.) and Encyrtidae (Copidosoma  sp.),   and two belong to the order Diptera from  the families Tachinidae (Phytomiptera sp.  and  Dolichostoma sp.) (IBTA 1997;   Mamani 1998, and Saravia Quispe 2006;  Saravia et al., 2008;. PROINPA 2013). A parasitoid is understood as every insect,  which in the larval stage is parasitic of  other arthropod (host), while in the adult  phase it lives freely to breed and seek its  host.   Unlike the parasite, the parasitoid in most  cases ends up killing the host (Van  Driessche et al., 2007). The diversity of predators and parasitoids  of a given pest species is related to the  diversity of flowering plants associated to  a cultivar.  The nectar and pollen of these  flowers are important additional food  sources necessary for multiplication  (Altieri and Nicholls, 2010). Areas of quinoa production in the country  are located in three ecoregions: Northern,  Central and Southern Altiplano, these  differ mainly by the rainfall regime, the  quality of soils and crops produced.  The  Southern Altiplano is the driest region  (150-300 mm/year), with sandy soils and  low fertility where the main crop is the  Royal Quinoa. The Northern Altiplano  has higher rainfall (500 mm/year), soils  are more productive and crops produced  include potatoes, quinoa, barley, broad  beans among others. The Central  Altiplano presents intermediate weather  and soil conditions, relating to both  Northern and Southern Altiplano. Given the background mentioned and in  order to update information on the  parasitoids associated with the quinoa  moth, the present study was carried out in  three ecoregions of the Altiplano. The  objective was to identify the parasitoids  and determine natural parasitism on larvae  of  E. quinoae in quinoa plots of the   Bolivian Altiplano.   Materials and methods   Location. The work was implemented in  twelve quinoa producing communities of  the Altiplano, one from the Northern  Altiplano (Lacaya), eight from the Central    Altiplano (Contorno Centro, Contorno  Arriba, Cañaviri, Villa Manquiri,  Colquencha, Viscachani, Calpaya and  Crucero Belen) and three in the Southern  Altiplano (Colcha K, Vinto and Julaca)  (Figure 1). E. quinoae sampling and larval rearing.  The collection of larvae in the quinoa  plots of different communities was  conducted between February and March  2013, period of highest incidence of the  pest. This process was performed using the  method of "Entomological mantle", which  consists of a canvas of 1 m x 1 m stretched  at the base of the plant, then a careful    shaking of the the panicle to produce the  downfall of larvae on the canvas. Larvae  obtained were placed in 200 ml sized  plastic containers enclosing paper towels  at the base, and quinoa leaves and  branches as food for the larvae. These containers were placed in  Styrofoam carriers that were carried to the  Entomology Laboratory of PROINPA  Foundation in Quipaquipani Center  (Viacha-La Paz).  At the laboratory larvae  were selected by size, and placed in  specific quantities, in containers, to  continue their rearing until they reached  the phases of adult moths or parasitoids.   Percentage of natural parasitism and  taxonomic identification. To calculate the  percentage of natural parasitism by  species and community, the following  formula was used: The identification of parasitoids was made  by comparison and using taxonomic keys.  For identification by comparison,  representative specimens of these  biological controllers were mounted, and  compared to specimens described by  Mamani (1998), Saravia and Quispe  (2006) and Costa et al. (2009). In some cases the identification was  confirmed using taxonomic keys provided  by Sharkey (2006) for Braconidae, and  Gauld (1991) for Ichneumonidae, both  corresponding to the Neotropical region. In parallel specimens of interest were sent  to specialized centers (USDA) for  identification.   Results and discussion    Parasitoid complex associated with  larvae of E. quinoae   The parasitoid complex that is regulating  the population of E. quinoae in quinoa  plots located in the Bolivian Altiplano, is  composed of six species (Table 1, Figure  2). Of these six species, five correspond to  the order Hymenoptera and one to  Diptera. Among the wasps, all belong to the sub  order Apocrita, characterized by having  the first abdominal segment together with    the metathorax and separated from the rest  of the abdominal segments with a narrow  waist (Fernandez and Sharkey, 2006).  These wasps are grouped into two  superfamilies: • (medium large   wasps).   •  Cotesia sp. and Meteorus sp. correspond  to the Braconidae family; Venturia sp. and  Deleboea  sp. to Ichneumonidae, and   Copidosoma  sp. to Encyrtidae   (Chalcidoidea). The only Diptera species  Phytomiptera sp. belongs to the Tachinid  family, from the Oestroidae superfamily,  and the sub order Brachycera. Among the parasitoids, the micro-wasp  Copidosoma sp. (Encyrtidae), is a  polyembrionic egg parasitoid that  mummifies moth larvae before they reach  the pupal stage. From mummified larvae,  between 28 to 33 micro-wasps can  emerge. The rest of the wasps are larvo-pupal  endoparasitoids. They infect their host  (quinoa moth larvae) in the early larval  stages, but the effect can only be observed  when they kill the host in the pupal stage.  Biologically this parasitism strategy is  known as koinobiont. There is another  strategy called idiobiont parasitism that  occurs in species that permanently  paralyze their hosts, preventing them to  continue their development after being  parasitized.  This is a desirable feature for  parasitoids that are meant to be used in  biological control programs. In this study  no parasitoids with these characteristics  were found.   Table 1 shows the percentage of natural  parasitism recorded in the different  communities of the Northern, Central and  Southern Altiplano. Overall, the average  percentage of natural parasitism was  higher than 28%, with the communities of  the Central Altiplano (Viscachani,    Contorno Arriba and Cañaviri) recording  the highest percentages of parasitism,  with values above 40%, in comparison to  Colcha K, Vinto and Julaca (Southern  Altiplano), where the lowest percentages  of parasitism were observed, with values  below 5%. The rest of the communities:   Lacaya, Calpaya, Crucero Belén,  Contorno Centro and Villa Manquiri (the  first from the Northern Altiplano and the  rest from the Central Altiplano), recorded  natural parasitism of E. quinoae  fluctuating between 27% and 38%. The  average of 28% of parasitism is a value  that comes close to the efficiency levels of  control for this pest, which is obtained by  using botanical extracts and/or some  bioinsecticides available in local markets.  This shows the important role that these  parasitoids play in the natural regulation  of E. quinoae. Natural parasitism percentages recorded  in each of the communities was the  product of a joint action of a complex of  two to six parasitoids, regulating the larval  population of E. quinoae at different  levels (Annex 1). According to Table 1,  the parasitoids that contributed most to the  regulation of quinoa moth larvae in the  twelve communities are Cotesia sp. and  Meteorus sp., recording average  parasitism above 6%. In contrast, the  micro-wasp  Copidosoma sp. was the   species that contributed least to the  control of E. quinoae (1.2%). The communities that are characterized by  greater diversity of parasitoids are  Viscachani, Contorno Centro and Lacaya,  the first two located in the Central  Altiplano and the last in the Northern  Altiplano, recording a total of six  parasitoids. The communities Colcha K,  Vinto and Julaca in the Southern  Altiplano, recorded two and three  parasitoids (Table 1). Depending on the abundance of  parasitoids (Table 1) two groups can be  clearly observed. The first formed by the  communities of Central and Northern  Altiplano, where Viscachani and    Contorno Centro stand out with the largest  number of parasitoids. The second group  consists of the communities in the  Southern Altiplano with low amounts of  these biological control agents. The  differences can be explained by the  characteristics of agricultural production  in each of these areas, in addition to the  floristic composition of weeds and native  plants registered and distributed in these  areas. The distribution and relative importance  of the six parasitoids identified was highly  variable. Nevertheless, there clearly is one  species found in all locations: the  Tachinido  Phytomiptera sp. which   showed an average frequency of 5.3%,  being the most abundant parasitoid in  Cañaviri (14.3%) and the second most  abundant in Colquencha (11%). In this  regard, Stireman et al. (2009) state that  flies belonging to the Tachinidae family  are diverse and are important natural  enemies of many pests. All known species  of this family are parasitoids of  arthropods, mainly of lepidopteran larvae,  the taxonomic group to which E. quinoae  belongs to. The percentages of parasitism recorded in  this work are lower than those reported by  Mamani (1998) and PROINPA (2013),  who indicate that populations of quinoa  moth larvae in the Central Altiplano have  natural parasitism ranging between 43%  and 65%.   Conclusions   •   the sampled communities is being  regulated by a complex of six  parasitoids: five wasps (Hymenoptera)  and one fly (Diptera). Among the    wasps, the species registered were:  Cotesia sp. (Braconidae), Meteorus sp.  (Braconidae),  Deleboea sp.   (Ichneumonidae), Venturia sp.  (Ichneumonidae) and Copidosoma sp.  (Encyrtidae), and the fly was identified  as Phytomiptera sp. (Tachinidae).  • average of   parasitism was 28% in the twelve  communities, standing out Viscachani  with 44.7% of parasitism on average.  •  Cotesia sp. and Meteorus   sp. were the species with higher levels  of parasitism recorded in communities  of the Northern, Central and Southern  Altiplano.  • natural   percentages recorded in E. quinoae  larvae, in quinoa producing  communities of the Bolivian  Altiplano, show the need to implement  integrated pest management practices  that conserve and increase beneficial  organisms in these agroecosystems.  •   partial perspective of the natural  parasitism on  E. quinoae, as the   sampling period covered a limited time  span. Additionally, only parasitism on   the larval stage of one agricultural  campaign was studied. The possibility  of sampling new parasitoids in the  same places and at different times,  with the same or other collection  methods, is not ruled out.  • the of   elements that influence their control  capability are the effects of climate  change and environmental variability.  Insect pest species are able to respond  quickly to environmental changes.  However, the effect that this response    has on the populations of natural  enemies (parasitoids and predators) is  still unknown. This is an aspect to be  considered when thinking about  implementing biological control  programs.  • of limitations the of   parasitoids (directed releases) in  biological control programs is the  maintenance of massive rearing in the  laboratory. For this purpose, the first  step is to develop mass host (E.  quinoae) rearing and to generate  information on the biology and  reproduction of its parasitoids, to later  have available a tool of natural  biological control.   Cited references   Altieri, A., Nicholls, C. 2010. Diseños   agroecológicos para incrementar la  biodiversidad de entomofauna benéfica  en agroecosistemas. SOCLA. Medellín,  Colombia. 83 p.  Avalos, F. 1996. Identificación y dinámica   poblacional de la polilla de la quinua  Eurysacca melanocampta. Thesis for the  degree of Agricultural Engeneer. Faculty  of Agriculture, UMSA. 121 p.  Costa, F., Yabar, E., Gianoli, E. 2009.   Parasitismo sobre  Eurysacca   melanocampta Meyrick (Lepidoptera:  Gelechiidae) en dos localidades de  Cuzco, Perú. In.  Rev. Fac. Nal. Agr. de  Medellín,  Vol. 62, n. 1. , Medellin,  Colombia. Available at:  http://www.scielo.org.co/scielo.php?script =sci_arttext&pid=S0304-2847200900010 0008&lng=en&nrm=iso>. Retrieved May  23, 2014  Fernández, F., Sharkey, M. 2006. Sistemática   de los himenópteros de la Región  Neotropical: Estado del conocimiento y  perspectivas. In: Introducción a los  Hymenóptera de la Región Neotropical.  Fernández, F. y M. J. Sharkey (Eds.).    Sociedad Colombiana de Entomología y  Universidad Nacional de Colombia,  Bogotá, Colombia. pp. 7-35.  Gauld, I. 1991. The Ichneumonidae of Costa   Rica. 1 Introduction, keys to subfamilies,  and keys to the species of the lower  pimpliform subfamilies: Rhyssinae,  Pimplinae, Poemeniinae, Acaenitinae  and Cylloceriinae. The American  Entomological Institute. Florida, EEUU.  589 p.  IBTA, 1997. Instituto Boliviano de Tecnología   Agropecuaria. Annual Report,  1996-1997. Programa Quinua, IBTA. La  Paz, Bolivia. 185 p.  Mamani, D. 1998. Control biológico en forma   natural de la polilla de la quinua  (Eurysacca melanocampta Meyrick) por  parasitoides y perspectivas de cría para  su manipulación en el Altiplano Central.  Thesis for the degree of Agricultural  Engeneer. Faculty of Agriculture, UMSA.  La Paz, Bolivia. pp. 90-91.  PROINPA, 2003. Fundación para la   Promoción e Investigación de Productos  Andinos. Project Report: Desarrollo y  validación participativa de las  innovaciones tecnológicas que mejoren  las estrategias para manejo sostenible de  la quinua. The McKnight Foundation. La  Paz, Bolivia. 127 p.  PROINPA, 2013. Fundación para la   Promoción e Investigación de Productos  Andinos. Annual Report 2009-2010:  Proyecto Desarrollo y validación    participativa de las innovaciones  tecnológicas que mejoren las estrategias  para manejo sostenible del sistema  centrado en quinua en el Altiplano  boliviano. The McKnight Foundation. La  Paz, Bolivia. 145 p.  Saravia, R., Quispe, R. 2006. Manejo   integrado de las plagas insectiles del  cultivo de la quinua. In: Module 2: Manejo  agronómico de la quinua orgánica.  Fundación PROINPA. pp. 53-86.  Saravia, R., Quispe, R. 2003. Ciclo biológico   de la polilla de la quinua Eurysacca  melanocampta Meyrick. Technical Listing   No.6. PROINPA Foundation.  Cochabamba, Bolivia. 4 p.  Saravia, R., Mamani, A., Bonifacio, A., Alcon,   M. 2008. Diagnóstico de los enemigos  naturales de las plagas del cultivo de  quinua. PROINPA Foundation. Annual  Report 2008-2009. Rubro Granos  Altoandinos. Cochabamba, Bolivia, 215  p.  Sharkey, M. 2006. Two new genera of   Agathidinae (Hymenoptera: Braconidae)  with a key to the genera of the New  World. Zootaxa: 1185: 37-51.  Van Driesche, R., Hoddle, M., Center, D. 2007.   Control de plagas y malezas por  enemigos naturales. USDA. Translated  by E. Ruiz and J. Coronada. Universidad  de Tamaulipas. Cd. Victoria, México. 796  p.      In Table 1 it is important to note that the  species identified as H. gelotopoeon, in  2008, was currently identified as  Helicoverpa quinoa by the same author.   This new species was reported as a quinoa  pests based on morphological characters,  genitalia dissection and mitochondrial  analysis. This author suggests that it is  difficult to distinguish between H. quinoa  and H. gelotopoen only by their  morphological differences and that  analysis of genitalia is required. Other  species that have undergone changes in  taxonomy are Heliothis titicaquensis and  Agrotis andina, which were identified as  Helicoverpa titicacae and Agrotis  peruviana according to a morphological  and phylogenetic analysis performed by  Pogue (2014) and San Blas (2014).  Another aspect that stands out is the  inclusion of Copitarsia patagonica in the    2014 list. The other species listed in the  Table maintained their identification.   Geographical distribution of the  identified species    Table 2 shows the list of lepidopteran  pests species associated with the quinoa  crop in the Bolivian Altiplano, detailing  the family to which they belong, the  method of collection, the type of pest and  its geographical distribution. This table  shows that five species of Lepidoptera:  Eurysacca melanocampta, Eurysacca  quinoae, Copitarsia incommoda,  Helicoverpa titicacae and Helicoverpa  quinoa, were listed as key crop pests of  quinoa in the Bolivian Altiplano, four as  casual pests: Copitarsia patagonica,  Helicoverpa atacamae, Dargida  acanthus, Tatochila mercedis and one as  potential pest: Agrotis peruviana.   Figure 1 describes, in detail, the  geographical distribution and abundance  of the species Helicoverpa titicacae and  H. quinoa in the Bolivian Altiplano. It can  be observed that Helicoverpa titicacae is  found mainly in the Northern Altiplano  and extends into the Central Altiplano.  Conversely  H. quinoa is distributed in   quinoa production areas located between  the salt flats of Uyuni and Coipasa  (Southern Altiplano), extending into the  Central Altiplano without reaching the  Northern Altiplano.   Figure 2 shows the distribution and  abundance of Eurysacca melanocampta  and E. quinoae in different quinoa  production areas of the Bolivian  Altiplano. According to this figure, Eurysacca  melanocampta is abundant in the  Northern Altiplano and extends into the  Central Altiplano. In contrast, E. quinoae  is abundant in the South and Central  Altiplano where it is found in high  populations.      ISSN 1998 - 9652   Area: Technology Development 44   Table 1. Ratio of parasitoids and percentage of natural parasitism in larvae of  E. quinoae,   in decreasing order of abundance, from communities in the Bolivian Altiplano (2013)   % of natural parasitism / Community  Parasitoid Type of parasitoid   V   isca   c   h   ani    AC   Conto   r   no    Arriba   AC   Cañ   av   i   ri    AC   Colq   ue   cha    AC   Calp   aya    AC   Lacaya   AN   Cru   c   e   r   o    Be-   lén   AC   Conto   r   no    Centro   AC   Villa  Manqui-   ri   AC   Col   c   ha    K    AS   Vinto   AS   J   ula   c   a    AS   Average    HYMENÓPT   E   RA    Apocrit   a   : Ic   h   eum   ono   ide   a       Bracon   ida   e   :    Microgast   r   i   nae    Cotesi   a       s   p   .    C   a   meron.      Endo   Larva-P   upa   l       11.6   13.4   8   .   6       8   .   0       7   .   8       14.7   5   .   8       8   .   6       0   .   0       0   .   0       1   .   5       0   .   6       6.7   Bra   c   o   n   ida   e   :    M   e   t   eor   i   nae    Meteorus   sp   .    Ha   liday   .    Endo   Larva-P   upa   l       18.4   8   .   6       5   .   7       0   .   5       11.2   5   .   3       6   .   4       6   .   8       6   .   5       3   .   2       0   .   0       0   .   0       6.1   I   c   hneum   oni   d   a   e   :    Campo   ple   g   i   nae    Venturi   a       sp   .    Sch   r   o   ttky   .       Endo   Larva-P   upa   l       1   .   0       7   .   7       7   .   9       16.5   8   .   0       4   .   7       0   .   0       3   .   9       9   .   0       0   .   8       0   .   8       0   .   0       5.0   I   c   hneum   oni   d   a   e   :    Banchi   n   a   e       Dele   b   o   ea    sp.       Camero   n   .       Endo   Larva-P   upa   l       10.4   0   .   6       0   .   0       0   .   0       7   .   0       5   .   5       17.9   6   .   2       1   .   0       0   .   0       1   .   5       0   .   0       3.3   Apocrit   a   :    C   h   alc   i   doi   d   e   a       E   n   c   y   rti   d   ae:       E   n   c   y   rtinae    Copi   dos   o   m   a       s   p   .    Rat   zebur   g   .   E   ndo H   uev   o       0   .   9       2   .   5       3   .   6       2   .   5       0   .   0       0   .   8       1   .   3       0   .   5       2   .   5       0   .   0       0   .   0       0   .   0       1.2   D   ÍPT   E   R   A       Brach   y   cer   a   :    Oest   roid   ae    T   a   chinidae:    T   a   chini   n   ae    Phytom   ipter   a       sp.    Rond   a   n   i   .  Ecto   Larva p   u   p   a   rio    2   .   4       9   .   4   14.3   11.0   3   .   9   4   .   2   1   .   3   5   .   3   8   .   0   0   .   8   0   .   8   1   .   9   5.3   Tota   l       44.7   42.2   40.1   38.5   37.9   35.2   32.7   31.3   27.0   4.8   4.6   2.5   28.5   References:        =    Northern Altiplano;           =    Central Altiplano;           =    Southern Altiplano;  E   ndo    =    E   n   d   opar   a   s   i   t   o   i   de;  E   c   t   o       =    Ect   opar   a   s   i   t   oid   e       Introduction   The quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd)  crop in the Bolivian Altiplano is attacked  by several species of pest insects. One of  these species is the quinoa moth or "qhona  qhona" Eurysacca quinoae Povolny 1997  (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae), listed as a key  pest of the crop (Avalos 1996) because it  causes losses of over 30% and  significantly reduces grain quality  (Saravia and Quispe, 2003; PROINPA,  2013). The first reports on parasitoid insects of  quinoa moths were registered in  Patacamaya in 1997, by the Quinoa  Programme from the ex - IBTA (IBTA,  1997). Later, specific pieces of work were  performed in some communities of the  Central and Southern Altiplano (Mamani,  1998, PROINPA 2003; PROINPA 2013). As a result of these studies it is known that  the percentage of natural parasitism in  larvae of Eurysacca quinoae reaches up to   40% and, that the parasitoid complex  consists of nine species.  Out of these nine  species, seven belong to the order  Hymenoptera from the families  Braconidae (Meteorus  sp., Apanteles sp.,   Microplitis sp.), Ichneumonidae  (Deleboea sp., Venturia sp., Diadegma  sp.) and Encyrtidae (Copidosoma  sp.),   and two belong to the order Diptera from  the families Tachinidae (Phytomiptera sp.  and  Dolichostoma sp.) (IBTA 1997;   Mamani 1998, and Saravia Quispe 2006;  Saravia et al., 2008;. PROINPA 2013). A parasitoid is understood as every insect,  which in the larval stage is parasitic of  other arthropod (host), while in the adult  phase it lives freely to breed and seek its  host.   Unlike the parasite, the parasitoid in most  cases ends up killing the host (Van  Driessche et al., 2007). The diversity of predators and parasitoids  of a given pest species is related to the  diversity of flowering plants associated to  a cultivar.  The nectar and pollen of these  flowers are important additional food  sources necessary for multiplication  (Altieri and Nicholls, 2010). Areas of quinoa production in the country  are located in three ecoregions: Northern,  Central and Southern Altiplano, these  differ mainly by the rainfall regime, the  quality of soils and crops produced.  The  Southern Altiplano is the driest region  (150-300 mm/year), with sandy soils and  low fertility where the main crop is the  Royal Quinoa. The Northern Altiplano  has higher rainfall (500 mm/year), soils  are more productive and crops produced  include potatoes, quinoa, barley, broad  beans among others. The Central  Altiplano presents intermediate weather  and soil conditions, relating to both  Northern and Southern Altiplano. Given the background mentioned and in  order to update information on the  parasitoids associated with the quinoa  moth, the present study was carried out in  three ecoregions of the Altiplano. The  objective was to identify the parasitoids  and determine natural parasitism on larvae  of  E. quinoae in quinoa plots of the   Bolivian Altiplano.   Materials and methods   Location. The work was implemented in  twelve quinoa producing communities of  the Altiplano, one from the Northern  Altiplano (Lacaya), eight from the Central    Altiplano (Contorno Centro, Contorno  Arriba, Cañaviri, Villa Manquiri,  Colquencha, Viscachani, Calpaya and  Crucero Belen) and three in the Southern  Altiplano (Colcha K, Vinto and Julaca)  (Figure 1). E. quinoae sampling and larval rearing.  The collection of larvae in the quinoa  plots of different communities was  conducted between February and March  2013, period of highest incidence of the  pest. This process was performed using the  method of "Entomological mantle", which  consists of a canvas of 1 m x 1 m stretched  at the base of the plant, then a careful    shaking of the the panicle to produce the  downfall of larvae on the canvas. Larvae  obtained were placed in 200 ml sized  plastic containers enclosing paper towels  at the base, and quinoa leaves and  branches as food for the larvae. These containers were placed in  Styrofoam carriers that were carried to the  Entomology Laboratory of PROINPA  Foundation in Quipaquipani Center  (Viacha-La Paz).  At the laboratory larvae  were selected by size, and placed in  specific quantities, in containers, to  continue their rearing until they reached  the phases of adult moths or parasitoids.   Percentage of natural parasitism and  taxonomic identification. To calculate the  percentage of natural parasitism by  species and community, the following  formula was used: The identification of parasitoids was made  by comparison and using taxonomic keys.  For identification by comparison,  representative specimens of these  biological controllers were mounted, and  compared to specimens described by  Mamani (1998), Saravia and Quispe  (2006) and Costa et al. (2009). In some cases the identification was  confirmed using taxonomic keys provided  by Sharkey (2006) for Braconidae, and  Gauld (1991) for Ichneumonidae, both  corresponding to the Neotropical region. In parallel specimens of interest were sent  to specialized centers (USDA) for  identification.   Results and discussion    Parasitoid complex associated with  larvae of E. quinoae   The parasitoid complex that is regulating  the population of E. quinoae in quinoa  plots located in the Bolivian Altiplano, is  composed of six species (Table 1, Figure  2). Of these six species, five correspond to  the order Hymenoptera and one to  Diptera. Among the wasps, all belong to the sub  order Apocrita, characterized by having  the first abdominal segment together with    the metathorax and separated from the rest  of the abdominal segments with a narrow  waist (Fernandez and Sharkey, 2006).  These wasps are grouped into two  superfamilies: • (medium large   wasps).   •  Cotesia sp. and Meteorus sp. correspond  to the Braconidae family; Venturia sp. and  Deleboea  sp. to Ichneumonidae, and   Copidosoma  sp. to Encyrtidae   (Chalcidoidea). The only Diptera species  Phytomiptera sp. belongs to the Tachinid  family, from the Oestroidae superfamily,  and the sub order Brachycera. Among the parasitoids, the micro-wasp  Copidosoma sp. (Encyrtidae), is a  polyembrionic egg parasitoid that  mummifies moth larvae before they reach  the pupal stage. From mummified larvae,  between 28 to 33 micro-wasps can  emerge. The rest of the wasps are larvo-pupal  endoparasitoids. They infect their host  (quinoa moth larvae) in the early larval  stages, but the effect can only be observed  when they kill the host in the pupal stage.  Biologically this parasitism strategy is  known as koinobiont. There is another  strategy called idiobiont parasitism that  occurs in species that permanently  paralyze their hosts, preventing them to  continue their development after being  parasitized.  This is a desirable feature for  parasitoids that are meant to be used in  biological control programs. In this study  no parasitoids with these characteristics  were found.   Table 1 shows the percentage of natural  parasitism recorded in the different  communities of the Northern, Central and  Southern Altiplano. Overall, the average  percentage of natural parasitism was  higher than 28%, with the communities of  the Central Altiplano (Viscachani,    Contorno Arriba and Cañaviri) recording  the highest percentages of parasitism,  with values above 40%, in comparison to  Colcha K, Vinto and Julaca (Southern  Altiplano), where the lowest percentages  of parasitism were observed, with values  below 5%. The rest of the communities:   Lacaya, Calpaya, Crucero Belén,  Contorno Centro and Villa Manquiri (the  first from the Northern Altiplano and the  rest from the Central Altiplano), recorded  natural parasitism of E. quinoae  fluctuating between 27% and 38%. The  average of 28% of parasitism is a value  that comes close to the efficiency levels of  control for this pest, which is obtained by  using botanical extracts and/or some  bioinsecticides available in local markets.  This shows the important role that these  parasitoids play in the natural regulation  of E. quinoae. Natural parasitism percentages recorded  in each of the communities was the  product of a joint action of a complex of  two to six parasitoids, regulating the larval  population of E. quinoae at different  levels (Annex 1). According to Table 1,  the parasitoids that contributed most to the  regulation of quinoa moth larvae in the  twelve communities are Cotesia sp. and  Meteorus sp., recording average  parasitism above 6%. In contrast, the  micro-wasp  Copidosoma sp. was the   species that contributed least to the  control of E. quinoae (1.2%). The communities that are characterized by  greater diversity of parasitoids are  Viscachani, Contorno Centro and Lacaya,  the first two located in the Central  Altiplano and the last in the Northern  Altiplano, recording a total of six  parasitoids. The communities Colcha K,  Vinto and Julaca in the Southern  Altiplano, recorded two and three  parasitoids (Table 1). Depending on the abundance of  parasitoids (Table 1) two groups can be  clearly observed. The first formed by the  communities of Central and Northern  Altiplano, where Viscachani and    Contorno Centro stand out with the largest  number of parasitoids. The second group  consists of the communities in the  Southern Altiplano with low amounts of  these biological control agents. The  differences can be explained by the  characteristics of agricultural production  in each of these areas, in addition to the  floristic composition of weeds and native  plants registered and distributed in these  areas. The distribution and relative importance  of the six parasitoids identified was highly  variable. Nevertheless, there clearly is one  species found in all locations: the  Tachinido  Phytomiptera sp. which   showed an average frequency of 5.3%,  being the most abundant parasitoid in  Cañaviri (14.3%) and the second most  abundant in Colquencha (11%). In this  regard, Stireman et al. (2009) state that  flies belonging to the Tachinidae family  are diverse and are important natural  enemies of many pests. All known species  of this family are parasitoids of  arthropods, mainly of lepidopteran larvae,  the taxonomic group to which E. quinoae  belongs to. The percentages of parasitism recorded in  this work are lower than those reported by  Mamani (1998) and PROINPA (2013),  who indicate that populations of quinoa  moth larvae in the Central Altiplano have  natural parasitism ranging between 43%  and 65%.   Conclusions   •   the sampled communities is being  regulated by a complex of six  parasitoids: five wasps (Hymenoptera)  and one fly (Diptera). Among the    wasps, the species registered were:  Cotesia sp. (Braconidae), Meteorus sp.  (Braconidae),  Deleboea sp.   (Ichneumonidae), Venturia sp.  (Ichneumonidae) and Copidosoma sp.  (Encyrtidae), and the fly was identified  as Phytomiptera sp. (Tachinidae).  • average of   parasitism was 28% in the twelve  communities, standing out Viscachani  with 44.7% of parasitism on average.  •  Cotesia sp. and Meteorus   sp. were the species with higher levels  of parasitism recorded in communities  of the Northern, Central and Southern  Altiplano.  • natural   percentages recorded in E. quinoae  larvae, in quinoa producing  communities of the Bolivian  Altiplano, show the need to implement  integrated pest management practices  that conserve and increase beneficial  organisms in these agroecosystems.  •   partial perspective of the natural  parasitism on  E. quinoae, as the   sampling period covered a limited time  span. Additionally, only parasitism on   the larval stage of one agricultural  campaign was studied. The possibility  of sampling new parasitoids in the  same places and at different times,  with the same or other collection  methods, is not ruled out.  • the of   elements that influence their control  capability are the effects of climate  change and environmental variability.  Insect pest species are able to respond  quickly to environmental changes.  However, the effect that this response    has on the populations of natural  enemies (parasitoids and predators) is  still unknown. This is an aspect to be  considered when thinking about  implementing biological control  programs.  • of limitations the of   parasitoids (directed releases) in  biological control programs is the  maintenance of massive rearing in the  laboratory. For this purpose, the first  step is to develop mass host (E.  quinoae) rearing and to generate  information on the biology and  reproduction of its parasitoids, to later  have available a tool of natural  biological control.   Cited references   Altieri, A., Nicholls, C. 2010. Diseños   agroecológicos para incrementar la  biodiversidad de entomofauna benéfica  en agroecosistemas. SOCLA. Medellín,  Colombia. 83 p.  Avalos, F. 1996. Identificación y dinámica   poblacional de la polilla de la quinua  Eurysacca melanocampta. Thesis for the  degree of Agricultural Engeneer. Faculty  of Agriculture, UMSA. 121 p.  Costa, F., Yabar, E., Gianoli, E. 2009.   Parasitismo sobre  Eurysacca   melanocampta Meyrick (Lepidoptera:  Gelechiidae) en dos localidades de  Cuzco, Perú. In.  Rev. Fac. Nal. Agr. de  Medellín,  Vol. 62, n. 1. , Medellin,  Colombia. Available at:  http://www.scielo.org.co/scielo.php?script =sci_arttext&pid=S0304-2847200900010 0008&lng=en&nrm=iso>. Retrieved May  23, 2014  Fernández, F., Sharkey, M. 2006. Sistemática   de los himenópteros de la Región  Neotropical: Estado del conocimiento y  perspectivas. In: Introducción a los  Hymenóptera de la Región Neotropical.  Fernández, F. y M. J. Sharkey (Eds.).    Sociedad Colombiana de Entomología y  Universidad Nacional de Colombia,  Bogotá, Colombia. pp. 7-35.  Gauld, I. 1991. The Ichneumonidae of Costa   Rica. 1 Introduction, keys to subfamilies,  and keys to the species of the lower  pimpliform subfamilies: Rhyssinae,  Pimplinae, Poemeniinae, Acaenitinae  and Cylloceriinae. The American  Entomological Institute. Florida, EEUU.  589 p.  IBTA, 1997. Instituto Boliviano de Tecnología   Agropecuaria. Annual Report,  1996-1997. Programa Quinua, IBTA. La  Paz, Bolivia. 185 p.  Mamani, D. 1998. Control biológico en forma   natural de la polilla de la quinua  (Eurysacca melanocampta Meyrick) por  parasitoides y perspectivas de cría para  su manipulación en el Altiplano Central.  Thesis for the degree of Agricultural  Engeneer. Faculty of Agriculture, UMSA.  La Paz, Bolivia. pp. 90-91.  PROINPA, 2003. Fundación para la   Promoción e Investigación de Productos  Andinos. Project Report: Desarrollo y  validación participativa de las  innovaciones tecnológicas que mejoren  las estrategias para manejo sostenible de  la quinua. The McKnight Foundation. La  Paz, Bolivia. 127 p.  PROINPA, 2013. Fundación para la   Promoción e Investigación de Productos  Andinos. Annual Report 2009-2010:  Proyecto Desarrollo y validación    participativa de las innovaciones  tecnológicas que mejoren las estrategias  para manejo sostenible del sistema  centrado en quinua en el Altiplano  boliviano. The McKnight Foundation. La  Paz, Bolivia. 145 p.  Saravia, R., Quispe, R. 2006. Manejo   integrado de las plagas insectiles del  cultivo de la quinua. In: Module 2: Manejo  agronómico de la quinua orgánica.  Fundación PROINPA. pp. 53-86.  Saravia, R., Quispe, R. 2003. Ciclo biológico   de la polilla de la quinua Eurysacca  melanocampta Meyrick. Technical Listing   No.6. PROINPA Foundation.  Cochabamba, Bolivia. 4 p.  Saravia, R., Mamani, A., Bonifacio, A., Alcon,   M. 2008. Diagnóstico de los enemigos  naturales de las plagas del cultivo de  quinua. PROINPA Foundation. Annual  Report 2008-2009. Rubro Granos  Altoandinos. Cochabamba, Bolivia, 215  p.  Sharkey, M. 2006. Two new genera of   Agathidinae (Hymenoptera: Braconidae)  with a key to the genera of the New  World. Zootaxa: 1185: 37-51.  Van Driesche, R., Hoddle, M., Center, D. 2007.   Control de plagas y malezas por  enemigos naturales. USDA. Translated  by E. Ruiz and J. Coronada. Universidad  de Tamaulipas. Cd. Victoria, México. 796  p.      NA CA SA   In Table 1 it is important to note that the  species identified as H. gelotopoeon, in  2008, was currently identified as  Helicoverpa quinoa by the same author.   This new species was reported as a quinoa  pests based on morphological characters,  genitalia dissection and mitochondrial  analysis. This author suggests that it is  difficult to distinguish between H. quinoa  and H. gelotopoen only by their  morphological differences and that  analysis of genitalia is required. Other  species that have undergone changes in  taxonomy are Heliothis titicaquensis and  Agrotis andina, which were identified as  Helicoverpa titicacae and Agrotis  peruviana according to a morphological  and phylogenetic analysis performed by  Pogue (2014) and San Blas (2014).  Another aspect that stands out is the  inclusion of Copitarsia patagonica in the    2014 list. The other species listed in the  Table maintained their identification.   Geographical distribution of the  identified species    Table 2 shows the list of lepidopteran  pests species associated with the quinoa  crop in the Bolivian Altiplano, detailing  the family to which they belong, the  method of collection, the type of pest and  its geographical distribution. This table  shows that five species of Lepidoptera:  Eurysacca melanocampta, Eurysacca  quinoae, Copitarsia incommoda,  Helicoverpa titicacae and Helicoverpa  quinoa, were listed as key crop pests of  quinoa in the Bolivian Altiplano, four as  casual pests: Copitarsia patagonica,  Helicoverpa atacamae, Dargida  acanthus, Tatochila mercedis and one as  potential pest: Agrotis peruviana.   Figure 1 describes, in detail, the  geographical distribution and abundance  of the species Helicoverpa titicacae and  H. quinoa in the Bolivian Altiplano. It can  be observed that Helicoverpa titicacae is  found mainly in the Northern Altiplano  and extends into the Central Altiplano.  Conversely  H. quinoa is distributed in   quinoa production areas located between  the salt flats of Uyuni and Coipasa  (Southern Altiplano), extending into the  Central Altiplano without reaching the  Northern Altiplano.   Figure 2 shows the distribution and  abundance of Eurysacca melanocampta  and E. quinoae in different quinoa  production areas of the Bolivian  Altiplano. According to this figure, Eurysacca  melanocampta is abundant in the  Northern Altiplano and extends into the  Central Altiplano. In contrast, E. quinoae  is abundant in the South and Central  Altiplano where it is found in high  populations.      Revista de Agricultura, Nro. 54 - Julio de 2014   Area: Technology Development 45   Annex 1: Percentage of natural parasitism of the quinoa moth parasitoid complex  in twelve communities in the Bolivian Altiplano (2013)  Localidad Meteorus  sp.  Cotesia  sp.  Venturia  sp.  Deleboea  sp.  Copidosoma  sp.  Phytomiptera  sp.  Viscachani  18.4  11.6  1.0  10.4  0.9  2.4   Contorno Arriba  8.7 13.5 7.7 0.6 2.5 9.4  Cañaviri  5.7  8.6  7.9  0.0  3.6  14.3   Colquecha  0.5 8.0 16.5 0.0 2.5 11.0  Calpaya  11.2  7.8  8.1  7.0  0.0  3.9   Lacaya 5.3 14.7 4.7 5.5 0.8 4.2  Contorno Centro  8.6  6.8  6.2  5.3  3.9  0.5   Villa Manquiri  6.5 0.0 9.0 1.0 2.5 8.0  Crucero Belén  6.4  5.8  0.0  17.9  1.3  1.3   Colcha K  3.2 0.0 0.8 0.0 0.0 0.8  Julaca  0.0  1.5  0.8  1.5  0.0  0.8   Vinto 0.0 0.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.9   Introduction   The quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd)  crop in the Bolivian Altiplano is attacked  by several species of pest insects. One of  these species is the quinoa moth or "qhona  qhona" Eurysacca quinoae Povolny 1997  (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae), listed as a key  pest of the crop (Avalos 1996) because it  causes losses of over 30% and  significantly reduces grain quality  (Saravia and Quispe, 2003; PROINPA,  2013). The first reports on parasitoid insects of  quinoa moths were registered in  Patacamaya in 1997, by the Quinoa  Programme from the ex - IBTA (IBTA,  1997). Later, specific pieces of work were  performed in some communities of the  Central and Southern Altiplano (Mamani,  1998, PROINPA 2003; PROINPA 2013). As a result of these studies it is known that  the percentage of natural parasitism in  larvae of Eurysacca quinoae reaches up to   40% and, that the parasitoid complex  consists of nine species.  Out of these nine  species, seven belong to the order  Hymenoptera from the families  Braconidae (Meteorus  sp., Apanteles sp.,   Microplitis sp.), Ichneumonidae  (Deleboea sp., Venturia sp., Diadegma  sp.) and Encyrtidae (Copidosoma  sp.),   and two belong to the order Diptera from  the families Tachinidae (Phytomiptera sp.  and  Dolichostoma sp.) (IBTA 1997;   Mamani 1998, and Saravia Quispe 2006;  Saravia et al., 2008;. PROINPA 2013). A parasitoid is understood as every insect,  which in the larval stage is parasitic of  other arthropod (host), while in the adult  phase it lives freely to breed and seek its  host.   Unlike the parasite, the parasitoid in most  cases ends up killing the host (Van  Driessche et al., 2007). The diversity of predators and parasitoids  of a given pest species is related to the  diversity of flowering plants associated to  a cultivar.  The nectar and pollen of these  flowers are important additional food  sources necessary for multiplication  (Altieri and Nicholls, 2010). Areas of quinoa production in the country  are located in three ecoregions: Northern,  Central and Southern Altiplano, these  differ mainly by the rainfall regime, the  quality of soils and crops produced.  The  Southern Altiplano is the driest region  (150-300 mm/year), with sandy soils and  low fertility where the main crop is the  Royal Quinoa. The Northern Altiplano  has higher rainfall (500 mm/year), soils  are more productive and crops produced  include potatoes, quinoa, barley, broad  beans among others. The Central  Altiplano presents intermediate weather  and soil conditions, relating to both  Northern and Southern Altiplano. Given the background mentioned and in  order to update information on the  parasitoids associated with the quinoa  moth, the present study was carried out in  three ecoregions of the Altiplano. The  objective was to identify the parasitoids  and determine natural parasitism on larvae  of  E. quinoae in quinoa plots of the   Bolivian Altiplano.   Materials and methods   Location. The work was implemented in  twelve quinoa producing communities of  the Altiplano, one from the Northern  Altiplano (Lacaya), eight from the Central    Altiplano (Contorno Centro, Contorno  Arriba, Cañaviri, Villa Manquiri,  Colquencha, Viscachani, Calpaya and  Crucero Belen) and three in the Southern  Altiplano (Colcha K, Vinto and Julaca)  (Figure 1). E. quinoae sampling and larval rearing.  The collection of larvae in the quinoa  plots of different communities was  conducted between February and March  2013, period of highest incidence of the  pest. This process was performed using the  method of "Entomological mantle", which  consists of a canvas of 1 m x 1 m stretched  at the base of the plant, then a careful    shaking of the the panicle to produce the  downfall of larvae on the canvas. Larvae  obtained were placed in 200 ml sized  plastic containers enclosing paper towels  at the base, and quinoa leaves and  branches as food for the larvae. These containers were placed in  Styrofoam carriers that were carried to the  Entomology Laboratory of PROINPA  Foundation in Quipaquipani Center  (Viacha-La Paz).  At the laboratory larvae  were selected by size, and placed in  specific quantities, in containers, to  continue their rearing until they reached  the phases of adult moths or parasitoids.   Percentage of natural parasitism and  taxonomic identification. To calculate the  percentage of natural parasitism by  species and community, the following  formula was used: The identification of parasitoids was made  by comparison and using taxonomic keys.  For identification by comparison,  representative specimens of these  biological controllers were mounted, and  compared to specimens described by  Mamani (1998), Saravia and Quispe  (2006) and Costa et al. (2009). In some cases the identification was  confirmed using taxonomic keys provided  by Sharkey (2006) for Braconidae, and  Gauld (1991) for Ichneumonidae, both  corresponding to the Neotropical region. In parallel specimens of interest were sent  to specialized centers (USDA) for  identification.   Results and discussion    Parasitoid complex associated with  larvae of E. quinoae   The parasitoid complex that is regulating  the population of E. quinoae in quinoa  plots located in the Bolivian Altiplano, is  composed of six species (Table 1, Figure  2). Of these six species, five correspond to  the order Hymenoptera and one to  Diptera. Among the wasps, all belong to the sub  order Apocrita, characterized by having  the first abdominal segment together with    the metathorax and separated from the rest  of the abdominal segments with a narrow  waist (Fernandez and Sharkey, 2006).  These wasps are grouped into two  superfamilies: • (medium large   wasps).   •  Cotesia sp. and Meteorus sp. correspond  to the Braconidae family; Venturia sp. and  Deleboea  sp. to Ichneumonidae, and   Copidosoma  sp. to Encyrtidae   (Chalcidoidea). The only Diptera species  Phytomiptera sp. belongs to the Tachinid  family, from the Oestroidae superfamily,  and the sub order Brachycera. Among the parasitoids, the micro-wasp  Copidosoma sp. (Encyrtidae), is a  polyembrionic egg parasitoid that  mummifies moth larvae before they reach  the pupal stage. From mummified larvae,  between 28 to 33 micro-wasps can  emerge. The rest of the wasps are larvo-pupal  endoparasitoids. They infect their host  (quinoa moth larvae) in the early larval  stages, but the effect can only be observed  when they kill the host in the pupal stage.  Biologically this parasitism strategy is  known as koinobiont. There is another  strategy called idiobiont parasitism that  occurs in species that permanently  paralyze their hosts, preventing them to  continue their development after being  parasitized.  This is a desirable feature for  parasitoids that are meant to be used in  biological control programs. In this study  no parasitoids with these characteristics  were found.   Table 1 shows the percentage of natural  parasitism recorded in the different  communities of the Northern, Central and  Southern Altiplano. Overall, the average  percentage of natural parasitism was  higher than 28%, with the communities of  the Central Altiplano (Viscachani,    Contorno Arriba and Cañaviri) recording  the highest percentages of parasitism,  with values above 40%, in comparison to  Colcha K, Vinto and Julaca (Southern  Altiplano), where the lowest percentages  of parasitism were observed, with values  below 5%. The rest of the communities:   Lacaya, Calpaya, Crucero Belén,  Contorno Centro and Villa Manquiri (the  first from the Northern Altiplano and the  rest from the Central Altiplano), recorded  natural parasitism of E. quinoae  fluctuating between 27% and 38%. The  average of 28% of parasitism is a value  that comes close to the efficiency levels of  control for this pest, which is obtained by  using botanical extracts and/or some  bioinsecticides available in local markets.  This shows the important role that these  parasitoids play in the natural regulation  of E. quinoae. Natural parasitism percentages recorded  in each of the communities was the  product of a joint action of a complex of  two to six parasitoids, regulating the larval  population of E. quinoae at different  levels (Annex 1). According to Table 1,  the parasitoids that contributed most to the  regulation of quinoa moth larvae in the  twelve communities are Cotesia sp. and  Meteorus sp., recording average  parasitism above 6%. In contrast, the  micro-wasp  Copidosoma sp. was the   species that contributed least to the  control of E. quinoae (1.2%). The communities that are characterized by  greater diversity of parasitoids are  Viscachani, Contorno Centro and Lacaya,  the first two located in the Central  Altiplano and the last in the Northern  Altiplano, recording a total of six  parasitoids. The communities Colcha K,  Vinto and Julaca in the Southern  Altiplano, recorded two and three  parasitoids (Table 1). Depending on the abundance of  parasitoids (Table 1) two groups can be  clearly observed. The first formed by the  communities of Central and Northern  Altiplano, where Viscachani and    Contorno Centro stand out with the largest  number of parasitoids. The second group  consists of the communities in the  Southern Altiplano with low amounts of  these biological control agents. The  differences can be explained by the  characteristics of agricultural production  in each of these areas, in addition to the  floristic composition of weeds and native  plants registered and distributed in these  areas. The distribution and relative importance  of the six parasitoids identified was highly  variable. Nevertheless, there clearly is one  species found in all locations: the  Tachinido  Phytomiptera sp. which   showed an average frequency of 5.3%,  being the most abundant parasitoid in  Cañaviri (14.3%) and the second most  abundant in Colquencha (11%). In this  regard, Stireman et al. (2009) state that  flies belonging to the Tachinidae family  are diverse and are important natural  enemies of many pests. All known species  of this family are parasitoids of  arthropods, mainly of lepidopteran larvae,  the taxonomic group to which E. quinoae  belongs to. The percentages of parasitism recorded in  this work are lower than those reported by  Mamani (1998) and PROINPA (2013),  who indicate that populations of quinoa  moth larvae in the Central Altiplano have  natural parasitism ranging between 43%  and 65%.   Conclusions   •   the sampled communities is being  regulated by a complex of six  parasitoids: five wasps (Hymenoptera)  and one fly (Diptera). Among the    wasps, the species registered were:  Cotesia sp. (Braconidae), Meteorus sp.  (Braconidae),  Deleboea sp.   (Ichneumonidae), Venturia sp.  (Ichneumonidae) and Copidosoma sp.  (Encyrtidae), and the fly was identified  as Phytomiptera sp. (Tachinidae).  • average of   parasitism was 28% in the twelve  communities, standing out Viscachani  with 44.7% of parasitism on average.  •  Cotesia sp. and Meteorus   sp. were the species with higher levels  of parasitism recorded in communities  of the Northern, Central and Southern  Altiplano.  • natural   percentages recorded in E. quinoae  larvae, in quinoa producing  communities of the Bolivian  Altiplano, show the need to implement  integrated pest management practices  that conserve and increase beneficial  organisms in these agroecosystems.  •   partial perspective of the natural  parasitism on  E. quinoae, as the   sampling period covered a limited time  span. Additionally, only parasitism on   the larval stage of one agricultural  campaign was studied. The possibility  of sampling new parasitoids in the  same places and at different times,  with the same or other collection  methods, is not ruled out.  • the of   elements that influence their control  capability are the effects of climate  change and environmental variability.  Insect pest species are able to respond  quickly to environmental changes.  However, the effect that this response    has on the populations of natural  enemies (parasitoids and predators) is  still unknown. This is an aspect to be  considered when thinking about  implementing biological control  programs.  • of limitations the of   parasitoids (directed releases) in  biological control programs is the  maintenance of massive rearing in the  laboratory. For this purpose, the first  step is to develop mass host (E.  quinoae) rearing and to generate  information on the biology and  reproduction of its parasitoids, to later  have available a tool of natural  biological control.   Cited references   Altieri, A., Nicholls, C. 2010. Diseños   agroecológicos para incrementar la  biodiversidad de entomofauna benéfica  en agroecosistemas. SOCLA. Medellín,  Colombia. 83 p.  Avalos, F. 1996. Identificación y dinámica   poblacional de la polilla de la quinua  Eurysacca melanocampta. Thesis for the  degree of Agricultural Engeneer. Faculty  of Agriculture, UMSA. 121 p.  Costa, F., Yabar, E., Gianoli, E. 2009.   Parasitismo sobre  Eurysacca   melanocampta Meyrick (Lepidoptera:  Gelechiidae) en dos localidades de  Cuzco, Perú. In.  Rev. Fac. Nal. Agr. de  Medellín,  Vol. 62, n. 1. , Medellin,  Colombia. Available at:  http://www.scielo.org.co/scielo.php?script =sci_arttext&pid=S0304-2847200900010 0008&lng=en&nrm=iso>. Retrieved May  23, 2014  Fernández, F., Sharkey, M. 2006. Sistemática   de los himenópteros de la Región  Neotropical: Estado del conocimiento y  perspectivas. In: Introducción a los  Hymenóptera de la Región Neotropical.  Fernández, F. y M. J. Sharkey (Eds.).    Sociedad Colombiana de Entomología y  Universidad Nacional de Colombia,  Bogotá, Colombia. pp. 7-35.  Gauld, I. 1991. The Ichneumonidae of Costa   Rica. 1 Introduction, keys to subfamilies,  and keys to the species of the lower  pimpliform subfamilies: Rhyssinae,  Pimplinae, Poemeniinae, Acaenitinae  and Cylloceriinae. The American  Entomological Institute. Florida, EEUU.  589 p.  IBTA, 1997. Instituto Boliviano de Tecnología   Agropecuaria. Annual Report,  1996-1997. Programa Quinua, IBTA. La  Paz, Bolivia. 185 p.  Mamani, D. 1998. Control biológico en forma   natural de la polilla de la quinua  (Eurysacca melanocampta Meyrick) por  parasitoides y perspectivas de cría para  su manipulación en el Altiplano Central.  Thesis for the degree of Agricultural  Engeneer. Faculty of Agriculture, UMSA.  La Paz, Bolivia. pp. 90-91.  PROINPA, 2003. Fundación para la   Promoción e Investigación de Productos  Andinos. Project Report: Desarrollo y  validación participativa de las  innovaciones tecnológicas que mejoren  las estrategias para manejo sostenible de  la quinua. The McKnight Foundation. La  Paz, Bolivia. 127 p.  PROINPA, 2013. Fundación para la   Promoción e Investigación de Productos  Andinos. Annual Report 2009-2010:  Proyecto Desarrollo y validación    participativa de las innovaciones  tecnológicas que mejoren las estrategias  para manejo sostenible del sistema  centrado en quinua en el Altiplano  boliviano. The McKnight Foundation. La  Paz, Bolivia. 145 p.  Saravia, R., Quispe, R. 2006. Manejo   integrado de las plagas insectiles del  cultivo de la quinua. In: Module 2: Manejo  agronómico de la quinua orgánica.  Fundación PROINPA. pp. 53-86.  Saravia, R., Quispe, R. 2003. Ciclo biológico   de la polilla de la quinua Eurysacca  melanocampta Meyrick. Technical Listing   No.6. PROINPA Foundation.  Cochabamba, Bolivia. 4 p.  Saravia, R., Mamani, A., Bonifacio, A., Alcon,   M. 2008. Diagnóstico de los enemigos  naturales de las plagas del cultivo de  quinua. PROINPA Foundation. Annual  Report 2008-2009. Rubro Granos  Altoandinos. Cochabamba, Bolivia, 215  p.  Sharkey, M. 2006. Two new genera of   Agathidinae (Hymenoptera: Braconidae)  with a key to the genera of the New  World. Zootaxa: 1185: 37-51.  Van Driesche, R., Hoddle, M., Center, D. 2007.   Control de plagas y malezas por  enemigos naturales. USDA. Translated  by E. Ruiz and J. Coronada. Universidad  de Tamaulipas. Cd. Victoria, México. 796  p.      References:        NA   = Northern Altiplano;    CA   = Central Altiplano;    SA    = Southern Altiplano;   CA  CA  CA  CA  CA  CA  CA  CA  SA  SA  SA   NA   In Table 1 it is important to note that the  species identified as H. gelotopoeon, in  2008, was currently identified as  Helicoverpa quinoa by the same author.   This new species was reported as a quinoa  pests based on morphological characters,  genitalia dissection and mitochondrial  analysis. This author suggests that it is  difficult to distinguish between H. quinoa  and H. gelotopoen only by their  morphological differences and that  analysis of genitalia is required. Other  species that have undergone changes in  taxonomy are Heliothis titicaquensis and  Agrotis andina, which were identified as  Helicoverpa titicacae and Agrotis  peruviana according to a morphological  and phylogenetic analysis performed by  Pogue (2014) and San Blas (2014).  Another aspect that stands out is the  inclusion of Copitarsia patagonica in the    2014 list. The other species listed in the  Table maintained their identification.   Geographical distribution of the  identified species    Table 2 shows the list of lepidopteran  pests species associated with the quinoa  crop in the Bolivian Altiplano, detailing  the family to which they belong, the  method of collection, the type of pest and  its geographical distribution. This table  shows that five species of Lepidoptera:  Eurysacca melanocampta, Eurysacca  quinoae, Copitarsia incommoda,  Helicoverpa titicacae and Helicoverpa  quinoa, were listed as key crop pests of  quinoa in the Bolivian Altiplano, four as  casual pests: Copitarsia patagonica,  Helicoverpa atacamae, Dargida  acanthus, Tatochila mercedis and one as  potential pest: Agrotis peruviana.   Figure 1 describes, in detail, the  geographical distribution and abundance  of the species Helicoverpa titicacae and  H. quinoa in the Bolivian Altiplano. It can  be observed that Helicoverpa titicacae is  found mainly in the Northern Altiplano  and extends into the Central Altiplano.  Conversely  H. quinoa is distributed in   quinoa production areas located between  the salt flats of Uyuni and Coipasa  (Southern Altiplano), extending into the  Central Altiplano without reaching the  Northern Altiplano.   Figure 2 shows the distribution and  abundance of Eurysacca melanocampta  and E. quinoae in different quinoa  production areas of the Bolivian  Altiplano. According to this figure, Eurysacca  melanocampta is abundant in the  Northern Altiplano and extends into the  Central Altiplano. In contrast, E. quinoae  is abundant in the South and Central  Altiplano where it is found in high  populations.      ISSN 1998 - 9652    Area: Technology Development 46   Lepidoptera associated to quinoa  in the Bolivian Altiplano: Taxonomic Update   Raúl Saravia; Reinaldo Quispe; Luis Crespo    Trabajo financiado por: Embajada de Holanda; Fundación McKnight; Fundación PROINPA  E mail: r.saravia@proinpa.org    Introduction   The quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd)  crop in the Bolivian Altiplano is attacked  by several species of pest insects. One of  these species is the quinoa moth or "qhona  qhona" Eurysacca quinoae Povolny 1997  (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae), listed as a key  pest of the crop (Avalos 1996) because it  causes losses of over 30% and  significantly reduces grain quality  (Saravia and Quispe, 2003; PROINPA,  2013). The first reports on parasitoid insects of  quinoa moths were registered in  Patacamaya in 1997, by the Quinoa  Programme from the ex - IBTA (IBTA,  1997). Later, specific pieces of work were  performed in some communities of the  Central and Southern Altiplano (Mamani,  1998, PROINPA 2003; PROINPA 2013). As a result of these studies it is known that  the percentage of natural parasitism in  larvae of Eurysacca quinoae reaches up to   40% and, that the parasitoid complex  consists of nine species.  Out of these nine  species, seven belong to the order  Hymenoptera from the families  Braconidae (Meteorus  sp., Apanteles sp.,   Microplitis sp.), Ichneumonidae  (Deleboea sp., Venturia sp., Diadegma  sp.) and Encyrtidae (Copidosoma  sp.),   and two belong to the order Diptera from  the families Tachinidae (Phytomiptera sp.  and  Dolichostoma sp.) (IBTA 1997;   Mamani 1998, and Saravia Quispe 2006;  Saravia et al., 2008;. PROINPA 2013). A parasitoid is understood as every insect,  which in the larval stage is parasitic of  other arthropod (host), while in the adult  phase it lives freely to breed and seek its  host.   Unlike the parasite, the parasitoid in most  cases ends up killing the host (Van  Driessche et al., 2007). The diversity of predators and parasitoids  of a given pest species is related to the  diversity of flowering plants associated to  a cultivar.  The nectar and pollen of these  flowers are important additional food  sources necessary for multiplication  (Altieri and Nicholls, 2010). Areas of quinoa production in the country  are located in three ecoregions: Northern,  Central and Southern Altiplano, these  differ mainly by the rainfall regime, the  quality of soils and crops produced.  The  Southern Altiplano is the driest region  (150-300 mm/year), with sandy soils and  low fertility where the main crop is the  Royal Quinoa. The Northern Altiplano  has higher rainfall (500 mm/year), soils  are more productive and crops produced  include potatoes, quinoa, barley, broad  beans among others. The Central  Altiplano presents intermediate weather  and soil conditions, relating to both  Northern and Southern Altiplano. Given the background mentioned and in  order to update information on the  parasitoids associated with the quinoa  moth, the present study was carried out in  three ecoregions of the Altiplano. The  objective was to identify the parasitoids  and determine natural parasitism on larvae  of  E. quinoae in quinoa plots of the   Bolivian Altiplano.   Materials and methods   Location. The work was implemented in  twelve quinoa producing communities of  the Altiplano, one from the Northern  Altiplano (Lacaya), eight from the Central    Altiplano (Contorno Centro, Contorno  Arriba, Cañaviri, Villa Manquiri,  Colquencha, Viscachani, Calpaya and  Crucero Belen) and three in the Southern  Altiplano (Colcha K, Vinto and Julaca)  (Figure 1). E. quinoae sampling and larval rearing.  The collection of larvae in the quinoa  plots of different communities was  conducted between February and March  2013, period of highest incidence of the  pest. This process was performed using the  method of "Entomological mantle", which  consists of a canvas of 1 m x 1 m stretched  at the base of the plant, then a careful    shaking of the the panicle to produce the  downfall of larvae on the canvas. Larvae  obtained were placed in 200 ml sized  plastic containers enclosing paper towels  at the base, and quinoa leaves and  branches as food for the larvae. These containers were placed in  Styrofoam carriers that were carried to the  Entomology Laboratory of PROINPA  Foundation in Quipaquipani Center  (Viacha-La Paz).  At the laboratory larvae  were selected by size, and placed in  specific quantities, in containers, to  continue their rearing until they reached  the phases of adult moths or parasitoids.   Percentage of natural parasitism and  taxonomic identification. To calculate the  percentage of natural parasitism by  species and community, the following  formula was used: The identification of parasitoids was made  by comparison and using taxonomic keys.  For identification by comparison,  representative specimens of these  biological controllers were mounted, and  compared to specimens described by  Mamani (1998), Saravia and Quispe  (2006) and Costa et al. (2009). In some cases the identification was  confirmed using taxonomic keys provided  by Sharkey (2006) for Braconidae, and  Gauld (1991) for Ichneumonidae, both  corresponding to the Neotropical region. In parallel specimens of interest were sent  to specialized centers (USDA) for  identification.   Results and discussion    Parasitoid complex associated with  larvae of E. quinoae   The parasitoid complex that is regulating  the population of E. quinoae in quinoa  plots located in the Bolivian Altiplano, is  composed of six species (Table 1, Figure  2). Of these six species, five correspond to  the order Hymenoptera and one to  Diptera. Among the wasps, all belong to the sub  order Apocrita, characterized by having  the first abdominal segment together with    the metathorax and separated from the rest  of the abdominal segments with a narrow  waist (Fernandez and Sharkey, 2006).  These wasps are grouped into two  superfamilies: • (medium large   wasps).   •  Cotesia sp. and Meteorus sp. correspond  to the Braconidae family; Venturia sp. and  Deleboea  sp. to Ichneumonidae, and   Copidosoma  sp. to Encyrtidae   (Chalcidoidea). The only Diptera species  Phytomiptera sp. belongs to the Tachinid  family, from the Oestroidae superfamily,  and the sub order Brachycera. Among the parasitoids, the micro-wasp  Copidosoma sp. (Encyrtidae), is a  polyembrionic egg parasitoid that  mummifies moth larvae before they reach  the pupal stage. From mummified larvae,  between 28 to 33 micro-wasps can  emerge. The rest of the wasps are larvo-pupal  endoparasitoids. They infect their host  (quinoa moth larvae) in the early larval  stages, but the effect can only be observed  when they kill the host in the pupal stage.  Biologically this parasitism strategy is  known as koinobiont. There is another  strategy called idiobiont parasitism that  occurs in species that permanently  paralyze their hosts, preventing them to  continue their development after being  parasitized.  This is a desirable feature for  parasitoids that are meant to be used in  biological control programs. In this study  no parasitoids with these characteristics  were found.   Table 1 shows the percentage of natural  parasitism recorded in the different  communities of the Northern, Central and  Southern Altiplano. Overall, the average  percentage of natural parasitism was  higher than 28%, with the communities of  the Central Altiplano (Viscachani,    Contorno Arriba and Cañaviri) recording  the highest percentages of parasitism,  with values above 40%, in comparison to  Colcha K, Vinto and Julaca (Southern  Altiplano), where the lowest percentages  of parasitism were observed, with values  below 5%. The rest of the communities:   Lacaya, Calpaya, Crucero Belén,  Contorno Centro and Villa Manquiri (the  first from the Northern Altiplano and the  rest from the Central Altiplano), recorded  natural parasitism of E. quinoae  fluctuating between 27% and 38%. The  average of 28% of parasitism is a value  that comes close to the efficiency levels of  control for this pest, which is obtained by  using botanical extracts and/or some  bioinsecticides available in local markets.  This shows the important role that these  parasitoids play in the natural regulation  of E. quinoae. Natural parasitism percentages recorded  in each of the communities was the  product of a joint action of a complex of  two to six parasitoids, regulating the larval  population of E. quinoae at different  levels (Annex 1). According to Table 1,  the parasitoids that contributed most to the  regulation of quinoa moth larvae in the  twelve communities are Cotesia sp. and  Meteorus sp., recording average  parasitism above 6%. In contrast, the  micro-wasp  Copidosoma sp. was the   species that contributed least to the  control of E. quinoae (1.2%). The communities that are characterized by  greater diversity of parasitoids are  Viscachani, Contorno Centro and Lacaya,  the first two located in the Central  Altiplano and the last in the Northern  Altiplano, recording a total of six  parasitoids. The communities Colcha K,  Vinto and Julaca in the Southern  Altiplano, recorded two and three  parasitoids (Table 1). Depending on the abundance of  parasitoids (Table 1) two groups can be  clearly observed. The first formed by the  communities of Central and Northern  Altiplano, where Viscachani and    Contorno Centro stand out with the largest  number of parasitoids. The second group  consists of the communities in the  Southern Altiplano with low amounts of  these biological control agents. The  differences can be explained by the  characteristics of agricultural production  in each of these areas, in addition to the  floristic composition of weeds and native  plants registered and distributed in these  areas. The distribution and relative importance  of the six parasitoids identified was highly  variable. Nevertheless, there clearly is one  species found in all locations: the  Tachinido  Phytomiptera sp. which   showed an average frequency of 5.3%,  being the most abundant parasitoid in  Cañaviri (14.3%) and the second most  abundant in Colquencha (11%). In this  regard, Stireman et al. (2009) state that  flies belonging to the Tachinidae family  are diverse and are important natural  enemies of many pests. All known species  of this family are parasitoids of  arthropods, mainly of lepidopteran larvae,  the taxonomic group to which E. quinoae  belongs to. The percentages of parasitism recorded in  this work are lower than those reported by  Mamani (1998) and PROINPA (2013),  who indicate that populations of quinoa  moth larvae in the Central Altiplano have  natural parasitism ranging between 43%  and 65%.   Conclusions   •   the sampled communities is being  regulated by a complex of six  parasitoids: five wasps (Hymenoptera)  and one fly (Diptera). Among the    wasps, the species registered were:  Cotesia sp. (Braconidae), Meteorus sp.  (Braconidae),  Deleboea sp.   (Ichneumonidae), Venturia sp.  (Ichneumonidae) and Copidosoma sp.  (Encyrtidae), and the fly was identified  as Phytomiptera sp. (Tachinidae).  • average of   parasitism was 28% in the twelve  communities, standing out Viscachani  with 44.7% of parasitism on average.  •  Cotesia sp. and Meteorus   sp. were the species with higher levels  of parasitism recorded in communities  of the Northern, Central and Southern  Altiplano.  • natural   percentages recorded in E. quinoae  larvae, in quinoa producing  communities of the Bolivian  Altiplano, show the need to implement  integrated pest management practices  that conserve and increase beneficial  organisms in these agroecosystems.  •   partial perspective of the natural  parasitism on  E. quinoae, as the   sampling period covered a limited time  span. Additionally, only parasitism on   the larval stage of one agricultural  campaign was studied. The possibility  of sampling new parasitoids in the  same places and at different times,  with the same or other collection  methods, is not ruled out.  • the of   elements that influence their control  capability are the effects of climate  change and environmental variability.  Insect pest species are able to respond  quickly to environmental changes.  However, the effect that this response    has on the populations of natural  enemies (parasitoids and predators) is  still unknown. This is an aspect to be  considered when thinking about  implementing biological control  programs.  • of limitations the of   parasitoids (directed releases) in  biological control programs is the  maintenance of massive rearing in the  laboratory. For this purpose, the first  step is to develop mass host (E.  quinoae) rearing and to generate  information on the biology and  reproduction of its parasitoids, to later  have available a tool of natural  biological control.   Cited references   Altieri, A., Nicholls, C. 2010. Diseños   agroecológicos para incrementar la  biodiversidad de entomofauna benéfica  en agroecosistemas. SOCLA. Medellín,  Colombia. 83 p.  Avalos, F. 1996. Identificación y dinámica   poblacional de la polilla de la quinua  Eurysacca melanocampta. Thesis for the  degree of Agricultural Engeneer. Faculty  of Agriculture, UMSA. 121 p.  Costa, F., Yabar, E., Gianoli, E. 2009.   Parasitismo sobre  Eurysacca   melanocampta Meyrick (Lepidoptera:  Gelechiidae) en dos localidades de  Cuzco, Perú. In.  Rev. Fac. Nal. Agr. de  Medellín,  Vol. 62, n. 1. , Medellin,  Colombia. Available at:  http://www.scielo.org.co/scielo.php?script =sci_arttext&pid=S0304-2847200900010 0008&lng=en&nrm=iso>. Retrieved May  23, 2014  Fernández, F., Sharkey, M. 2006. Sistemática   de los himenópteros de la Región  Neotropical: Estado del conocimiento y  perspectivas. In: Introducción a los  Hymenóptera de la Región Neotropical.  Fernández, F. y M. J. Sharkey (Eds.).    Sociedad Colombiana de Entomología y  Universidad Nacional de Colombia,  Bogotá, Colombia. pp. 7-35.  Gauld, I. 1991. The Ichneumonidae of Costa   Rica. 1 Introduction, keys to subfamilies,  and keys to the species of the lower  pimpliform subfamilies: Rhyssinae,  Pimplinae, Poemeniinae, Acaenitinae  and Cylloceriinae. The American  Entomological Institute. Florida, EEUU.  589 p.  IBTA, 1997. Instituto Boliviano de Tecnología   Agropecuaria. Annual Report,  1996-1997. Programa Quinua, IBTA. La  Paz, Bolivia. 185 p.  Mamani, D. 1998. Control biológico en forma   natural de la polilla de la quinua  (Eurysacca melanocampta Meyrick) por  parasitoides y perspectivas de cría para  su manipulación en el Altiplano Central.  Thesis for the degree of Agricultural  Engeneer. Faculty of Agriculture, UMSA.  La Paz, Bolivia. pp. 90-91.  PROINPA, 2003. Fundación para la   Promoción e Investigación de Productos  Andinos. Project Report: Desarrollo y  validación participativa de las  innovaciones tecnológicas que mejoren  las estrategias para manejo sostenible de  la quinua. The McKnight Foundation. La  Paz, Bolivia. 127 p.  PROINPA, 2013. Fundación para la   Promoción e Investigación de Productos  Andinos. Annual Report 2009-2010:  Proyecto Desarrollo y validación    participativa de las innovaciones  tecnológicas que mejoren las estrategias  para manejo sostenible del sistema  centrado en quinua en el Altiplano  boliviano. The McKnight Foundation. La  Paz, Bolivia. 145 p.  Saravia, R., Quispe, R. 2006. Manejo   integrado de las plagas insectiles del  cultivo de la quinua. In: Module 2: Manejo  agronómico de la quinua orgánica.  Fundación PROINPA. pp. 53-86.  Saravia, R., Quispe, R. 2003. Ciclo biológico   de la polilla de la quinua Eurysacca  melanocampta Meyrick. Technical Listing   No.6. PROINPA Foundation.  Cochabamba, Bolivia. 4 p.  Saravia, R., Mamani, A., Bonifacio, A., Alcon,   M. 2008. Diagnóstico de los enemigos  naturales de las plagas del cultivo de  quinua. PROINPA Foundation. Annual  Report 2008-2009. Rubro Granos  Altoandinos. Cochabamba, Bolivia, 215  p.  Sharkey, M. 2006. Two new genera of   Agathidinae (Hymenoptera: Braconidae)  with a key to the genera of the New  World. Zootaxa: 1185: 37-51.  Van Driesche, R., Hoddle, M., Center, D. 2007.   Control de plagas y malezas por  enemigos naturales. USDA. Translated  by E. Ruiz and J. Coronada. Universidad  de Tamaulipas. Cd. Victoria, México. 796  p.      Summary.  The objective of this work was to update the taxonomy of lepidopteran pests   associated to quinoa in the Bolivian Altiplano; and to map their geographical distribution. To this  end lepidopteran larvae were collected in quinoa fields, in the villages of Jalsuri, Konani  (Central Altiplano), Salinas de Garci Mendoza and Chacala (Southern Altiplano), and reared to  obtain adults at the Entomology Laboratory of PROINPA Foundation, located in the village of  Quipaquipani (Viacha, La Paz). Adult insects were also collected using standard type light  traps. Adults from larvae collected in the villages of Jalsuri and Konani, were identified as  Copitarsia incommoda Walker, Helicoverpa quinoa Pogue and Harp, and Dargida acanthus  Herrich - Schaffer. Identifications were led by Dr. Michael Pogue, a lepidopteran identification  specialist from the Entomological Museum of the United States Department of Agriculture  (USDA). Keywords: Entomology; Pests; Taxonomic Identification Resumen. asociados cultivo quinua el Boliviano:   Actualización Taxonómica. El objetivo del presente trabajo fue actualizar la taxonomía de las  plagas de lepidópteros asociados al cultivo de la quinua, en el Altiplano Boliviano, y conocer su  distribución geográfica. Con esta finalidad se recolectaron larvas de lepidópteros en campos  de quinua, en las localidades de Jalsuri, Konani (Altiplano Central), Salinas de Garci Mendoza  y Chacala (Altiplano Sur) y criados hasta la obtención de adultos en el Laboratorio de  Entomología de la Fundación PROINPA, ubicado en la localidad de Quipaquipani (Viacha, La  Paz). También se recolectaron insectos adultos utilizando trampas luz tipo estándar. Los  adultos, provenientes de larvas colectadas en la localidad de Jalsuri y Konani, fueron  identificados como Copitarsia incommoda Walker,  Helicoverpa quinoa Pogue and Harp,   Dargida acanthus Herrich – Schaffer. Las identificaciones fueron lideradas por el Dr. Michael  Pogue, especialista en la identificación de lepidópteros del Museo Entomológico del  Departamento de Agricultura de los Estados Unidos (USDA). Palabras clave: Entomología; Plagas; Identificación Taxonómica   Introduction   Correct identification of species that  damage crops is the basic tool for their  management. In the Bolivian Altiplano,  early work with sex pheromones for  integrated pest management of the quinoa  crop showed that there was inaccuracy in    the identification of major pests of this  crop (Saravia et al., 2013). Subsequent  work to identify lepidopteran pests  associated with the cultivation of quinoa  in the Bolivian Altiplano showed that  harmful species for quinoa in this area are:  Helicoverpa gelotopoeon, Copitarsia  incommoda, Dargida acanthus and    Tatochila mercedis (diurnal butterfly  larva). Recent work based on mitochondrial  DNA analysis and insect genitalia  dissection, by Michael Pogue from the US  Department of Agriculture (USDA) in  coordination with PROINPA  entomologists, showed that the species  Helicoverpa gelotopoeon corresponds to  Helicoverpa quinoa (Pogue, 2014). This  specialist also indicates that it would be  difficult to differentiate the species  H.   quinoa, H. gelotopoeon and H. titicacae  only by morphological characters. Identification of insects and pests in  general is a difficult task. In some cases  there is great similarity between adults  and immature stages of some species,  which makes it difficult to identify them  properly, often creating confusion and  misidentification. Therefore it is  necessary to use advanced methods such  as dissection of genitalia or even  molecular analysis of mitochondria to  separate similar species. A tool of vital  importance for species identification is the  availability of specific taxonomic keys,  also called dichotomous keys.  These are  guides that present a list of phrases that  describe the particular characteristics of  the organisms to classify or identify. As a background we must say that  according to Saravia and Quispe (2005),  lepidoptera species associated with the  quinoa crop are part of the Noctuidae  complex denominated night pests or owlet  moths. Adults are moths commonly  known by farmers as rafaelitos or soul  carriers, considered unlucky. They have a  short and robust body, covered by scales  or medium sized dark brown hairs.   According to Ortiz and Zanabria (1979),  the larvae of these moths are known as  ticonas, ticuchis, sillwi kuro and  earthworm, common names farmers give  to larvae belonging to the Noctuidae  family. The ticonas are a complex group,  consisting of three genera. They feed  cutting the newly emerged plants,  destroying the apical leaves and panicles  in formation. One larva per plant is  enough to cause serious damage to the  crop. The ticonas complex (Helicoverpa,  Copitarsia  and  Dargida) negatively   influence production, causing significant  economic losses (Saravia and Quispe,  2005). It is important to highlight that collecting  insects requires the application of a range  of techniques due to the large number of  species and diversity of life habits each  holds. Most of the techniques used meet  specific objectives depending on the type  of study. However, techniques are  generally divided into direct (active) and  indirect (passive) collection techniques  (Steyskal et al., 1986; Borror et al. 1989). Direct collection is one in which insects  are actively sought in the ecosystems,  using a variety of tools such as  entomological nets, sieves, gardening  shovels, vacuum aspirators, etc. This  strategy is widely used by most collectors  and is most suitable to capture insects in  immature stages. Indirect collection is one in which insects  are caught using some kind of attractant  and which does not imply direct search in  the ecosystems. The type and number of  traps and lure to be used also depends  directly on the research objectives.  Among the traps without attractants there    are "fall" traps, "Malaise" traps and  "interception or window" traps. Among  the traps with bait or attractants, the name  is given by the type of bait used, the most  important are dung bait traps (baited with  excrement), fruit traps, carrion traps, light  traps, Berlese funnel and pheromone traps  (Marquez, 2005). The objectives of this research were to  update the taxonomy of lepidopteran pests  associated with the quinoa crop and their  geographical distribution, in quinoa  production areas of the Bolivian  Altiplano.   Methodology    The identification work in this study was  developed in three stages: In the first stage, immature specimens  were collected in quinoa fields of the  Bolivian Altiplano, during the period of  greatest pest attack. The method used was  direct collection. Larvae collected were  transferred to PROINPA’s Entomology  Laboratory in Quipaquipani Center,  where they were singled out to prevent  cannibalism and were raised on artificial  diet until they reached the pupal and adult  stages. Specimens were then mounted  following the technical recommendations  suggested by Borror et al. (1989). In  parallel, adult insects were captured using  light traps. The light trap used was the  standard, which contained inside a cloth  bag with potassium cyanide to kill insects  trapped. The next day, the insects were    placed in glass jars and transported to the  laboratory to proceed with the mounting. In the second stage material was selected,  prepared and packed to be sent to the  Entomology Laboratory of the US  Department of Agriculture (USDA) for  identification. The  third  stage involved the   identification of specimens sent to  members of the Entomology Laboratory  of the USDA, who using the  morphological description, dissection of  genitalia and mitochondrial analysis  identified specimens submitted. Results  from the analysis were presented during a  visit of  Dr. Michael Pogue from USDA to  Bolivia in January 2014. To understand and visualize the  geographical distribution of species, the  sampling points were georeferenced to  develop distribution maps using the  ArgGIS ® application.   Results and discussion    Species identification   Table 1 shows the list of species that were  managed from 2008 to 2013 and the list of  species identified in 2014 by Dr. Pogue.  The table shows that there are 10 species  of Lepidoptera associated with the quinoa  crop in the Bolivian Altiplano.     In Table 1 it is important to note that the  species identified as H. gelotopoeon, in  2008, was currently identified as  Helicoverpa quinoa by the same author.   This new species was reported as a quinoa  pests based on morphological characters,  genitalia dissection and mitochondrial  analysis. This author suggests that it is  difficult to distinguish between H. quinoa  and H. gelotopoen only by their  morphological differences and that  analysis of genitalia is required. Other  species that have undergone changes in  taxonomy are Heliothis titicaquensis and  Agrotis andina, which were identified as  Helicoverpa titicacae and Agrotis  peruviana according to a morphological  and phylogenetic analysis performed by  Pogue (2014) and San Blas (2014).  Another aspect that stands out is the  inclusion of Copitarsia patagonica in the    2014 list. The other species listed in the  Table maintained their identification.   Geographical distribution of the  identified species    Table 2 shows the list of lepidopteran  pests species associated with the quinoa  crop in the Bolivian Altiplano, detailing  the family to which they belong, the  method of collection, the type of pest and  its geographical distribution. This table  shows that five species of Lepidoptera:  Eurysacca melanocampta, Eurysacca  quinoae, Copitarsia incommoda,  Helicoverpa titicacae and Helicoverpa  quinoa, were listed as key crop pests of  quinoa in the Bolivian Altiplano, four as  casual pests: Copitarsia patagonica,  Helicoverpa atacamae, Dargida  acanthus, Tatochila mercedis and one as  potential pest: Agrotis peruviana.   Figure 1 describes, in detail, the  geographical distribution and abundance  of the species Helicoverpa titicacae and  H. quinoa in the Bolivian Altiplano. It can  be observed that Helicoverpa titicacae is  found mainly in the Northern Altiplano  and extends into the Central Altiplano.  Conversely  H. quinoa is distributed in   quinoa production areas located between  the salt flats of Uyuni and Coipasa  (Southern Altiplano), extending into the  Central Altiplano without reaching the  Northern Altiplano.   Figure 2 shows the distribution and  abundance of Eurysacca melanocampta  and E. quinoae in different quinoa  production areas of the Bolivian  Altiplano. According to this figure, Eurysacca  melanocampta is abundant in the  Northern Altiplano and extends into the  Central Altiplano. In contrast, E. quinoae  is abundant in the South and Central  Altiplano where it is found in high  populations.      Revista de Agricultura, Nro. 54 - Julio de 2014    Area: Technology Development 47   Introduction   The quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd)  crop in the Bolivian Altiplano is attacked  by several species of pest insects. One of  these species is the quinoa moth or "qhona  qhona" Eurysacca quinoae Povolny 1997  (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae), listed as a key  pest of the crop (Avalos 1996) because it  causes losses of over 30% and  significantly reduces grain quality  (Saravia and Quispe, 2003; PROINPA,  2013). The first reports on parasitoid insects of  quinoa moths were registered in  Patacamaya in 1997, by the Quinoa  Programme from the ex - IBTA (IBTA,  1997). Later, specific pieces of work were  performed in some communities of the  Central and Southern Altiplano (Mamani,  1998, PROINPA 2003; PROINPA 2013). As a result of these studies it is known that  the percentage of natural parasitism in  larvae of Eurysacca quinoae reaches up to   40% and, that the parasitoid complex  consists of nine species.  Out of these nine  species, seven belong to the order  Hymenoptera from the families  Braconidae (Meteorus  sp., Apanteles sp.,   Microplitis sp.), Ichneumonidae  (Deleboea sp., Venturia sp., Diadegma  sp.) and Encyrtidae (Copidosoma  sp.),   and two belong to the order Diptera from  the families Tachinidae (Phytomiptera sp.  and  Dolichostoma sp.) (IBTA 1997;   Mamani 1998, and Saravia Quispe 2006;  Saravia et al., 2008;. PROINPA 2013). A parasitoid is understood as every insect,  which in the larval stage is parasitic of  other arthropod (host), while in the adult  phase it lives freely to breed and seek its  host.   Unlike the parasite, the parasitoid in most  cases ends up killing the host (Van  Driessche et al., 2007). The diversity of predators and parasitoids  of a given pest species is related to the  diversity of flowering plants associated to  a cultivar.  The nectar and pollen of these  flowers are important additional food  sources necessary for multiplication  (Altieri and Nicholls, 2010). Areas of quinoa production in the country  are located in three ecoregions: Northern,  Central and Southern Altiplano, these  differ mainly by the rainfall regime, the  quality of soils and crops produced.  The  Southern Altiplano is the driest region  (150-300 mm/year), with sandy soils and  low fertility where the main crop is the  Royal Quinoa. The Northern Altiplano  has higher rainfall (500 mm/year), soils  are more productive and crops produced  include potatoes, quinoa, barley, broad  beans among others. The Central  Altiplano presents intermediate weather  and soil conditions, relating to both  Northern and Southern Altiplano. Given the background mentioned and in  order to update information on the  parasitoids associated with the quinoa  moth, the present study was carried out in  three ecoregions of the Altiplano. The  objective was to identify the parasitoids  and determine natural parasitism on larvae  of  E. quinoae in quinoa plots of the   Bolivian Altiplano.   Materials and methods   Location. The work was implemented in  twelve quinoa producing communities of  the Altiplano, one from the Northern  Altiplano (Lacaya), eight from the Central    Altiplano (Contorno Centro, Contorno  Arriba, Cañaviri, Villa Manquiri,  Colquencha, Viscachani, Calpaya and  Crucero Belen) and three in the Southern  Altiplano (Colcha K, Vinto and Julaca)  (Figure 1). E. quinoae sampling and larval rearing.  The collection of larvae in the quinoa  plots of different communities was  conducted between February and March  2013, period of highest incidence of the  pest. This process was performed using the  method of "Entomological mantle", which  consists of a canvas of 1 m x 1 m stretched  at the base of the plant, then a careful    shaking of the the panicle to produce the  downfall of larvae on the canvas. Larvae  obtained were placed in 200 ml sized  plastic containers enclosing paper towels  at the base, and quinoa leaves and  branches as food for the larvae. These containers were placed in  Styrofoam carriers that were carried to the  Entomology Laboratory of PROINPA  Foundation in Quipaquipani Center  (Viacha-La Paz).  At the laboratory larvae  were selected by size, and placed in  specific quantities, in containers, to  continue their rearing until they reached  the phases of adult moths or parasitoids.   Percentage of natural parasitism and  taxonomic identification. To calculate the  percentage of natural parasitism by  species and community, the following  formula was used: The identification of parasitoids was made  by comparison and using taxonomic keys.  For identification by comparison,  representative specimens of these  biological controllers were mounted, and  compared to specimens described by  Mamani (1998), Saravia and Quispe  (2006) and Costa et al. (2009). In some cases the identification was  confirmed using taxonomic keys provided  by Sharkey (2006) for Braconidae, and  Gauld (1991) for Ichneumonidae, both  corresponding to the Neotropical region. In parallel specimens of interest were sent  to specialized centers (USDA) for  identification.   Results and discussion    Parasitoid complex associated with  larvae of E. quinoae   The parasitoid complex that is regulating  the population of E. quinoae in quinoa  plots located in the Bolivian Altiplano, is  composed of six species (Table 1, Figure  2). Of these six species, five correspond to  the order Hymenoptera and one to  Diptera. Among the wasps, all belong to the sub  order Apocrita, characterized by having  the first abdominal segment together with    the metathorax and separated from the rest  of the abdominal segments with a narrow  waist (Fernandez and Sharkey, 2006).  These wasps are grouped into two  superfamilies: • (medium large   wasps).   •  Cotesia sp. and Meteorus sp. correspond  to the Braconidae family; Venturia sp. and  Deleboea  sp. to Ichneumonidae, and   Copidosoma  sp. to Encyrtidae   (Chalcidoidea). The only Diptera species  Phytomiptera sp. belongs to the Tachinid  family, from the Oestroidae superfamily,  and the sub order Brachycera. Among the parasitoids, the micro-wasp  Copidosoma sp. (Encyrtidae), is a  polyembrionic egg parasitoid that  mummifies moth larvae before they reach  the pupal stage. From mummified larvae,  between 28 to 33 micro-wasps can  emerge. The rest of the wasps are larvo-pupal  endoparasitoids. They infect their host  (quinoa moth larvae) in the early larval  stages, but the effect can only be observed  when they kill the host in the pupal stage.  Biologically this parasitism strategy is  known as koinobiont. There is another  strategy called idiobiont parasitism that  occurs in species that permanently  paralyze their hosts, preventing them to  continue their development after being  parasitized.  This is a desirable feature for  parasitoids that are meant to be used in  biological control programs. In this study  no parasitoids with these characteristics  were found.   Table 1 shows the percentage of natural  parasitism recorded in the different  communities of the Northern, Central and  Southern Altiplano. Overall, the average  percentage of natural parasitism was  higher than 28%, with the communities of  the Central Altiplano (Viscachani,    Contorno Arriba and Cañaviri) recording  the highest percentages of parasitism,  with values above 40%, in comparison to  Colcha K, Vinto and Julaca (Southern  Altiplano), where the lowest percentages  of parasitism were observed, with values  below 5%. The rest of the communities:   Lacaya, Calpaya, Crucero Belén,  Contorno Centro and Villa Manquiri (the  first from the Northern Altiplano and the  rest from the Central Altiplano), recorded  natural parasitism of E. quinoae  fluctuating between 27% and 38%. The  average of 28% of parasitism is a value  that comes close to the efficiency levels of  control for this pest, which is obtained by  using botanical extracts and/or some  bioinsecticides available in local markets.  This shows the important role that these  parasitoids play in the natural regulation  of E. quinoae. Natural parasitism percentages recorded  in each of the communities was the  product of a joint action of a complex of  two to six parasitoids, regulating the larval  population of E. quinoae at different  levels (Annex 1). According to Table 1,  the parasitoids that contributed most to the  regulation of quinoa moth larvae in the  twelve communities are Cotesia sp. and  Meteorus sp., recording average  parasitism above 6%. In contrast, the  micro-wasp  Copidosoma sp. was the   species that contributed least to the  control of E. quinoae (1.2%). The communities that are characterized by  greater diversity of parasitoids are  Viscachani, Contorno Centro and Lacaya,  the first two located in the Central  Altiplano and the last in the Northern  Altiplano, recording a total of six  parasitoids. The communities Colcha K,  Vinto and Julaca in the Southern  Altiplano, recorded two and three  parasitoids (Table 1). Depending on the abundance of  parasitoids (Table 1) two groups can be  clearly observed. The first formed by the  communities of Central and Northern  Altiplano, where Viscachani and    Contorno Centro stand out with the largest  number of parasitoids. The second group  consists of the communities in the  Southern Altiplano with low amounts of  these biological control agents. The  differences can be explained by the  characteristics of agricultural production  in each of these areas, in addition to the  floristic composition of weeds and native  plants registered and distributed in these  areas. The distribution and relative importance  of the six parasitoids identified was highly  variable. Nevertheless, there clearly is one  species found in all locations: the  Tachinido  Phytomiptera sp. which   showed an average frequency of 5.3%,  being the most abundant parasitoid in  Cañaviri (14.3%) and the second most  abundant in Colquencha (11%). In this  regard, Stireman et al. (2009) state that  flies belonging to the Tachinidae family  are diverse and are important natural  enemies of many pests. All known species  of this family are parasitoids of  arthropods, mainly of lepidopteran larvae,  the taxonomic group to which E. quinoae  belongs to. The percentages of parasitism recorded in  this work are lower than those reported by  Mamani (1998) and PROINPA (2013),  who indicate that populations of quinoa  moth larvae in the Central Altiplano have  natural parasitism ranging between 43%  and 65%.   Conclusions   •   the sampled communities is being  regulated by a complex of six  parasitoids: five wasps (Hymenoptera)  and one fly (Diptera). Among the    wasps, the species registered were:  Cotesia sp. (Braconidae), Meteorus sp.  (Braconidae),  Deleboea sp.   (Ichneumonidae), Venturia sp.  (Ichneumonidae) and Copidosoma sp.  (Encyrtidae), and the fly was identified  as Phytomiptera sp. (Tachinidae).  • average of   parasitism was 28% in the twelve  communities, standing out Viscachani  with 44.7% of parasitism on average.  •  Cotesia sp. and Meteorus   sp. were the species with higher levels  of parasitism recorded in communities  of the Northern, Central and Southern  Altiplano.  • natural   percentages recorded in E. quinoae  larvae, in quinoa producing  communities of the Bolivian  Altiplano, show the need to implement  integrated pest management practices  that conserve and increase beneficial  organisms in these agroecosystems.  •   partial perspective of the natural  parasitism on  E. quinoae, as the   sampling period covered a limited time  span. Additionally, only parasitism on   the larval stage of one agricultural  campaign was studied. The possibility  of sampling new parasitoids in the  same places and at different times,  with the same or other collection  methods, is not ruled out.  • the of   elements that influence their control  capability are the effects of climate  change and environmental variability.  Insect pest species are able to respond  quickly to environmental changes.  However, the effect that this response    has on the populations of natural  enemies (parasitoids and predators) is  still unknown. This is an aspect to be  considered when thinking about  implementing biological control  programs.  • of limitations the of   parasitoids (directed releases) in  biological control programs is the  maintenance of massive rearing in the  laboratory. For this purpose, the first  step is to develop mass host (E.  quinoae) rearing and to generate  information on the biology and  reproduction of its parasitoids, to later  have available a tool of natural  biological control.   Cited references   Altieri, A., Nicholls, C. 2010. Diseños   agroecológicos para incrementar la  biodiversidad de entomofauna benéfica  en agroecosistemas. SOCLA. Medellín,  Colombia. 83 p.  Avalos, F. 1996. Identificación y dinámica   poblacional de la polilla de la quinua  Eurysacca melanocampta. Thesis for the  degree of Agricultural Engeneer. Faculty  of Agriculture, UMSA. 121 p.  Costa, F., Yabar, E., Gianoli, E. 2009.   Parasitismo sobre  Eurysacca   melanocampta Meyrick (Lepidoptera:  Gelechiidae) en dos localidades de  Cuzco, Perú. In.  Rev. Fac. Nal. Agr. de  Medellín,  Vol. 62, n. 1. , Medellin,  Colombia. Available at:  http://www.scielo.org.co/scielo.php?script =sci_arttext&pid=S0304-2847200900010 0008&lng=en&nrm=iso>. Retrieved May  23, 2014  Fernández, F., Sharkey, M. 2006. Sistemática   de los himenópteros de la Región  Neotropical: Estado del conocimiento y  perspectivas. In: Introducción a los  Hymenóptera de la Región Neotropical.  Fernández, F. y M. J. Sharkey (Eds.).    Sociedad Colombiana de Entomología y  Universidad Nacional de Colombia,  Bogotá, Colombia. pp. 7-35.  Gauld, I. 1991. The Ichneumonidae of Costa   Rica. 1 Introduction, keys to subfamilies,  and keys to the species of the lower  pimpliform subfamilies: Rhyssinae,  Pimplinae, Poemeniinae, Acaenitinae  and Cylloceriinae. The American  Entomological Institute. Florida, EEUU.  589 p.  IBTA, 1997. Instituto Boliviano de Tecnología   Agropecuaria. Annual Report,  1996-1997. Programa Quinua, IBTA. La  Paz, Bolivia. 185 p.  Mamani, D. 1998. Control biológico en forma   natural de la polilla de la quinua  (Eurysacca melanocampta Meyrick) por  parasitoides y perspectivas de cría para  su manipulación en el Altiplano Central.  Thesis for the degree of Agricultural  Engeneer. Faculty of Agriculture, UMSA.  La Paz, Bolivia. pp. 90-91.  PROINPA, 2003. Fundación para la   Promoción e Investigación de Productos  Andinos. Project Report: Desarrollo y  validación participativa de las  innovaciones tecnológicas que mejoren  las estrategias para manejo sostenible de  la quinua. The McKnight Foundation. La  Paz, Bolivia. 127 p.  PROINPA, 2013. Fundación para la   Promoción e Investigación de Productos  Andinos. Annual Report 2009-2010:  Proyecto Desarrollo y validación    participativa de las innovaciones  tecnológicas que mejoren las estrategias  para manejo sostenible del sistema  centrado en quinua en el Altiplano  boliviano. The McKnight Foundation. La  Paz, Bolivia. 145 p.  Saravia, R., Quispe, R. 2006. Manejo   integrado de las plagas insectiles del  cultivo de la quinua. In: Module 2: Manejo  agronómico de la quinua orgánica.  Fundación PROINPA. pp. 53-86.  Saravia, R., Quispe, R. 2003. Ciclo biológico   de la polilla de la quinua Eurysacca  melanocampta Meyrick. Technical Listing   No.6. PROINPA Foundation.  Cochabamba, Bolivia. 4 p.  Saravia, R., Mamani, A., Bonifacio, A., Alcon,   M. 2008. Diagnóstico de los enemigos  naturales de las plagas del cultivo de  quinua. PROINPA Foundation. Annual  Report 2008-2009. Rubro Granos  Altoandinos. Cochabamba, Bolivia, 215  p.  Sharkey, M. 2006. Two new genera of   Agathidinae (Hymenoptera: Braconidae)  with a key to the genera of the New  World. Zootaxa: 1185: 37-51.  Van Driesche, R., Hoddle, M., Center, D. 2007.   Control de plagas y malezas por  enemigos naturales. USDA. Translated  by E. Ruiz and J. Coronada. Universidad  de Tamaulipas. Cd. Victoria, México. 796  p.      Introduction   Correct identification of species that  damage crops is the basic tool for their  management. In the Bolivian Altiplano,  early work with sex pheromones for  integrated pest management of the quinoa  crop showed that there was inaccuracy in    the identification of major pests of this  crop (Saravia et al., 2013). Subsequent  work to identify lepidopteran pests  associated with the cultivation of quinoa  in the Bolivian Altiplano showed that  harmful species for quinoa in this area are:  Helicoverpa gelotopoeon, Copitarsia  incommoda, Dargida acanthus and    Tatochila mercedis (diurnal butterfly  larva). Recent work based on mitochondrial  DNA analysis and insect genitalia  dissection, by Michael Pogue from the US  Department of Agriculture (USDA) in  coordination with PROINPA  entomologists, showed that the species  Helicoverpa gelotopoeon corresponds to  Helicoverpa quinoa (Pogue, 2014). This  specialist also indicates that it would be  difficult to differentiate the species  H.   quinoa, H. gelotopoeon and H. titicacae  only by morphological characters. Identification of insects and pests in  general is a difficult task. In some cases  there is great similarity between adults  and immature stages of some species,  which makes it difficult to identify them  properly, often creating confusion and  misidentification. Therefore it is  necessary to use advanced methods such  as dissection of genitalia or even  molecular analysis of mitochondria to  separate similar species. A tool of vital  importance for species identification is the  availability of specific taxonomic keys,  also called dichotomous keys.  These are  guides that present a list of phrases that  describe the particular characteristics of  the organisms to classify or identify. As a background we must say that  according to Saravia and Quispe (2005),  lepidoptera species associated with the  quinoa crop are part of the Noctuidae  complex denominated night pests or owlet  moths. Adults are moths commonly  known by farmers as rafaelitos or soul  carriers, considered unlucky. They have a  short and robust body, covered by scales  or medium sized dark brown hairs.   According to Ortiz and Zanabria (1979),  the larvae of these moths are known as  ticonas, ticuchis, sillwi kuro and  earthworm, common names farmers give  to larvae belonging to the Noctuidae  family. The ticonas are a complex group,  consisting of three genera. They feed  cutting the newly emerged plants,  destroying the apical leaves and panicles  in formation. One larva per plant is  enough to cause serious damage to the  crop. The ticonas complex (Helicoverpa,  Copitarsia  and  Dargida) negatively   influence production, causing significant  economic losses (Saravia and Quispe,  2005). It is important to highlight that collecting  insects requires the application of a range  of techniques due to the large number of  species and diversity of life habits each  holds. Most of the techniques used meet  specific objectives depending on the type  of study. However, techniques are  generally divided into direct (active) and  indirect (passive) collection techniques  (Steyskal et al., 1986; Borror et al. 1989). Direct collection is one in which insects  are actively sought in the ecosystems,  using a variety of tools such as  entomological nets, sieves, gardening  shovels, vacuum aspirators, etc. This  strategy is widely used by most collectors  and is most suitable to capture insects in  immature stages. Indirect collection is one in which insects  are caught using some kind of attractant  and which does not imply direct search in  the ecosystems. The type and number of  traps and lure to be used also depends  directly on the research objectives.  Among the traps without attractants there    are "fall" traps, "Malaise" traps and  "interception or window" traps. Among  the traps with bait or attractants, the name  is given by the type of bait used, the most  important are dung bait traps (baited with  excrement), fruit traps, carrion traps, light  traps, Berlese funnel and pheromone traps  (Marquez, 2005). The objectives of this research were to  update the taxonomy of lepidopteran pests  associated with the quinoa crop and their  geographical distribution, in quinoa  production areas of the Bolivian  Altiplano.   Methodology    The identification work in this study was  developed in three stages: In the first stage, immature specimens  were collected in quinoa fields of the  Bolivian Altiplano, during the period of  greatest pest attack. The method used was  direct collection. Larvae collected were  transferred to PROINPA’s Entomology  Laboratory in Quipaquipani Center,  where they were singled out to prevent  cannibalism and were raised on artificial  diet until they reached the pupal and adult  stages. Specimens were then mounted  following the technical recommendations  suggested by Borror et al. (1989). In  parallel, adult insects were captured using  light traps. The light trap used was the  standard, which contained inside a cloth  bag with potassium cyanide to kill insects  trapped. The next day, the insects were    placed in glass jars and transported to the  laboratory to proceed with the mounting. In the second stage material was selected,  prepared and packed to be sent to the  Entomology Laboratory of the US  Department of Agriculture (USDA) for  identification. The  third  stage involved the   identification of specimens sent to  members of the Entomology Laboratory  of the USDA, who using the  morphological description, dissection of  genitalia and mitochondrial analysis  identified specimens submitted. Results  from the analysis were presented during a  visit of  Dr. Michael Pogue from USDA to  Bolivia in January 2014. To understand and visualize the  geographical distribution of species, the  sampling points were georeferenced to  develop distribution maps using the  ArgGIS ® application.   Results and discussion    Species identification   Table 1 shows the list of species that were  managed from 2008 to 2013 and the list of  species identified in 2014 by Dr. Pogue.  The table shows that there are 10 species  of Lepidoptera associated with the quinoa  crop in the Bolivian Altiplano.     In Table 1 it is important to note that the  species identified as H. gelotopoeon, in  2008, was currently identified as  Helicoverpa quinoa by the same author.   This new species was reported as a quinoa  pests based on morphological characters,  genitalia dissection and mitochondrial  analysis. This author suggests that it is  difficult to distinguish between H. quinoa  and H. gelotopoen only by their  morphological differences and that  analysis of genitalia is required. Other  species that have undergone changes in  taxonomy are Heliothis titicaquensis and  Agrotis andina, which were identified as  Helicoverpa titicacae and Agrotis  peruviana according to a morphological  and phylogenetic analysis performed by  Pogue (2014) and San Blas (2014).  Another aspect that stands out is the  inclusion of Copitarsia patagonica in the    2014 list. The other species listed in the  Table maintained their identification.   Geographical distribution of the  identified species    Table 2 shows the list of lepidopteran  pests species associated with the quinoa  crop in the Bolivian Altiplano, detailing  the family to which they belong, the  method of collection, the type of pest and  its geographical distribution. This table  shows that five species of Lepidoptera:  Eurysacca melanocampta, Eurysacca  quinoae, Copitarsia incommoda,  Helicoverpa titicacae and Helicoverpa  quinoa, were listed as key crop pests of  quinoa in the Bolivian Altiplano, four as  casual pests: Copitarsia patagonica,  Helicoverpa atacamae, Dargida  acanthus, Tatochila mercedis and one as  potential pest: Agrotis peruviana.   Figure 1 describes, in detail, the  geographical distribution and abundance  of the species Helicoverpa titicacae and  H. quinoa in the Bolivian Altiplano. It can  be observed that Helicoverpa titicacae is  found mainly in the Northern Altiplano  and extends into the Central Altiplano.  Conversely  H. quinoa is distributed in   quinoa production areas located between  the salt flats of Uyuni and Coipasa  (Southern Altiplano), extending into the  Central Altiplano without reaching the  Northern Altiplano.   Figure 2 shows the distribution and  abundance of Eurysacca melanocampta  and E. quinoae in different quinoa  production areas of the Bolivian  Altiplano. According to this figure, Eurysacca  melanocampta is abundant in the  Northern Altiplano and extends into the  Central Altiplano. In contrast, E. quinoae  is abundant in the South and Central  Altiplano where it is found in high  populations.      ISSN 1998 - 9652    Area: Technology Development 48   Introduction   The quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd)  crop in the Bolivian Altiplano is attacked  by several species of pest insects. One of  these species is the quinoa moth or "qhona  qhona" Eurysacca quinoae Povolny 1997  (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae), listed as a key  pest of the crop (Avalos 1996) because it  causes losses of over 30% and  significantly reduces grain quality  (Saravia and Quispe, 2003; PROINPA,  2013). The first reports on parasitoid insects of  quinoa moths were registered in  Patacamaya in 1997, by the Quinoa  Programme from the ex - IBTA (IBTA,  1997). Later, specific pieces of work were  performed in some communities of the  Central and Southern Altiplano (Mamani,  1998, PROINPA 2003; PROINPA 2013). As a result of these studies it is known that  the percentage of natural parasitism in  larvae of Eurysacca quinoae reaches up to   40% and, that the parasitoid complex  consists of nine species.  Out of these nine  species, seven belong to the order  Hymenoptera from the families  Braconidae (Meteorus  sp., Apanteles sp.,   Microplitis sp.), Ichneumonidae  (Deleboea sp., Venturia sp., Diadegma  sp.) and Encyrtidae (Copidosoma  sp.),   and two belong to the order Diptera from  the families Tachinidae (Phytomiptera sp.  and  Dolichostoma sp.) (IBTA 1997;   Mamani 1998, and Saravia Quispe 2006;  Saravia et al., 2008;. PROINPA 2013). A parasitoid is understood as every insect,  which in the larval stage is parasitic of  other arthropod (host), while in the adult  phase it lives freely to breed and seek its  host.   Unlike the parasite, the parasitoid in most  cases ends up killing the host (Van  Driessche et al., 2007). The diversity of predators and parasitoids  of a given pest species is related to the  diversity of flowering plants associated to  a cultivar.  The nectar and pollen of these  flowers are important additional food  sources necessary for multiplication  (Altieri and Nicholls, 2010). Areas of quinoa production in the country  are located in three ecoregions: Northern,  Central and Southern Altiplano, these  differ mainly by the rainfall regime, the  quality of soils and crops produced.  The  Southern Altiplano is the driest region  (150-300 mm/year), with sandy soils and  low fertility where the main crop is the  Royal Quinoa. The Northern Altiplano  has higher rainfall (500 mm/year), soils  are more productive and crops produced  include potatoes, quinoa, barley, broad  beans among others. The Central  Altiplano presents intermediate weather  and soil conditions, relating to both  Northern and Southern Altiplano. Given the background mentioned and in  order to update information on the  parasitoids associated with the quinoa  moth, the present study was carried out in  three ecoregions of the Altiplano. The  objective was to identify the parasitoids  and determine natural parasitism on larvae  of  E. quinoae in quinoa plots of the   Bolivian Altiplano.   Materials and methods   Location. The work was implemented in  twelve quinoa producing communities of  the Altiplano, one from the Northern  Altiplano (Lacaya), eight from the Central    Altiplano (Contorno Centro, Contorno  Arriba, Cañaviri, Villa Manquiri,  Colquencha, Viscachani, Calpaya and  Crucero Belen) and three in the Southern  Altiplano (Colcha K, Vinto and Julaca)  (Figure 1). E. quinoae sampling and larval rearing.  The collection of larvae in the quinoa  plots of different communities was  conducted between February and March  2013, period of highest incidence of the  pest. This process was performed using the  method of "Entomological mantle", which  consists of a canvas of 1 m x 1 m stretched  at the base of the plant, then a careful    shaking of the the panicle to produce the  downfall of larvae on the canvas. Larvae  obtained were placed in 200 ml sized  plastic containers enclosing paper towels  at the base, and quinoa leaves and  branches as food for the larvae. These containers were placed in  Styrofoam carriers that were carried to the  Entomology Laboratory of PROINPA  Foundation in Quipaquipani Center  (Viacha-La Paz).  At the laboratory larvae  were selected by size, and placed in  specific quantities, in containers, to  continue their rearing until they reached  the phases of adult moths or parasitoids.   Percentage of natural parasitism and  taxonomic identification. To calculate the  percentage of natural parasitism by  species and community, the following  formula was used: The identification of parasitoids was made  by comparison and using taxonomic keys.  For identification by comparison,  representative specimens of these  biological controllers were mounted, and  compared to specimens described by  Mamani (1998), Saravia and Quispe  (2006) and Costa et al. (2009). In some cases the identification was  confirmed using taxonomic keys provided  by Sharkey (2006) for Braconidae, and  Gauld (1991) for Ichneumonidae, both  corresponding to the Neotropical region. In parallel specimens of interest were sent  to specialized centers (USDA) for  identification.   Results and discussion    Parasitoid complex associated with  larvae of E. quinoae   The parasitoid complex that is regulating  the population of E. quinoae in quinoa  plots located in the Bolivian Altiplano, is  composed of six species (Table 1, Figure  2). Of these six species, five correspond to  the order Hymenoptera and one to  Diptera. Among the wasps, all belong to the sub  order Apocrita, characterized by having  the first abdominal segment together with    the metathorax and separated from the rest  of the abdominal segments with a narrow  waist (Fernandez and Sharkey, 2006).  These wasps are grouped into two  superfamilies: • (medium large   wasps).   •  Cotesia sp. and Meteorus sp. correspond  to the Braconidae family; Venturia sp. and  Deleboea  sp. to Ichneumonidae, and   Copidosoma  sp. to Encyrtidae   (Chalcidoidea). The only Diptera species  Phytomiptera sp. belongs to the Tachinid  family, from the Oestroidae superfamily,  and the sub order Brachycera. Among the parasitoids, the micro-wasp  Copidosoma sp. (Encyrtidae), is a  polyembrionic egg parasitoid that  mummifies moth larvae before they reach  the pupal stage. From mummified larvae,  between 28 to 33 micro-wasps can  emerge. The rest of the wasps are larvo-pupal  endoparasitoids. They infect their host  (quinoa moth larvae) in the early larval  stages, but the effect can only be observed  when they kill the host in the pupal stage.  Biologically this parasitism strategy is  known as koinobiont. There is another  strategy called idiobiont parasitism that  occurs in species that permanently  paralyze their hosts, preventing them to  continue their development after being  parasitized.  This is a desirable feature for  parasitoids that are meant to be used in  biological control programs. In this study  no parasitoids with these characteristics  were found.   Table 1 shows the percentage of natural  parasitism recorded in the different  communities of the Northern, Central and  Southern Altiplano. Overall, the average  percentage of natural parasitism was  higher than 28%, with the communities of  the Central Altiplano (Viscachani,    Contorno Arriba and Cañaviri) recording  the highest percentages of parasitism,  with values above 40%, in comparison to  Colcha K, Vinto and Julaca (Southern  Altiplano), where the lowest percentages  of parasitism were observed, with values  below 5%. The rest of the communities:   Lacaya, Calpaya, Crucero Belén,  Contorno Centro and Villa Manquiri (the  first from the Northern Altiplano and the  rest from the Central Altiplano), recorded  natural parasitism of E. quinoae  fluctuating between 27% and 38%. The  average of 28% of parasitism is a value  that comes close to the efficiency levels of  control for this pest, which is obtained by  using botanical extracts and/or some  bioinsecticides available in local markets.  This shows the important role that these  parasitoids play in the natural regulation  of E. quinoae. Natural parasitism percentages recorded  in each of the communities was the  product of a joint action of a complex of  two to six parasitoids, regulating the larval  population of E. quinoae at different  levels (Annex 1). According to Table 1,  the parasitoids that contributed most to the  regulation of quinoa moth larvae in the  twelve communities are Cotesia sp. and  Meteorus sp., recording average  parasitism above 6%. In contrast, the  micro-wasp  Copidosoma sp. was the   species that contributed least to the  control of E. quinoae (1.2%). The communities that are characterized by  greater diversity of parasitoids are  Viscachani, Contorno Centro and Lacaya,  the first two located in the Central  Altiplano and the last in the Northern  Altiplano, recording a total of six  parasitoids. The communities Colcha K,  Vinto and Julaca in the Southern  Altiplano, recorded two and three  parasitoids (Table 1). Depending on the abundance of  parasitoids (Table 1) two groups can be  clearly observed. The first formed by the  communities of Central and Northern  Altiplano, where Viscachani and    Contorno Centro stand out with the largest  number of parasitoids. The second group  consists of the communities in the  Southern Altiplano with low amounts of  these biological control agents. The  differences can be explained by the  characteristics of agricultural production  in each of these areas, in addition to the  floristic composition of weeds and native  plants registered and distributed in these  areas. The distribution and relative importance  of the six parasitoids identified was highly  variable. Nevertheless, there clearly is one  species found in all locations: the  Tachinido  Phytomiptera sp. which   showed an average frequency of 5.3%,  being the most abundant parasitoid in  Cañaviri (14.3%) and the second most  abundant in Colquencha (11%). In this  regard, Stireman et al. (2009) state that  flies belonging to the Tachinidae family  are diverse and are important natural  enemies of many pests. All known species  of this family are parasitoids of  arthropods, mainly of lepidopteran larvae,  the taxonomic group to which E. quinoae  belongs to. The percentages of parasitism recorded in  this work are lower than those reported by  Mamani (1998) and PROINPA (2013),  who indicate that populations of quinoa  moth larvae in the Central Altiplano have  natural parasitism ranging between 43%  and 65%.   Conclusions   •   the sampled communities is being  regulated by a complex of six  parasitoids: five wasps (Hymenoptera)  and one fly (Diptera). Among the    wasps, the species registered were:  Cotesia sp. (Braconidae), Meteorus sp.  (Braconidae),  Deleboea sp.   (Ichneumonidae), Venturia sp.  (Ichneumonidae) and Copidosoma sp.  (Encyrtidae), and the fly was identified  as Phytomiptera sp. (Tachinidae).  • average of   parasitism was 28% in the twelve  communities, standing out Viscachani  with 44.7% of parasitism on average.  •  Cotesia sp. and Meteorus   sp. were the species with higher levels  of parasitism recorded in communities  of the Northern, Central and Southern  Altiplano.  • natural   percentages recorded in E. quinoae  larvae, in quinoa producing  communities of the Bolivian  Altiplano, show the need to implement  integrated pest management practices  that conserve and increase beneficial  organisms in these agroecosystems.  •   partial perspective of the natural  parasitism on  E. quinoae, as the   sampling period covered a limited time  span. Additionally, only parasitism on   the larval stage of one agricultural  campaign was studied. The possibility  of sampling new parasitoids in the  same places and at different times,  with the same or other collection  methods, is not ruled out.  • the of   elements that influence their control  capability are the effects of climate  change and environmental variability.  Insect pest species are able to respond  quickly to environmental changes.  However, the effect that this response    has on the populations of natural  enemies (parasitoids and predators) is  still unknown. This is an aspect to be  considered when thinking about  implementing biological control  programs.  • of limitations the of   parasitoids (directed releases) in  biological control programs is the  maintenance of massive rearing in the  laboratory. For this purpose, the first  step is to develop mass host (E.  quinoae) rearing and to generate  information on the biology and  reproduction of its parasitoids, to later  have available a tool of natural  biological control.   Cited references   Altieri, A., Nicholls, C. 2010. Diseños   agroecológicos para incrementar la  biodiversidad de entomofauna benéfica  en agroecosistemas. SOCLA. Medellín,  Colombia. 83 p.  Avalos, F. 1996. Identificación y dinámica   poblacional de la polilla de la quinua  Eurysacca melanocampta. Thesis for the  degree of Agricultural Engeneer. Faculty  of Agriculture, UMSA. 121 p.  Costa, F., Yabar, E., Gianoli, E. 2009.   Parasitismo sobre  Eurysacca   melanocampta Meyrick (Lepidoptera:  Gelechiidae) en dos localidades de  Cuzco, Perú. In.  Rev. Fac. Nal. Agr. de  Medellín,  Vol. 62, n. 1. , Medellin,  Colombia. Available at:  http://www.scielo.org.co/scielo.php?script =sci_arttext&pid=S0304-2847200900010 0008&lng=en&nrm=iso>. Retrieved May  23, 2014  Fernández, F., Sharkey, M. 2006. Sistemática   de los himenópteros de la Región  Neotropical: Estado del conocimiento y  perspectivas. In: Introducción a los  Hymenóptera de la Región Neotropical.  Fernández, F. y M. J. Sharkey (Eds.).    Sociedad Colombiana de Entomología y  Universidad Nacional de Colombia,  Bogotá, Colombia. pp. 7-35.  Gauld, I. 1991. The Ichneumonidae of Costa   Rica. 1 Introduction, keys to subfamilies,  and keys to the species of the lower  pimpliform subfamilies: Rhyssinae,  Pimplinae, Poemeniinae, Acaenitinae  and Cylloceriinae. The American  Entomological Institute. Florida, EEUU.  589 p.  IBTA, 1997. Instituto Boliviano de Tecnología   Agropecuaria. Annual Report,  1996-1997. Programa Quinua, IBTA. La  Paz, Bolivia. 185 p.  Mamani, D. 1998. Control biológico en forma   natural de la polilla de la quinua  (Eurysacca melanocampta Meyrick) por  parasitoides y perspectivas de cría para  su manipulación en el Altiplano Central.  Thesis for the degree of Agricultural  Engeneer. Faculty of Agriculture, UMSA.  La Paz, Bolivia. pp. 90-91.  PROINPA, 2003. Fundación para la   Promoción e Investigación de Productos  Andinos. Project Report: Desarrollo y  validación participativa de las  innovaciones tecnológicas que mejoren  las estrategias para manejo sostenible de  la quinua. The McKnight Foundation. La  Paz, Bolivia. 127 p.  PROINPA, 2013. Fundación para la   Promoción e Investigación de Productos  Andinos. Annual Report 2009-2010:  Proyecto Desarrollo y validación    participativa de las innovaciones  tecnológicas que mejoren las estrategias  para manejo sostenible del sistema  centrado en quinua en el Altiplano  boliviano. The McKnight Foundation. La  Paz, Bolivia. 145 p.  Saravia, R., Quispe, R. 2006. Manejo   integrado de las plagas insectiles del  cultivo de la quinua. In: Module 2: Manejo  agronómico de la quinua orgánica.  Fundación PROINPA. pp. 53-86.  Saravia, R., Quispe, R. 2003. Ciclo biológico   de la polilla de la quinua Eurysacca  melanocampta Meyrick. Technical Listing   No.6. PROINPA Foundation.  Cochabamba, Bolivia. 4 p.  Saravia, R., Mamani, A., Bonifacio, A., Alcon,   M. 2008. Diagnóstico de los enemigos  naturales de las plagas del cultivo de  quinua. PROINPA Foundation. Annual  Report 2008-2009. Rubro Granos  Altoandinos. Cochabamba, Bolivia, 215  p.  Sharkey, M. 2006. Two new genera of   Agathidinae (Hymenoptera: Braconidae)  with a key to the genera of the New  World. Zootaxa: 1185: 37-51.  Van Driesche, R., Hoddle, M., Center, D. 2007.   Control de plagas y malezas por  enemigos naturales. USDA. Translated  by E. Ruiz and J. Coronada. Universidad  de Tamaulipas. Cd. Victoria, México. 796  p.      Introduction   Correct identification of species that  damage crops is the basic tool for their  management. In the Bolivian Altiplano,  early work with sex pheromones for  integrated pest management of the quinoa  crop showed that there was inaccuracy in    the identification of major pests of this  crop (Saravia et al., 2013). Subsequent  work to identify lepidopteran pests  associated with the cultivation of quinoa  in the Bolivian Altiplano showed that  harmful species for quinoa in this area are:  Helicoverpa gelotopoeon, Copitarsia  incommoda, Dargida acanthus and    Tatochila mercedis (diurnal butterfly  larva). Recent work based on mitochondrial  DNA analysis and insect genitalia  dissection, by Michael Pogue from the US  Department of Agriculture (USDA) in  coordination with PROINPA  entomologists, showed that the species  Helicoverpa gelotopoeon corresponds to  Helicoverpa quinoa (Pogue, 2014). This  specialist also indicates that it would be  difficult to differentiate the species  H.   quinoa, H. gelotopoeon and H. titicacae  only by morphological characters. Identification of insects and pests in  general is a difficult task. In some cases  there is great similarity between adults  and immature stages of some species,  which makes it difficult to identify them  properly, often creating confusion and  misidentification. Therefore it is  necessary to use advanced methods such  as dissection of genitalia or even  molecular analysis of mitochondria to  separate similar species. A tool of vital  importance for species identification is the  availability of specific taxonomic keys,  also called dichotomous keys.  These are  guides that present a list of phrases that  describe the particular characteristics of  the organisms to classify or identify. As a background we must say that  according to Saravia and Quispe (2005),  lepidoptera species associated with the  quinoa crop are part of the Noctuidae  complex denominated night pests or owlet  moths. Adults are moths commonly  known by farmers as rafaelitos or soul  carriers, considered unlucky. They have a  short and robust body, covered by scales  or medium sized dark brown hairs.   According to Ortiz and Zanabria (1979),  the larvae of these moths are known as  ticonas, ticuchis, sillwi kuro and  earthworm, common names farmers give  to larvae belonging to the Noctuidae  family. The ticonas are a complex group,  consisting of three genera. They feed  cutting the newly emerged plants,  destroying the apical leaves and panicles  in formation. One larva per plant is  enough to cause serious damage to the  crop. The ticonas complex (Helicoverpa,  Copitarsia  and  Dargida) negatively   influence production, causing significant  economic losses (Saravia and Quispe,  2005). It is important to highlight that collecting  insects requires the application of a range  of techniques due to the large number of  species and diversity of life habits each  holds. Most of the techniques used meet  specific objectives depending on the type  of study. However, techniques are  generally divided into direct (active) and  indirect (passive) collection techniques  (Steyskal et al., 1986; Borror et al. 1989). Direct collection is one in which insects  are actively sought in the ecosystems,  using a variety of tools such as  entomological nets, sieves, gardening  shovels, vacuum aspirators, etc. This  strategy is widely used by most collectors  and is most suitable to capture insects in  immature stages. Indirect collection is one in which insects  are caught using some kind of attractant  and which does not imply direct search in  the ecosystems. The type and number of  traps and lure to be used also depends  directly on the research objectives.  Among the traps without attractants there    are "fall" traps, "Malaise" traps and  "interception or window" traps. Among  the traps with bait or attractants, the name  is given by the type of bait used, the most  important are dung bait traps (baited with  excrement), fruit traps, carrion traps, light  traps, Berlese funnel and pheromone traps  (Marquez, 2005). The objectives of this research were to  update the taxonomy of lepidopteran pests  associated with the quinoa crop and their  geographical distribution, in quinoa  production areas of the Bolivian  Altiplano.   Methodology    The identification work in this study was  developed in three stages: In the first stage, immature specimens  were collected in quinoa fields of the  Bolivian Altiplano, during the period of  greatest pest attack. The method used was  direct collection. Larvae collected were  transferred to PROINPA’s Entomology  Laboratory in Quipaquipani Center,  where they were singled out to prevent  cannibalism and were raised on artificial  diet until they reached the pupal and adult  stages. Specimens were then mounted  following the technical recommendations  suggested by Borror et al. (1989). In  parallel, adult insects were captured using  light traps. The light trap used was the  standard, which contained inside a cloth  bag with potassium cyanide to kill insects  trapped. The next day, the insects were    placed in glass jars and transported to the  laboratory to proceed with the mounting. In the second stage material was selected,  prepared and packed to be sent to the  Entomology Laboratory of the US  Department of Agriculture (USDA) for  identification. The  third  stage involved the   identification of specimens sent to  members of the Entomology Laboratory  of the USDA, who using the  morphological description, dissection of  genitalia and mitochondrial analysis  identified specimens submitted. Results  from the analysis were presented during a  visit of  Dr. Michael Pogue from USDA to  Bolivia in January 2014. To understand and visualize the  geographical distribution of species, the  sampling points were georeferenced to  develop distribution maps using the  ArgGIS ® application.   Results and discussion    Species identification   Table 1 shows the list of species that were  managed from 2008 to 2013 and the list of  species identified in 2014 by Dr. Pogue.  The table shows that there are 10 species  of Lepidoptera associated with the quinoa  crop in the Bolivian Altiplano.     In Table 1 it is important to note that the  species identified as H. gelotopoeon, in  2008, was currently identified as  Helicoverpa quinoa by the same author.   This new species was reported as a quinoa  pests based on morphological characters,  genitalia dissection and mitochondrial  analysis. This author suggests that it is  difficult to distinguish between H. quinoa  and H. gelotopoen only by their  morphological differences and that  analysis of genitalia is required. Other  species that have undergone changes in  taxonomy are Heliothis titicaquensis and  Agrotis andina, which were identified as  Helicoverpa titicacae and Agrotis  peruviana according to a morphological  and phylogenetic analysis performed by  Pogue (2014) and San Blas (2014).  Another aspect that stands out is the  inclusion of Copitarsia patagonica in the    2014 list. The other species listed in the  Table maintained their identification.   Geographical distribution of the  identified species    Table 2 shows the list of lepidopteran  pests species associated with the quinoa  crop in the Bolivian Altiplano, detailing  the family to which they belong, the  method of collection, the type of pest and  its geographical distribution. This table  shows that five species of Lepidoptera:  Eurysacca melanocampta, Eurysacca  quinoae, Copitarsia incommoda,  Helicoverpa titicacae and Helicoverpa  quinoa, were listed as key crop pests of  quinoa in the Bolivian Altiplano, four as  casual pests: Copitarsia patagonica,  Helicoverpa atacamae, Dargida  acanthus, Tatochila mercedis and one as  potential pest: Agrotis peruviana.   Figure 1 describes, in detail, the  geographical distribution and abundance  of the species Helicoverpa titicacae and  H. quinoa in the Bolivian Altiplano. It can  be observed that Helicoverpa titicacae is  found mainly in the Northern Altiplano  and extends into the Central Altiplano.  Conversely  H. quinoa is distributed in   quinoa production areas located between  the salt flats of Uyuni and Coipasa  (Southern Altiplano), extending into the  Central Altiplano without reaching the  Northern Altiplano.   Figure 2 shows the distribution and  abundance of Eurysacca melanocampta  and E. quinoae in different quinoa  production areas of the Bolivian  Altiplano. According to this figure, Eurysacca  melanocampta is abundant in the  Northern Altiplano and extends into the  Central Altiplano. In contrast, E. quinoae  is abundant in the South and Central  Altiplano where it is found in high  populations.      Revista de Agricultura, Nro. 54 - Julio de 2014    Area: Technology Development 49    Table 1. Changes in the taxonomic classification of Lepidoptera   pests of quinoa in Bolivia, in two time periods  Nro. Classification used during the  period 2008 – 2013         Species identified during  the year 2014  1 Eurysacca melanocampta Meyrick Eurysacca melanocampta Meyrick  2 Eurysacca quinoae Povolný  Eurysacca quinoae Povolný   3 Copitarsia incommoda (Walker)  Copitarsia incommoda (Walker)   4 -- Copitarsia patagonica Hampson   5 Heliothis titicaquensis Helicoverpa titicacae Hardwick  6 Helicoverpa gelotopoeon (Dyar)  Helicoverpa quinoa Pogue and  Harp.*   7 Helicoverpa atacamae Hardwick  Helicoverpa atacamae Hardwick   8 Dargida acanthus (Herrich-Schäffer)  Dargida acanthus (Herrich-Schäffer)  9 Tatochila sp.  Tatochila mercedis (Eschscholtz)  10 Agrotis andina Köhler  Agrotis peruviana (Hampson)    Source: Own elaboration based on the results of Pogue (2014) and San Blas (2014). * New specie.   Introduction   The quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd)  crop in the Bolivian Altiplano is attacked  by several species of pest insects. One of  these species is the quinoa moth or "qhona  qhona" Eurysacca quinoae Povolny 1997  (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae), listed as a key  pest of the crop (Avalos 1996) because it  causes losses of over 30% and  significantly reduces grain quality  (Saravia and Quispe, 2003; PROINPA,  2013). The first reports on parasitoid insects of  quinoa moths were registered in  Patacamaya in 1997, by the Quinoa  Programme from the ex - IBTA (IBTA,  1997). Later, specific pieces of work were  performed in some communities of the  Central and Southern Altiplano (Mamani,  1998, PROINPA 2003; PROINPA 2013). As a result of these studies it is known that  the percentage of natural parasitism in  larvae of Eurysacca quinoae reaches up to   40% and, that the parasitoid complex  consists of nine species.  Out of these nine  species, seven belong to the order  Hymenoptera from the families  Braconidae (Meteorus  sp., Apanteles sp.,   Microplitis sp.), Ichneumonidae  (Deleboea sp., Venturia sp., Diadegma  sp.) and Encyrtidae (Copidosoma  sp.),   and two belong to the order Diptera from  the families Tachinidae (Phytomiptera sp.  and  Dolichostoma sp.) (IBTA 1997;   Mamani 1998, and Saravia Quispe 2006;  Saravia et al., 2008;. PROINPA 2013). A parasitoid is understood as every insect,  which in the larval stage is parasitic of  other arthropod (host), while in the adult  phase it lives freely to breed and seek its  host.   Unlike the parasite, the parasitoid in most  cases ends up killing the host (Van  Driessche et al., 2007). The diversity of predators and parasitoids  of a given pest species is related to the  diversity of flowering plants associated to  a cultivar.  The nectar and pollen of these  flowers are important additional food  sources necessary for multiplication  (Altieri and Nicholls, 2010). Areas of quinoa production in the country  are located in three ecoregions: Northern,  Central and Southern Altiplano, these  differ mainly by the rainfall regime, the  quality of soils and crops produced.  The  Southern Altiplano is the driest region  (150-300 mm/year), with sandy soils and  low fertility where the main crop is the  Royal Quinoa. The Northern Altiplano  has higher rainfall (500 mm/year), soils  are more productive and crops produced  include potatoes, quinoa, barley, broad  beans among others. The Central  Altiplano presents intermediate weather  and soil conditions, relating to both  Northern and Southern Altiplano. Given the background mentioned and in  order to update information on the  parasitoids associated with the quinoa  moth, the present study was carried out in  three ecoregions of the Altiplano. The  objective was to identify the parasitoids  and determine natural parasitism on larvae  of  E. quinoae in quinoa plots of the   Bolivian Altiplano.   Materials and methods   Location. The work was implemented in  twelve quinoa producing communities of  the Altiplano, one from the Northern  Altiplano (Lacaya), eight from the Central    Altiplano (Contorno Centro, Contorno  Arriba, Cañaviri, Villa Manquiri,  Colquencha, Viscachani, Calpaya and  Crucero Belen) and three in the Southern  Altiplano (Colcha K, Vinto and Julaca)  (Figure 1). E. quinoae sampling and larval rearing.  The collection of larvae in the quinoa  plots of different communities was  conducted between February and March  2013, period of highest incidence of the  pest. This process was performed using the  method of "Entomological mantle", which  consists of a canvas of 1 m x 1 m stretched  at the base of the plant, then a careful    shaking of the the panicle to produce the  downfall of larvae on the canvas. Larvae  obtained were placed in 200 ml sized  plastic containers enclosing paper towels  at the base, and quinoa leaves and  branches as food for the larvae. These containers were placed in  Styrofoam carriers that were carried to the  Entomology Laboratory of PROINPA  Foundation in Quipaquipani Center  (Viacha-La Paz).  At the laboratory larvae  were selected by size, and placed in  specific quantities, in containers, to  continue their rearing until they reached  the phases of adult moths or parasitoids.   Percentage of natural parasitism and  taxonomic identification. To calculate the  percentage of natural parasitism by  species and community, the following  formula was used: The identification of parasitoids was made  by comparison and using taxonomic keys.  For identification by comparison,  representative specimens of these  biological controllers were mounted, and  compared to specimens described by  Mamani (1998), Saravia and Quispe  (2006) and Costa et al. (2009). In some cases the identification was  confirmed using taxonomic keys provided  by Sharkey (2006) for Braconidae, and  Gauld (1991) for Ichneumonidae, both  corresponding to the Neotropical region. In parallel specimens of interest were sent  to specialized centers (USDA) for  identification.   Results and discussion    Parasitoid complex associated with  larvae of E. quinoae   The parasitoid complex that is regulating  the population of E. quinoae in quinoa  plots located in the Bolivian Altiplano, is  composed of six species (Table 1, Figure  2). Of these six species, five correspond to  the order Hymenoptera and one to  Diptera. Among the wasps, all belong to the sub  order Apocrita, characterized by having  the first abdominal segment together with    the metathorax and separated from the rest  of the abdominal segments with a narrow  waist (Fernandez and Sharkey, 2006).  These wasps are grouped into two  superfamilies: • (medium large   wasps).   •  Cotesia sp. and Meteorus sp. correspond  to the Braconidae family; Venturia sp. and  Deleboea  sp. to Ichneumonidae, and   Copidosoma  sp. to Encyrtidae   (Chalcidoidea). The only Diptera species  Phytomiptera sp. belongs to the Tachinid  family, from the Oestroidae superfamily,  and the sub order Brachycera. Among the parasitoids, the micro-wasp  Copidosoma sp. (Encyrtidae), is a  polyembrionic egg parasitoid that  mummifies moth larvae before they reach  the pupal stage. From mummified larvae,  between 28 to 33 micro-wasps can  emerge. The rest of the wasps are larvo-pupal  endoparasitoids. They infect their host  (quinoa moth larvae) in the early larval  stages, but the effect can only be observed  when they kill the host in the pupal stage.  Biologically this parasitism strategy is  known as koinobiont. There is another  strategy called idiobiont parasitism that  occurs in species that permanently  paralyze their hosts, preventing them to  continue their development after being  parasitized.  This is a desirable feature for  parasitoids that are meant to be used in  biological control programs. In this study  no parasitoids with these characteristics  were found.   Table 1 shows the percentage of natural  parasitism recorded in the different  communities of the Northern, Central and  Southern Altiplano. Overall, the average  percentage of natural parasitism was  higher than 28%, with the communities of  the Central Altiplano (Viscachani,    Contorno Arriba and Cañaviri) recording  the highest percentages of parasitism,  with values above 40%, in comparison to  Colcha K, Vinto and Julaca (Southern  Altiplano), where the lowest percentages  of parasitism were observed, with values  below 5%. The rest of the communities:   Lacaya, Calpaya, Crucero Belén,  Contorno Centro and Villa Manquiri (the  first from the Northern Altiplano and the  rest from the Central Altiplano), recorded  natural parasitism of E. quinoae  fluctuating between 27% and 38%. The  average of 28% of parasitism is a value  that comes close to the efficiency levels of  control for this pest, which is obtained by  using botanical extracts and/or some  bioinsecticides available in local markets.  This shows the important role that these  parasitoids play in the natural regulation  of E. quinoae. Natural parasitism percentages recorded  in each of the communities was the  product of a joint action of a complex of  two to six parasitoids, regulating the larval  population of E. quinoae at different  levels (Annex 1). According to Table 1,  the parasitoids that contributed most to the  regulation of quinoa moth larvae in the  twelve communities are Cotesia sp. and  Meteorus sp., recording average  parasitism above 6%. In contrast, the  micro-wasp  Copidosoma sp. was the   species that contributed least to the  control of E. quinoae (1.2%). The communities that are characterized by  greater diversity of parasitoids are  Viscachani, Contorno Centro and Lacaya,  the first two located in the Central  Altiplano and the last in the Northern  Altiplano, recording a total of six  parasitoids. The communities Colcha K,  Vinto and Julaca in the Southern  Altiplano, recorded two and three  parasitoids (Table 1). Depending on the abundance of  parasitoids (Table 1) two groups can be  clearly observed. The first formed by the  communities of Central and Northern  Altiplano, where Viscachani and    Contorno Centro stand out with the largest  number of parasitoids. The second group  consists of the communities in the  Southern Altiplano with low amounts of  these biological control agents. The  differences can be explained by the  characteristics of agricultural production  in each of these areas, in addition to the  floristic composition of weeds and native  plants registered and distributed in these  areas. The distribution and relative importance  of the six parasitoids identified was highly  variable. Nevertheless, there clearly is one  species found in all locations: the  Tachinido  Phytomiptera sp. which   showed an average frequency of 5.3%,  being the most abundant parasitoid in  Cañaviri (14.3%) and the second most  abundant in Colquencha (11%). In this  regard, Stireman et al. (2009) state that  flies belonging to the Tachinidae family  are diverse and are important natural  enemies of many pests. All known species  of this family are parasitoids of  arthropods, mainly of lepidopteran larvae,  the taxonomic group to which E. quinoae  belongs to. The percentages of parasitism recorded in  this work are lower than those reported by  Mamani (1998) and PROINPA (2013),  who indicate that populations of quinoa  moth larvae in the Central Altiplano have  natural parasitism ranging between 43%  and 65%.   Conclusions   •   the sampled communities is being  regulated by a complex of six  parasitoids: five wasps (Hymenoptera)  and one fly (Diptera). Among the    wasps, the species registered were:  Cotesia sp. (Braconidae), Meteorus sp.  (Braconidae),  Deleboea sp.   (Ichneumonidae), Venturia sp.  (Ichneumonidae) and Copidosoma sp.  (Encyrtidae), and the fly was identified  as Phytomiptera sp. (Tachinidae).  • average of   parasitism was 28% in the twelve  communities, standing out Viscachani  with 44.7% of parasitism on average.  •  Cotesia sp. and Meteorus   sp. were the species with higher levels  of parasitism recorded in communities  of the Northern, Central and Southern  Altiplano.  • natural   percentages recorded in E. quinoae  larvae, in quinoa producing  communities of the Bolivian  Altiplano, show the need to implement  integrated pest management practices  that conserve and increase beneficial  organisms in these agroecosystems.  •   partial perspective of the natural  parasitism on  E. quinoae, as the   sampling period covered a limited time  span. Additionally, only parasitism on   the larval stage of one agricultural  campaign was studied. The possibility  of sampling new parasitoids in the  same places and at different times,  with the same or other collection  methods, is not ruled out.  • the of   elements that influence their control  capability are the effects of climate  change and environmental variability.  Insect pest species are able to respond  quickly to environmental changes.  However, the effect that this response    has on the populations of natural  enemies (parasitoids and predators) is  still unknown. This is an aspect to be  considered when thinking about  implementing biological control  programs.  • of limitations the of   parasitoids (directed releases) in  biological control programs is the  maintenance of massive rearing in the  laboratory. For this purpose, the first  step is to develop mass host (E.  quinoae) rearing and to generate  information on the biology and  reproduction of its parasitoids, to later  have available a tool of natural  biological control.   Cited references   Altieri, A., Nicholls, C. 2010. Diseños   agroecológicos para incrementar la  biodiversidad de entomofauna benéfica  en agroecosistemas. SOCLA. Medellín,  Colombia. 83 p.  Avalos, F. 1996. Identificación y dinámica   poblacional de la polilla de la quinua  Eurysacca melanocampta. Thesis for the  degree of Agricultural Engeneer. Faculty  of Agriculture, UMSA. 121 p.  Costa, F., Yabar, E., Gianoli, E. 2009.   Parasitismo sobre  Eurysacca   melanocampta Meyrick (Lepidoptera:  Gelechiidae) en dos localidades de  Cuzco, Perú. In.  Rev. Fac. Nal. Agr. de  Medellín,  Vol. 62, n. 1. , Medellin,  Colombia. Available at:  http://www.scielo.org.co/scielo.php?script =sci_arttext&pid=S0304-2847200900010 0008&lng=en&nrm=iso>. Retrieved May  23, 2014  Fernández, F., Sharkey, M. 2006. Sistemática   de los himenópteros de la Región  Neotropical: Estado del conocimiento y  perspectivas. In: Introducción a los  Hymenóptera de la Región Neotropical.  Fernández, F. y M. J. Sharkey (Eds.).    Sociedad Colombiana de Entomología y  Universidad Nacional de Colombia,  Bogotá, Colombia. pp. 7-35.  Gauld, I. 1991. The Ichneumonidae of Costa   Rica. 1 Introduction, keys to subfamilies,  and keys to the species of the lower  pimpliform subfamilies: Rhyssinae,  Pimplinae, Poemeniinae, Acaenitinae  and Cylloceriinae. The American  Entomological Institute. Florida, EEUU.  589 p.  IBTA, 1997. Instituto Boliviano de Tecnología   Agropecuaria. Annual Report,  1996-1997. Programa Quinua, IBTA. La  Paz, Bolivia. 185 p.  Mamani, D. 1998. Control biológico en forma   natural de la polilla de la quinua  (Eurysacca melanocampta Meyrick) por  parasitoides y perspectivas de cría para  su manipulación en el Altiplano Central.  Thesis for the degree of Agricultural  Engeneer. Faculty of Agriculture, UMSA.  La Paz, Bolivia. pp. 90-91.  PROINPA, 2003. Fundación para la   Promoción e Investigación de Productos  Andinos. Project Report: Desarrollo y  validación participativa de las  innovaciones tecnológicas que mejoren  las estrategias para manejo sostenible de  la quinua. The McKnight Foundation. La  Paz, Bolivia. 127 p.  PROINPA, 2013. Fundación para la   Promoción e Investigación de Productos  Andinos. Annual Report 2009-2010:  Proyecto Desarrollo y validación    participativa de las innovaciones  tecnológicas que mejoren las estrategias  para manejo sostenible del sistema  centrado en quinua en el Altiplano  boliviano. The McKnight Foundation. La  Paz, Bolivia. 145 p.  Saravia, R., Quispe, R. 2006. Manejo   integrado de las plagas insectiles del  cultivo de la quinua. In: Module 2: Manejo  agronómico de la quinua orgánica.  Fundación PROINPA. pp. 53-86.  Saravia, R., Quispe, R. 2003. Ciclo biológico   de la polilla de la quinua Eurysacca  melanocampta Meyrick. Technical Listing   No.6. PROINPA Foundation.  Cochabamba, Bolivia. 4 p.  Saravia, R., Mamani, A., Bonifacio, A., Alcon,   M. 2008. Diagnóstico de los enemigos  naturales de las plagas del cultivo de  quinua. PROINPA Foundation. Annual  Report 2008-2009. Rubro Granos  Altoandinos. Cochabamba, Bolivia, 215  p.  Sharkey, M. 2006. Two new genera of   Agathidinae (Hymenoptera: Braconidae)  with a key to the genera of the New  World. Zootaxa: 1185: 37-51.  Van Driesche, R., Hoddle, M., Center, D. 2007.   Control de plagas y malezas por  enemigos naturales. USDA. Translated  by E. Ruiz and J. Coronada. Universidad  de Tamaulipas. Cd. Victoria, México. 796  p.      In Table 1 it is important to note that the  species identified as H. gelotopoeon, in  2008, was currently identified as  Helicoverpa quinoa by the same author.   This new species was reported as a quinoa  pests based on morphological characters,  genitalia dissection and mitochondrial  analysis. This author suggests that it is  difficult to distinguish between H. quinoa  and H. gelotopoen only by their  morphological differences and that  analysis of genitalia is required. Other  species that have undergone changes in  taxonomy are Heliothis titicaquensis and  Agrotis andina, which were identified as  Helicoverpa titicacae and Agrotis  peruviana according to a morphological  and phylogenetic analysis performed by  Pogue (2014) and San Blas (2014).  Another aspect that stands out is the  inclusion of Copitarsia patagonica in the    2014 list. The other species listed in the  Table maintained their identification.   Geographical distribution of the  identified species    Table 2 shows the list of lepidopteran  pests species associated with the quinoa  crop in the Bolivian Altiplano, detailing  the family to which they belong, the  method of collection, the type of pest and  its geographical distribution. This table  shows that five species of Lepidoptera:  Eurysacca melanocampta, Eurysacca  quinoae, Copitarsia incommoda,  Helicoverpa titicacae and Helicoverpa  quinoa, were listed as key crop pests of  quinoa in the Bolivian Altiplano, four as  casual pests: Copitarsia patagonica,  Helicoverpa atacamae, Dargida  acanthus, Tatochila mercedis and one as  potential pest: Agrotis peruviana.   Figure 1 describes, in detail, the  geographical distribution and abundance  of the species Helicoverpa titicacae and  H. quinoa in the Bolivian Altiplano. It can  be observed that Helicoverpa titicacae is  found mainly in the Northern Altiplano  and extends into the Central Altiplano.  Conversely  H. quinoa is distributed in   quinoa production areas located between  the salt flats of Uyuni and Coipasa  (Southern Altiplano), extending into the  Central Altiplano without reaching the  Northern Altiplano.   Figure 2 shows the distribution and  abundance of Eurysacca melanocampta  and E. quinoae in different quinoa  production areas of the Bolivian  Altiplano. According to this figure, Eurysacca  melanocampta is abundant in the  Northern Altiplano and extends into the  Central Altiplano. In contrast, E. quinoae  is abundant in the South and Central  Altiplano where it is found in high  populations.      ISSN 1998 - 9652    Area: Technology Development 50   Table 2. Geographic distribution of Lepidoptera species associated   with the quinoa crop in the Bolivian Altiplano  No. Species Sub family  Family Collection method  Type of pest  Distri- bution   1 Eurysacca melano-  campta Meyrick   --  Gelechii-  dae  CL  C  NA, CA   2 Eurysacca quinoae   Povolny   -- Gelechii-  dae  CL, LT C NA, CA,   SA  3 Copitarsia incommo-  da (Walker)   Cuculli-  nae  Noctui- dae  CL, LT  C  NA, CA   4 Copitarsia patagoni-  ca Hampson   Cuculli-  nae  Noctui- dae  CL, LT  O CA, SA   5 Helicoverpa titicacae  Hardwick  Heliot-  hinae   Noctui- dae  CL, LT  C NA,  CA   6 Helicoverpa quinoa  Pogue and Harp.*   Heliot-  hinae   Noctui- dae  CL, LT  C CA, SA   7 Helicoverpa ataca-  mae Hardwick   Heliot-  hinae   Noctui- dae  CL  O SA   8 Dargida acanthus  (Herrich-Schäffer)  Hadeni-  nae  Noctui- dae  CL, LT O NA, CA,   SA  9 Tatochila mercedis  (Eschscholtz)  --  Artidae  CL  O  NA, CA   10 Agrotis peruviana  (Hampson)  -- Noctui- dae  LT P NA; CA;   SA   References: Collection Method: CL = Collection of larvae in quinoa plants, LT = Collection with  light traps in quinoa plots. Type of Pest: K = Key Pest, O = Occasional Pest, P = Potential Pest. Distribution: NA = Northern Altiplano, CA = Central Altiplano, SA = Southern Altiplano. * = First unpublished report (Pogue, 2014).  Source:  Own elaboration based on the results of Pogue (2014) and San Blas (2014   Introduction   The quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd)  crop in the Bolivian Altiplano is attacked  by several species of pest insects. One of  these species is the quinoa moth or "qhona  qhona" Eurysacca quinoae Povolny 1997  (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae), listed as a key  pest of the crop (Avalos 1996) because it  causes losses of over 30% and  significantly reduces grain quality  (Saravia and Quispe, 2003; PROINPA,  2013). The first reports on parasitoid insects of  quinoa moths were registered in  Patacamaya in 1997, by the Quinoa  Programme from the ex - IBTA (IBTA,  1997). Later, specific pieces of work were  performed in some communities of the  Central and Southern Altiplano (Mamani,  1998, PROINPA 2003; PROINPA 2013). As a result of these studies it is known that  the percentage of natural parasitism in  larvae of Eurysacca quinoae reaches up to   40% and, that the parasitoid complex  consists of nine species.  Out of these nine  species, seven belong to the order  Hymenoptera from the families  Braconidae (Meteorus  sp., Apanteles sp.,   Microplitis sp.), Ichneumonidae  (Deleboea sp., Venturia sp., Diadegma  sp.) and Encyrtidae (Copidosoma  sp.),   and two belong to the order Diptera from  the families Tachinidae (Phytomiptera sp.  and  Dolichostoma sp.) (IBTA 1997;   Mamani 1998, and Saravia Quispe 2006;  Saravia et al., 2008;. PROINPA 2013). A parasitoid is understood as every insect,  which in the larval stage is parasitic of  other arthropod (host), while in the adult  phase it lives freely to breed and seek its  host.   Unlike the parasite, the parasitoid in most  cases ends up killing the host (Van  Driessche et al., 2007). The diversity of predators and parasitoids  of a given pest species is related to the  diversity of flowering plants associated to  a cultivar.  The nectar and pollen of these  flowers are important additional food  sources necessary for multiplication  (Altieri and Nicholls, 2010). Areas of quinoa production in the country  are located in three ecoregions: Northern,  Central and Southern Altiplano, these  differ mainly by the rainfall regime, the  quality of soils and crops produced.  The  Southern Altiplano is the driest region  (150-300 mm/year), with sandy soils and  low fertility where the main crop is the  Royal Quinoa. The Northern Altiplano  has higher rainfall (500 mm/year), soils  are more productive and crops produced  include potatoes, quinoa, barley, broad  beans among others. The Central  Altiplano presents intermediate weather  and soil conditions, relating to both  Northern and Southern Altiplano. Given the background mentioned and in  order to update information on the  parasitoids associated with the quinoa  moth, the present study was carried out in  three ecoregions of the Altiplano. The  objective was to identify the parasitoids  and determine natural parasitism on larvae  of  E. quinoae in quinoa plots of the   Bolivian Altiplano.   Materials and methods   Location. The work was implemented in  twelve quinoa producing communities of  the Altiplano, one from the Northern  Altiplano (Lacaya), eight from the Central    Altiplano (Contorno Centro, Contorno  Arriba, Cañaviri, Villa Manquiri,  Colquencha, Viscachani, Calpaya and  Crucero Belen) and three in the Southern  Altiplano (Colcha K, Vinto and Julaca)  (Figure 1). E. quinoae sampling and larval rearing.  The collection of larvae in the quinoa  plots of different communities was  conducted between February and March  2013, period of highest incidence of the  pest. This process was performed using the  method of "Entomological mantle", which  consists of a canvas of 1 m x 1 m stretched  at the base of the plant, then a careful    shaking of the the panicle to produce the  downfall of larvae on the canvas. Larvae  obtained were placed in 200 ml sized  plastic containers enclosing paper towels  at the base, and quinoa leaves and  branches as food for the larvae. These containers were placed in  Styrofoam carriers that were carried to the  Entomology Laboratory of PROINPA  Foundation in Quipaquipani Center  (Viacha-La Paz).  At the laboratory larvae  were selected by size, and placed in  specific quantities, in containers, to  continue their rearing until they reached  the phases of adult moths or parasitoids.   Percentage of natural parasitism and  taxonomic identification. To calculate the  percentage of natural parasitism by  species and community, the following  formula was used: The identification of parasitoids was made  by comparison and using taxonomic keys.  For identification by comparison,  representative specimens of these  biological controllers were mounted, and  compared to specimens described by  Mamani (1998), Saravia and Quispe  (2006) and Costa et al. (2009). In some cases the identification was  confirmed using taxonomic keys provided  by Sharkey (2006) for Braconidae, and  Gauld (1991) for Ichneumonidae, both  corresponding to the Neotropical region. In parallel specimens of interest were sent  to specialized centers (USDA) for  identification.   Results and discussion    Parasitoid complex associated with  larvae of E. quinoae   The parasitoid complex that is regulating  the population of E. quinoae in quinoa  plots located in the Bolivian Altiplano, is  composed of six species (Table 1, Figure  2). Of these six species, five correspond to  the order Hymenoptera and one to  Diptera. Among the wasps, all belong to the sub  order Apocrita, characterized by having  the first abdominal segment together with    the metathorax and separated from the rest  of the abdominal segments with a narrow  waist (Fernandez and Sharkey, 2006).  These wasps are grouped into two  superfamilies: • (medium large   wasps).   •  Cotesia sp. and Meteorus sp. correspond  to the Braconidae family; Venturia sp. and  Deleboea  sp. to Ichneumonidae, and   Copidosoma  sp. to Encyrtidae   (Chalcidoidea). The only Diptera species  Phytomiptera sp. belongs to the Tachinid  family, from the Oestroidae superfamily,  and the sub order Brachycera. Among the parasitoids, the micro-wasp  Copidosoma sp. (Encyrtidae), is a  polyembrionic egg parasitoid that  mummifies moth larvae before they reach  the pupal stage. From mummified larvae,  between 28 to 33 micro-wasps can  emerge. The rest of the wasps are larvo-pupal  endoparasitoids. They infect their host  (quinoa moth larvae) in the early larval  stages, but the effect can only be observed  when they kill the host in the pupal stage.  Biologically this parasitism strategy is  known as koinobiont. There is another  strategy called idiobiont parasitism that  occurs in species that permanently  paralyze their hosts, preventing them to  continue their development after being  parasitized.  This is a desirable feature for  parasitoids that are meant to be used in  biological control programs. In this study  no parasitoids with these characteristics  were found.   Table 1 shows the percentage of natural  parasitism recorded in the different  communities of the Northern, Central and  Southern Altiplano. Overall, the average  percentage of natural parasitism was  higher than 28%, with the communities of  the Central Altiplano (Viscachani,    Contorno Arriba and Cañaviri) recording  the highest percentages of parasitism,  with values above 40%, in comparison to  Colcha K, Vinto and Julaca (Southern  Altiplano), where the lowest percentages  of parasitism were observed, with values  below 5%. The rest of the communities:   Lacaya, Calpaya, Crucero Belén,  Contorno Centro and Villa Manquiri (the  first from the Northern Altiplano and the  rest from the Central Altiplano), recorded  natural parasitism of E. quinoae  fluctuating between 27% and 38%. The  average of 28% of parasitism is a value  that comes close to the efficiency levels of  control for this pest, which is obtained by  using botanical extracts and/or some  bioinsecticides available in local markets.  This shows the important role that these  parasitoids play in the natural regulation  of E. quinoae. Natural parasitism percentages recorded  in each of the communities was the  product of a joint action of a complex of  two to six parasitoids, regulating the larval  population of E. quinoae at different  levels (Annex 1). According to Table 1,  the parasitoids that contributed most to the  regulation of quinoa moth larvae in the  twelve communities are Cotesia sp. and  Meteorus sp., recording average  parasitism above 6%. In contrast, the  micro-wasp  Copidosoma sp. was the   species that contributed least to the  control of E. quinoae (1.2%). The communities that are characterized by  greater diversity of parasitoids are  Viscachani, Contorno Centro and Lacaya,  the first two located in the Central  Altiplano and the last in the Northern  Altiplano, recording a total of six  parasitoids. The communities Colcha K,  Vinto and Julaca in the Southern  Altiplano, recorded two and three  parasitoids (Table 1). Depending on the abundance of  parasitoids (Table 1) two groups can be  clearly observed. The first formed by the  communities of Central and Northern  Altiplano, where Viscachani and    Contorno Centro stand out with the largest  number of parasitoids. The second group  consists of the communities in the  Southern Altiplano with low amounts of  these biological control agents. The  differences can be explained by the  characteristics of agricultural production  in each of these areas, in addition to the  floristic composition of weeds and native  plants registered and distributed in these  areas. The distribution and relative importance  of the six parasitoids identified was highly  variable. Nevertheless, there clearly is one  species found in all locations: the  Tachinido  Phytomiptera sp. which   showed an average frequency of 5.3%,  being the most abundant parasitoid in  Cañaviri (14.3%) and the second most  abundant in Colquencha (11%). In this  regard, Stireman et al. (2009) state that  flies belonging to the Tachinidae family  are diverse and are important natural  enemies of many pests. All known species  of this family are parasitoids of  arthropods, mainly of lepidopteran larvae,  the taxonomic group to which E. quinoae  belongs to. The percentages of parasitism recorded in  this work are lower than those reported by  Mamani (1998) and PROINPA (2013),  who indicate that populations of quinoa  moth larvae in the Central Altiplano have  natural parasitism ranging between 43%  and 65%.   Conclusions   •   the sampled communities is being  regulated by a complex of six  parasitoids: five wasps (Hymenoptera)  and one fly (Diptera). Among the    wasps, the species registered were:  Cotesia sp. (Braconidae), Meteorus sp.  (Braconidae),  Deleboea sp.   (Ichneumonidae), Venturia sp.  (Ichneumonidae) and Copidosoma sp.  (Encyrtidae), and the fly was identified  as Phytomiptera sp. (Tachinidae).  • average of   parasitism was 28% in the twelve  communities, standing out Viscachani  with 44.7% of parasitism on average.  •  Cotesia sp. and Meteorus   sp. were the species with higher levels  of parasitism recorded in communities  of the Northern, Central and Southern  Altiplano.  • natural   percentages recorded in E. quinoae  larvae, in quinoa producing  communities of the Bolivian  Altiplano, show the need to implement  integrated pest management practices  that conserve and increase beneficial  organisms in these agroecosystems.  •   partial perspective of the natural  parasitism on  E. quinoae, as the   sampling period covered a limited time  span. Additionally, only parasitism on   the larval stage of one agricultural  campaign was studied. The possibility  of sampling new parasitoids in the  same places and at different times,  with the same or other collection  methods, is not ruled out.  • the of   elements that influence their control  capability are the effects of climate  change and environmental variability.  Insect pest species are able to respond  quickly to environmental changes.  However, the effect that this response    has on the populations of natural  enemies (parasitoids and predators) is  still unknown. This is an aspect to be  considered when thinking about  implementing biological control  programs.  • of limitations the of   parasitoids (directed releases) in  biological control programs is the  maintenance of massive rearing in the  laboratory. For this purpose, the first  step is to develop mass host (E.  quinoae) rearing and to generate  information on the biology and  reproduction of its parasitoids, to later  have available a tool of natural  biological control.   Cited references   Altieri, A., Nicholls, C. 2010. Diseños   agroecológicos para incrementar la  biodiversidad de entomofauna benéfica  en agroecosistemas. SOCLA. Medellín,  Colombia. 83 p.  Avalos, F. 1996. Identificación y dinámica   poblacional de la polilla de la quinua  Eurysacca melanocampta. Thesis for the  degree of Agricultural Engeneer. Faculty  of Agriculture, UMSA. 121 p.  Costa, F., Yabar, E., Gianoli, E. 2009.   Parasitismo sobre  Eurysacca   melanocampta Meyrick (Lepidoptera:  Gelechiidae) en dos localidades de  Cuzco, Perú. In.  Rev. Fac. Nal. Agr. de  Medellín,  Vol. 62, n. 1. , Medellin,  Colombia. Available at:  http://www.scielo.org.co/scielo.php?script =sci_arttext&pid=S0304-2847200900010 0008&lng=en&nrm=iso>. Retrieved May  23, 2014  Fernández, F., Sharkey, M. 2006. Sistemática   de los himenópteros de la Región  Neotropical: Estado del conocimiento y  perspectivas. In: Introducción a los  Hymenóptera de la Región Neotropical.  Fernández, F. y M. J. Sharkey (Eds.).    Sociedad Colombiana de Entomología y  Universidad Nacional de Colombia,  Bogotá, Colombia. pp. 7-35.  Gauld, I. 1991. The Ichneumonidae of Costa   Rica. 1 Introduction, keys to subfamilies,  and keys to the species of the lower  pimpliform subfamilies: Rhyssinae,  Pimplinae, Poemeniinae, Acaenitinae  and Cylloceriinae. The American  Entomological Institute. Florida, EEUU.  589 p.  IBTA, 1997. Instituto Boliviano de Tecnología   Agropecuaria. Annual Report,  1996-1997. Programa Quinua, IBTA. La  Paz, Bolivia. 185 p.  Mamani, D. 1998. Control biológico en forma   natural de la polilla de la quinua  (Eurysacca melanocampta Meyrick) por  parasitoides y perspectivas de cría para  su manipulación en el Altiplano Central.  Thesis for the degree of Agricultural  Engeneer. Faculty of Agriculture, UMSA.  La Paz, Bolivia. pp. 90-91.  PROINPA, 2003. Fundación para la   Promoción e Investigación de Productos  Andinos. Project Report: Desarrollo y  validación participativa de las  innovaciones tecnológicas que mejoren  las estrategias para manejo sostenible de  la quinua. The McKnight Foundation. La  Paz, Bolivia. 127 p.  PROINPA, 2013. Fundación para la   Promoción e Investigación de Productos  Andinos. Annual Report 2009-2010:  Proyecto Desarrollo y validación    participativa de las innovaciones  tecnológicas que mejoren las estrategias  para manejo sostenible del sistema  centrado en quinua en el Altiplano  boliviano. The McKnight Foundation. La  Paz, Bolivia. 145 p.  Saravia, R., Quispe, R. 2006. Manejo   integrado de las plagas insectiles del  cultivo de la quinua. In: Module 2: Manejo  agronómico de la quinua orgánica.  Fundación PROINPA. pp. 53-86.  Saravia, R., Quispe, R. 2003. Ciclo biológico   de la polilla de la quinua Eurysacca  melanocampta Meyrick. Technical Listing   No.6. PROINPA Foundation.  Cochabamba, Bolivia. 4 p.  Saravia, R., Mamani, A., Bonifacio, A., Alcon,   M. 2008. Diagnóstico de los enemigos  naturales de las plagas del cultivo de  quinua. PROINPA Foundation. Annual  Report 2008-2009. Rubro Granos  Altoandinos. Cochabamba, Bolivia, 215  p.  Sharkey, M. 2006. Two new genera of   Agathidinae (Hymenoptera: Braconidae)  with a key to the genera of the New  World. Zootaxa: 1185: 37-51.  Van Driesche, R., Hoddle, M., Center, D. 2007.   Control de plagas y malezas por  enemigos naturales. USDA. Translated  by E. Ruiz and J. Coronada. Universidad  de Tamaulipas. Cd. Victoria, México. 796  p.      In Table 1 it is important to note that the  species identified as H. gelotopoeon, in  2008, was currently identified as  Helicoverpa quinoa by the same author.   This new species was reported as a quinoa  pests based on morphological characters,  genitalia dissection and mitochondrial  analysis. This author suggests that it is  difficult to distinguish between H. quinoa  and H. gelotopoen only by their  morphological differences and that  analysis of genitalia is required. Other  species that have undergone changes in  taxonomy are Heliothis titicaquensis and  Agrotis andina, which were identified as  Helicoverpa titicacae and Agrotis  peruviana according to a morphological  and phylogenetic analysis performed by  Pogue (2014) and San Blas (2014).  Another aspect that stands out is the  inclusion of Copitarsia patagonica in the    2014 list. The other species listed in the  Table maintained their identification.   Geographical distribution of the  identified species    Table 2 shows the list of lepidopteran  pests species associated with the quinoa  crop in the Bolivian Altiplano, detailing  the family to which they belong, the  method of collection, the type of pest and  its geographical distribution. This table  shows that five species of Lepidoptera:  Eurysacca melanocampta, Eurysacca  quinoae, Copitarsia incommoda,  Helicoverpa titicacae and Helicoverpa  quinoa, were listed as key crop pests of  quinoa in the Bolivian Altiplano, four as  casual pests: Copitarsia patagonica,  Helicoverpa atacamae, Dargida  acanthus, Tatochila mercedis and one as  potential pest: Agrotis peruviana.   Figure 1 describes, in detail, the  geographical distribution and abundance  of the species Helicoverpa titicacae and  H. quinoa in the Bolivian Altiplano. It can  be observed that Helicoverpa titicacae is  found mainly in the Northern Altiplano  and extends into the Central Altiplano.  Conversely  H. quinoa is distributed in   quinoa production areas located between  the salt flats of Uyuni and Coipasa  (Southern Altiplano), extending into the  Central Altiplano without reaching the  Northern Altiplano.   Figure 2 shows the distribution and  abundance of Eurysacca melanocampta  and E. quinoae in different quinoa  production areas of the Bolivian  Altiplano. According to this figure, Eurysacca  melanocampta is abundant in the  Northern Altiplano and extends into the  Central Altiplano. In contrast, E. quinoae  is abundant in the South and Central  Altiplano where it is found in high  populations.       Revista de Agricultura, Nro. 54 - Julio de 2014    Area: Technology Development 51   Figure 1. Distribution and abundance of Helicoverpa titicacae y H. quinoa in the Bolivian Altiplano (2013) Figure 2. Distribution and abundance of Eurysacca melanocampta and E. quinoae in the Bolivian Altiplano (2013)   In Table 1 it is important to note that the  species identified as H. gelotopoeon, in  2008, was currently identified as  Helicoverpa quinoa by the same author.   This new species was reported as a quinoa  pests based on morphological characters,  genitalia dissection and mitochondrial  analysis. This author suggests that it is  difficult to distinguish between H. quinoa  and H. gelotopoen only by their  morphological differences and that  analysis of genitalia is required. Other  species that have undergone changes in  taxonomy are Heliothis titicaquensis and  Agrotis andina, which were identified as  Helicoverpa titicacae and Agrotis  peruviana according to a morphological  and phylogenetic analysis performed by  Pogue (2014) and San Blas (2014).  Another aspect that stands out is the  inclusion of Copitarsia patagonica in the    2014 list. The other species listed in the  Table maintained their identification.   Geographical distribution of the  identified species    Table 2 shows the list of lepidopteran  pests species associated with the quinoa  crop in the Bolivian Altiplano, detailing  the family to which they belong, the  method of collection, the type of pest and  its geographical distribution. This table  shows that five species of Lepidoptera:  Eurysacca melanocampta, Eurysacca  quinoae, Copitarsia incommoda,  Helicoverpa titicacae and Helicoverpa  quinoa, were listed as key crop pests of  quinoa in the Bolivian Altiplano, four as  casual pests: Copitarsia patagonica,  Helicoverpa atacamae, Dargida  acanthus, Tatochila mercedis and one as  potential pest: Agrotis peruviana.   Figure 1 describes, in detail, the  geographical distribution and abundance  of the species Helicoverpa titicacae and  H. quinoa in the Bolivian Altiplano. It can  be observed that Helicoverpa titicacae is  found mainly in the Northern Altiplano  and extends into the Central Altiplano.  Conversely  H. quinoa is distributed in   quinoa production areas located between  the salt flats of Uyuni and Coipasa  (Southern Altiplano), extending into the  Central Altiplano without reaching the  Northern Altiplano.   Figure 2 shows the distribution and  abundance of Eurysacca melanocampta  and E. quinoae in different quinoa  production areas of the Bolivian  Altiplano. According to this figure, Eurysacca  melanocampta is abundant in the  Northern Altiplano and extends into the  Central Altiplano. In contrast, E. quinoae  is abundant in the South and Central  Altiplano where it is found in high  populations.     Particular emphasis should be placed on  the isolation of Bacillus thuringiensis  found as an endophyte, because after  being sprayed it can stay protected from  ultraviolet rays inside the plant, having a  longer residual effect as entomopathogen.   The species Bacillus cereus, an  entomopathogen of Coleoptera, was also  isolated from soil samples.  This species is  important for the development of  bioinsecticides that can contribute to the  management of this group of insect pests.   Conclusions   • show there a   significant number of bacteria  associated with quinoa plants, several  of which are beneficial species that  provide environmental services.   These bacteria have great  biotechnological and agroindustrial  potential for organic and sustainable  quinoa production.  • nitrogen-fixing 72   phosphorous solubilizing bacteria and  28 IAA generating strains were  detected. The fact that some species  are repeated does not necessarily mean  that they are the same strain. There are  isolates from the genera Azotobacter,  Pseudomonas, Rhizobium and  Flavobacterium that are free-living  and nitrogen fixers, a fact that still    needs to be studied.  •  Bacillus   subtilis, B. pumilus and B.  amiloliquefasciens and other  non-identified were detected in quinoa  grains.  •   Bacillus thuringiensis, for the control  of lepidopteran, is a resource that must  be evaluated given its potential for the  development of bioinsecticides for  organic pest management.  •  Bacillus cereus, as entomopathogen is   representative of strains that can be  used for the management of  Coleopteran pests not only for quinoa  production, but for other crops in the  Altiplano region.   Cited References   Altschul, S., Gish, W., Miller, W., Myers, E.,   Lipman, D. 1990. Basic local alignment  search tool. J. Mol. Biol. 215:403-410.  Bécquer, C., Lazarovits, G., Lalin, I. 2013.   Interacción in vitro entre Trichoderma  harzianum  y bacterias rizosféricas   estimuladoras del crecimiento vegetal.  Revista Cubana de Ciencia Agrícola.  Volume 47, Number 1  CIP. 2008. Protocolos de trabajo con bacterias   PGPR. Lima Perú. pp. 47-50.  Dion, P., Magallón, P. 2009. Manual de   microbiología agrícola “Importancia de   los microorganismos promotores de  crecimiento vegetal para los pequeños  productores de Bolivia. Université Laval.  Québec, Canada. 90:31-32.  Gordon, S., Weber, R. 1950. Colorimetric   estimation of indole acetic acid. Plant  Physiol. 26:192-195.  Hall, T. 1999. BioEdit: a user-friendly biological   sequence alignment editor and analysis  program for Windows 95/98/NT. Nucleic  Acids Symp. Ser. 41:95-98.  Harrison, M. 2005. Signaling in the arbuscular   mycorrhizal symbiosis. Ann. Rev.  Microbiol. 59:19-42.  Kubicek, C., Harman, G. 2002. Trichoderma &   Gliocladium. Basic Biology, Taxonomy  and Genetics. 1:1-271.  Krüger, M., Stockinger, H., Krüger C.,   Schüßler, A. 2009. DNA-based species-  level detection of arbuscular mycorrhizal  fungi: One PCR primer set for all AMF.  New Phytologist. 183:212-223  Lane, D. 1991. 16S/23S sequencing. In:   Nucleic Acid Techniques in Bacterial    Systematics (ed. Stackebrandt, E. &  Goodfellow, M.), Chichester: John Wiley  & Sons. pp. 115-175.  Muñoz-Rojas, J., Caballero-Mellado, J. 2003.   Population Dynamics Of  Gluconacetobacter diazotrophicus In:  Sugarcane Cultivars and Its Effect on  Plant Growth. Microbial Ecol.  46(4):454-464.  Reinhold-Hurek, B., Hurek, T. 1998. Trends   Microbiol. Apr; 6(4): 139-44. Review.  Erratum in: 6(5):202  Sanger, F., Nicklen, S., Coulson, A. 1977.   DNA sequencing with chain-terminating  inhibitors. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA.  74:5463–5467.  Sturz, A., Christie, B., Nowak, J. 2000.   Bacterial Endophytes: Potential Role in  Developing Sustainable Systems of Crop  Production Critical Reviews in Plant  Sciences Prince Edward Island. Canada.  19(1):1–30.   Abundance of E. quinoae   Abundance of E. melanocampta   Abundance of H. titicacae  High Medium Low   High Medium Low   High Medium Low   High Medium Low   Abundance of H. quinoa     ISSN 1998 - 9652    Area: Technology Development 52   Article received on June 13, 2014 – Article accepted on June 30, 2014   In Table 1 it is important to note that the  species identified as H. gelotopoeon, in  2008, was currently identified as  Helicoverpa quinoa by the same author.   This new species was reported as a quinoa  pests based on morphological characters,  genitalia dissection and mitochondrial  analysis. This author suggests that it is  difficult to distinguish between H. quinoa  and H. gelotopoen only by their  morphological differences and that  analysis of genitalia is required. Other  species that have undergone changes in  taxonomy are Heliothis titicaquensis and  Agrotis andina, which were identified as  Helicoverpa titicacae and Agrotis  peruviana according to a morphological  and phylogenetic analysis performed by  Pogue (2014) and San Blas (2014).  Another aspect that stands out is the  inclusion of Copitarsia patagonica in the    2014 list. The other species listed in the  Table maintained their identification.   Geographical distribution of the  identified species    Table 2 shows the list of lepidopteran  pests species associated with the quinoa  crop in the Bolivian Altiplano, detailing  the family to which they belong, the  method of collection, the type of pest and  its geographical distribution. This table  shows that five species of Lepidoptera:  Eurysacca melanocampta, Eurysacca  quinoae, Copitarsia incommoda,  Helicoverpa titicacae and Helicoverpa  quinoa, were listed as key crop pests of  quinoa in the Bolivian Altiplano, four as  casual pests: Copitarsia patagonica,  Helicoverpa atacamae, Dargida  acanthus, Tatochila mercedis and one as  potential pest: Agrotis peruviana.   Figure 1 describes, in detail, the  geographical distribution and abundance  of the species Helicoverpa titicacae and  H. quinoa in the Bolivian Altiplano. It can  be observed that Helicoverpa titicacae is  found mainly in the Northern Altiplano  and extends into the Central Altiplano.  Conversely  H. quinoa is distributed in   quinoa production areas located between  the salt flats of Uyuni and Coipasa  (Southern Altiplano), extending into the  Central Altiplano without reaching the  Northern Altiplano.   Figure 2 shows the distribution and  abundance of Eurysacca melanocampta  and E. quinoae in different quinoa  production areas of the Bolivian  Altiplano. According to this figure, Eurysacca  melanocampta is abundant in the  Northern Altiplano and extends into the  Central Altiplano. In contrast, E. quinoae  is abundant in the South and Central  Altiplano where it is found in high  populations.      Conclusions   •  Bolivian Altiplano there are ten   Lepidoptera species associated with  the quinoa crop, including five listed  as key quinoa pests: Eurysacca  melanocampta, Eurysacca quinoae,  Copitarsia incommoda, Helicoverpa  titicacae and Helicoverpa quinoa; four  as casual: Copitarsia patagonica,  Helicoverpa atacamae, Dargida  acanthus, Tatochila mercedis and one  as potential pest: Agrotis peruviana.  •  Helicoverpa titicacae is abundant in   the Northern Altiplano and extends  into the Central Altiplano. In contrast,  H. quinoa, an endemic Pest of the  Bolivian Altiplano, abounds in the  Southern Altiplano and extends into  the Central Altiplano without reaching  the Northern Altiplano.  •  Eurysacca melanocampta is the   dominant species in the Northern  Altiplano and extends into the Central  Altiplano, and E. quinoae is the  dominant species in the Southern and  Central Altiplano.   Cited References    Borror, D., Triplehorn, C., Johnson, N. 1989.   An introduction to the study of insects.  Saunders College Publishing.  Philadelphia.   Marquez, J. 2005. Técnicas de colecta y   preservación de insectos. Boletín  Sociedad Entomológica Aragonesa, No.  37:385-408.  Ortiz, R., Zanabria, E. 1979. Plagas. In:   Quinua y kañiwa, cultivos andinos. CIID.  Bogotá, Colombia. Series: Libros y  materiales educativos.  Pogue, M. 2014. Primer reporte de   lepidópteros asociados al cultivo de la  quinua en Bolivia. February 2014 (in  edition).  San Blas, D. 2014. Revisión sistemática y   análisis cladístico del género Agrotis  Ochsenheimer (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)  en Argentina. Doctoral Thesis in  Biological Sciences. Universidad  Nacional de Tucumán.  Saravia, R., Bonifacio, A., Gandarillas, A.   2013. Las feromonas en el MIP – Quinua:  Estado actual de la investigación y  difusión. In: Memoria Congreso Científico  de la Quinua, June 14-15, 2013. La Paz,  Bolivia.  Saravia, R., Quispe, R. 2005. Manejo   integrado de las plagas insectiles del  cultivo de la quinua. In: Module 2: Manejo  Agronómico de la quinua orgánica.  Fundación PROINPA. pp. 53-86.  Steyskal, G., Murphy, W., Hoover, E. 1986.   Insects and mites: Techniques for  collection and preservation. US  Departament of Agriculture, Miscellaneos  Publication. No 1443.   Particular emphasis should be placed on  the isolation of Bacillus thuringiensis  found as an endophyte, because after  being sprayed it can stay protected from  ultraviolet rays inside the plant, having a  longer residual effect as entomopathogen.   The species Bacillus cereus, an  entomopathogen of Coleoptera, was also  isolated from soil samples.  This species is  important for the development of  bioinsecticides that can contribute to the  management of this group of insect pests.   Conclusions   • show there a   significant number of bacteria  associated with quinoa plants, several  of which are beneficial species that  provide environmental services.   These bacteria have great  biotechnological and agroindustrial  potential for organic and sustainable  quinoa production.  • nitrogen-fixing 72   phosphorous solubilizing bacteria and  28 IAA generating strains were  detected. The fact that some species  are repeated does not necessarily mean  that they are the same strain. There are  isolates from the genera Azotobacter,  Pseudomonas, Rhizobium and  Flavobacterium that are free-living  and nitrogen fixers, a fact that still    needs to be studied.  •  Bacillus   subtilis, B. pumilus and B.  amiloliquefasciens and other  non-identified were detected in quinoa  grains.  •   Bacillus thuringiensis, for the control  of lepidopteran, is a resource that must  be evaluated given its potential for the  development of bioinsecticides for  organic pest management.  •  Bacillus cereus, as entomopathogen is   representative of strains that can be  used for the management of  Coleopteran pests not only for quinoa  production, but for other crops in the  Altiplano region.   Cited References   Altschul, S., Gish, W., Miller, W., Myers, E.,   Lipman, D. 1990. Basic local alignment  search tool. J. Mol. Biol. 215:403-410.  Bécquer, C., Lazarovits, G., Lalin, I. 2013.   Interacción in vitro entre Trichoderma  harzianum  y bacterias rizosféricas   estimuladoras del crecimiento vegetal.  Revista Cubana de Ciencia Agrícola.  Volume 47, Number 1  CIP. 2008. Protocolos de trabajo con bacterias   PGPR. Lima Perú. pp. 47-50.  Dion, P., Magallón, P. 2009. Manual de   microbiología agrícola “Importancia de   los microorganismos promotores de  crecimiento vegetal para los pequeños  productores de Bolivia. Université Laval.  Québec, Canada. 90:31-32.  Gordon, S., Weber, R. 1950. Colorimetric   estimation of indole acetic acid. Plant  Physiol. 26:192-195.  Hall, T. 1999. BioEdit: a user-friendly biological   sequence alignment editor and analysis  program for Windows 95/98/NT. Nucleic  Acids Symp. Ser. 41:95-98.  Harrison, M. 2005. Signaling in the arbuscular   mycorrhizal symbiosis. Ann. Rev.  Microbiol. 59:19-42.  Kubicek, C., Harman, G. 2002. Trichoderma &   Gliocladium. Basic Biology, Taxonomy  and Genetics. 1:1-271.  Krüger, M., Stockinger, H., Krüger C.,   Schüßler, A. 2009. DNA-based species-  level detection of arbuscular mycorrhizal  fungi: One PCR primer set for all AMF.  New Phytologist. 183:212-223  Lane, D. 1991. 16S/23S sequencing. In:   Nucleic Acid Techniques in Bacterial    Systematics (ed. Stackebrandt, E. &  Goodfellow, M.), Chichester: John Wiley  & Sons. pp. 115-175.  Muñoz-Rojas, J., Caballero-Mellado, J. 2003.   Population Dynamics Of  Gluconacetobacter diazotrophicus In:  Sugarcane Cultivars and Its Effect on  Plant Growth. Microbial Ecol.  46(4):454-464.  Reinhold-Hurek, B., Hurek, T. 1998. Trends   Microbiol. Apr; 6(4): 139-44. Review.  Erratum in: 6(5):202  Sanger, F., Nicklen, S., Coulson, A. 1977.   DNA sequencing with chain-terminating  inhibitors. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA.  74:5463–5467.  Sturz, A., Christie, B., Nowak, J. 2000.   Bacterial Endophytes: Potential Role in  Developing Sustainable Systems of Crop  Production Critical Reviews in Plant  Sciences Prince Edward Island. Canada.  19(1):1–30.     Revista de Agricultura, Nro. 53 - Julio de 2014    Area: Technology Development 53   Bacteria associated with the cultivation of quinoa in the  Bolivian Altiplano and their biotechnological potential   Noel Ortuño; Mayra Claros; Claudia Gutiérrez; Marlene Angulo; José Castillo    Work funded by: FONTAGRO;The McKnight Foundation; PROINPA Foundation  E mail: n.ortuno@proinpa.org    In Table 1 it is important to note that the  species identified as H. gelotopoeon, in  2008, was currently identified as  Helicoverpa quinoa by the same author.   This new species was reported as a quinoa  pests based on morphological characters,  genitalia dissection and mitochondrial  analysis. This author suggests that it is  difficult to distinguish between H. quinoa  and H. gelotopoen only by their  morphological differences and that  analysis of genitalia is required. Other  species that have undergone changes in  taxonomy are Heliothis titicaquensis and  Agrotis andina, which were identified as  Helicoverpa titicacae and Agrotis  peruviana according to a morphological  and phylogenetic analysis performed by  Pogue (2014) and San Blas (2014).  Another aspect that stands out is the  inclusion of Copitarsia patagonica in the    2014 list. The other species listed in the  Table maintained their identification.   Geographical distribution of the  identified species    Table 2 shows the list of lepidopteran  pests species associated with the quinoa  crop in the Bolivian Altiplano, detailing  the family to which they belong, the  method of collection, the type of pest and  its geographical distribution. This table  shows that five species of Lepidoptera:  Eurysacca melanocampta, Eurysacca  quinoae, Copitarsia incommoda,  Helicoverpa titicacae and Helicoverpa  quinoa, were listed as key crop pests of  quinoa in the Bolivian Altiplano, four as  casual pests: Copitarsia patagonica,  Helicoverpa atacamae, Dargida  acanthus, Tatochila mercedis and one as  potential pest: Agrotis peruviana.   Figure 1 describes, in detail, the  geographical distribution and abundance  of the species Helicoverpa titicacae and  H. quinoa in the Bolivian Altiplano. It can  be observed that Helicoverpa titicacae is  found mainly in the Northern Altiplano  and extends into the Central Altiplano.  Conversely  H. quinoa is distributed in   quinoa production areas located between  the salt flats of Uyuni and Coipasa  (Southern Altiplano), extending into the  Central Altiplano without reaching the  Northern Altiplano.   Figure 2 shows the distribution and  abundance of Eurysacca melanocampta  and E. quinoae in different quinoa  production areas of the Bolivian  Altiplano. According to this figure, Eurysacca  melanocampta is abundant in the  Northern Altiplano and extends into the  Central Altiplano. In contrast, E. quinoae  is abundant in the South and Central  Altiplano where it is found in high  populations.      Summary. Quinoa grows in semi-deserted areas under extreme conditions of humidity and   temperature. Therefore it is also possible that its symbiont microorganisms are also adapted to  these extreme conditions. These organisms hold great potential for the development of  biotechnology adapted to quinoa. For this purpose, quinoa plants and soil samples from the  Southern Altiplano were collected and taken to the laboratory where different bacteria species  were isolated and where their potential ecosystem services were examined (nitrogen fixation,  phosphorus solubilization or IAA generation). Later, the bacteria were identified by molecular  techniques: Bacillus amyloliquefaciens; B. tequilensis; B. vallismortis; B. subtilis; B. pumilus; B.   licheniformis and B. firmus (isolated from leaves). B. aryabhattai; B. horikoshii; B. megaterium;   B. pumilus and Paenibacillus odorifer; Pseudomonas sp.; B. subtilis; Azotobacter sp. (isolated   from roots); B. subtilis; B. pumilus; B. amilequefasciens (isolated from grain). B. cereus, and B.   thuringiensis were also isolated from the rhizosphere, and the latter species as endophyte. This  great diversity of species and strains of bacteria associated with quinoa are a potential to  develop biotechnology products to improve the sustainability and productivity of quinoa  cultivation in the Southern Altiplano of Bolivia. Keywords: Microorganisms; Symbionts; Environmental Services  Resumen. asociadas cultivo la en Altiplano y  potencial   La quinua crece en condiciones extremas de humedad y  temperatura en una zona semidesértica, por tanto es posible que también sus  microorganismos simbiontes estén adaptados a esas condiciones extremas. Estos  microorganismos representan un gran potencial para el desarrollo de biotecnología adaptada  a la quinua. Para ello se colectaron plantas de quinua y muestras de suelo del Altiplano Sud,  estas fueron llevadas al laboratorio donde se aislaron diferentes especies de bacterias y se  examinó el servicio ambiental que pueden brindar (fijador de nitrógeno, solubilizador de fósforo  o generador de AIA). Luego las bacterias fueron identificadas mediante técnicas moleculares:  Bacillus amyloliquefaciens; B.  tequilensis; B. vallismortis; B. subtilis; B. pumilus; B.   licheniformis y B. firmus (aislados de las hojas). B. aryabhattai; B. horikoshii; B. megaterium; B.  pumilus y Paenibacillus odorifer;  Pseudomonas sp.; B. subtilis; Azotobacter sp. (aislados de las   raíces); B. subtilis; B. pumilus; B. amilequefasciens  (aislados del grano). También se aisló B.   cereus, B. thuringiensis de la rizósfera, y esta última especie como endófito. Esta gran  diversidad de especies y cepas de bacterias asociadas a la quinua representan un potencial  para desarrollar productos biotecnológicos destinados a mejorar la sostenibilidad y  productividad del cultivo de quinua en el Altiplano Sud de Bolivia. Palabras clave: Microorganismos; Simbiontes; Servicios Ambientales   Particular emphasis should be placed on  the isolation of Bacillus thuringiensis  found as an endophyte, because after  being sprayed it can stay protected from  ultraviolet rays inside the plant, having a  longer residual effect as entomopathogen.   The species Bacillus cereus, an  entomopathogen of Coleoptera, was also  isolated from soil samples.  This species is  important for the development of  bioinsecticides that can contribute to the  management of this group of insect pests.   Conclusions   • show there a   significant number of bacteria  associated with quinoa plants, several  of which are beneficial species that  provide environmental services.   These bacteria have great  biotechnological and agroindustrial  potential for organic and sustainable  quinoa production.  • nitrogen-fixing 72   phosphorous solubilizing bacteria and  28 IAA generating strains were  detected. The fact that some species  are repeated does not necessarily mean  that they are the same strain. There are  isolates from the genera Azotobacter,  Pseudomonas, Rhizobium and  Flavobacterium that are free-living  and nitrogen fixers, a fact that still    needs to be studied.  •  Bacillus   subtilis, B. pumilus and B.  amiloliquefasciens and other  non-identified were detected in quinoa  grains.  •   Bacillus thuringiensis, for the control  of lepidopteran, is a resource that must  be evaluated given its potential for the  development of bioinsecticides for  organic pest management.  •  Bacillus cereus, as entomopathogen is   representative of strains that can be  used for the management of  Coleopteran pests not only for quinoa  production, but for other crops in the  Altiplano region.   Cited References   Altschul, S., Gish, W., Miller, W., Myers, E.,   Lipman, D. 1990. Basic local alignment  search tool. J. Mol. Biol. 215:403-410.  Bécquer, C., Lazarovits, G., Lalin, I. 2013.   Interacción in vitro entre Trichoderma  harzianum  y bacterias rizosféricas   estimuladoras del crecimiento vegetal.  Revista Cubana de Ciencia Agrícola.  Volume 47, Number 1  CIP. 2008. Protocolos de trabajo con bacterias   PGPR. Lima Perú. pp. 47-50.  Dion, P., Magallón, P. 2009. Manual de   microbiología agrícola “Importancia de   los microorganismos promotores de  crecimiento vegetal para los pequeños  productores de Bolivia. Université Laval.  Québec, Canada. 90:31-32.  Gordon, S., Weber, R. 1950. Colorimetric   estimation of indole acetic acid. Plant  Physiol. 26:192-195.  Hall, T. 1999. BioEdit: a user-friendly biological   sequence alignment editor and analysis  program for Windows 95/98/NT. Nucleic  Acids Symp. Ser. 41:95-98.  Harrison, M. 2005. Signaling in the arbuscular   mycorrhizal symbiosis. Ann. Rev.  Microbiol. 59:19-42.  Kubicek, C., Harman, G. 2002. Trichoderma &   Gliocladium. Basic Biology, Taxonomy  and Genetics. 1:1-271.  Krüger, M., Stockinger, H., Krüger C.,   Schüßler, A. 2009. DNA-based species-  level detection of arbuscular mycorrhizal  fungi: One PCR primer set for all AMF.  New Phytologist. 183:212-223  Lane, D. 1991. 16S/23S sequencing. In:   Nucleic Acid Techniques in Bacterial    Systematics (ed. Stackebrandt, E. &  Goodfellow, M.), Chichester: John Wiley  & Sons. pp. 115-175.  Muñoz-Rojas, J., Caballero-Mellado, J. 2003.   Population Dynamics Of  Gluconacetobacter diazotrophicus In:  Sugarcane Cultivars and Its Effect on  Plant Growth. Microbial Ecol.  46(4):454-464.  Reinhold-Hurek, B., Hurek, T. 1998. Trends   Microbiol. Apr; 6(4): 139-44. Review.  Erratum in: 6(5):202  Sanger, F., Nicklen, S., Coulson, A. 1977.   DNA sequencing with chain-terminating  inhibitors. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA.  74:5463–5467.  Sturz, A., Christie, B., Nowak, J. 2000.   Bacterial Endophytes: Potential Role in  Developing Sustainable Systems of Crop  Production Critical Reviews in Plant  Sciences Prince Edward Island. Canada.  19(1):1–30.     ISSN 1998 - 9652    Area: Technology Development 54   In Table 1 it is important to note that the  species identified as H. gelotopoeon, in  2008, was currently identified as  Helicoverpa quinoa by the same author.   This new species was reported as a quinoa  pests based on morphological characters,  genitalia dissection and mitochondrial  analysis. This author suggests that it is  difficult to distinguish between H. quinoa  and H. gelotopoen only by their  morphological differences and that  analysis of genitalia is required. Other  species that have undergone changes in  taxonomy are Heliothis titicaquensis and  Agrotis andina, which were identified as  Helicoverpa titicacae and Agrotis  peruviana according to a morphological  and phylogenetic analysis performed by  Pogue (2014) and San Blas (2014).  Another aspect that stands out is the  inclusion of Copitarsia patagonica in the    2014 list. The other species listed in the  Table maintained their identification.   Geographical distribution of the  identified species    Table 2 shows the list of lepidopteran  pests species associated with the quinoa  crop in the Bolivian Altiplano, detailing  the family to which they belong, the  method of collection, the type of pest and  its geographical distribution. This table  shows that five species of Lepidoptera:  Eurysacca melanocampta, Eurysacca  quinoae, Copitarsia incommoda,  Helicoverpa titicacae and Helicoverpa  quinoa, were listed as key crop pests of  quinoa in the Bolivian Altiplano, four as  casual pests: Copitarsia patagonica,  Helicoverpa atacamae, Dargida  acanthus, Tatochila mercedis and one as  potential pest: Agrotis peruviana.   Figure 1 describes, in detail, the  geographical distribution and abundance  of the species Helicoverpa titicacae and  H. quinoa in the Bolivian Altiplano. It can  be observed that Helicoverpa titicacae is  found mainly in the Northern Altiplano  and extends into the Central Altiplano.  Conversely  H. quinoa is distributed in   quinoa production areas located between  the salt flats of Uyuni and Coipasa  (Southern Altiplano), extending into the  Central Altiplano without reaching the  Northern Altiplano.   Figure 2 shows the distribution and  abundance of Eurysacca melanocampta  and E. quinoae in different quinoa  production areas of the Bolivian  Altiplano. According to this figure, Eurysacca  melanocampta is abundant in the  Northern Altiplano and extends into the  Central Altiplano. In contrast, E. quinoae  is abundant in the South and Central  Altiplano where it is found in high  populations.      Introduction   Most soils, where naturally propagated  plants grow, are colonized by microbial  communities covering a wide variety of  genera and species. These obligate or  facultative symbiont microbiota, is  associated with the recycling of nutrients,  increasing plant growth and speeding up  development, and improving the  resistance of plants to environmental  stress. There is also a relation with the  production of plant hormones, metabolites  and enzymes to induce basal plant  resistance; with soil pathogen suppression  or action as entomopathogens (Sturz  et   al., 2000 and Harrison, 2005). There are microorganisms (fungi,  bacteria, actinomycetes and others) living  within plants and are called endophytes.  These are located in intracellular or  intercellular spaces in the vascular tissue  (Reinhold-Hurek and Hurek, 1998).  These, being in close association with  plants, have beneficial effects of greater  importance compared to those living in  the area influenced by the root  (rhizosphere). Endophytic  microorganisms have less competition for  nutrients than those located in the  rhizosphere and therefore provide direct  benefits to the host plant (Muñoz-Rojas  and Caballero, 2003). This paper seeks to explore the natural  advantages of symbiosis that quinoa  plants have in their natural habitat, in the  Bolivian Southern Altiplano.  This arid  and semi-deserted region has soils with  low fertility and high erosion, where  processes of nutrient cycling, retention of  soil moisture and microbial activity are  limited. Due to these characteristics there  is low diversity of native and cultivated  species in the region.   Despite the rough climatic and edaphic  conditions of the Altiplano, quinoa  develops properly, namely it is a plant  adapted to those ecological conditions.  Although no experimental data are  available, it can be assumed that the  symbiotic microorganisms in quinoa  should also be well adapted to this habitat.  Therefore, exploring the microbiology of  this plant is an opportunity to understand  the phenomena of plant nutrition, fertility  restoration, pathogen suppression and  other mechanisms that are present in these  extreme ecosystems. This knowledge  holds great potential to restore soil  fertility in the Altiplano in an attempt to  mitigate the negative effects of the  environment.   Materials and methods   A) Sampling: The plant samples were  collected from organic quinoa production  plots. Five plants were systematically  collected from each production plot, 10  plots were considered from three  communities in the areas of Salinas de  Garci Mendoza, Challapata and Quillacas  from the department of Oruro. Likewise,  in the department of Potosí samples were  collected from plots in the communities of  Chacala, Mañica and Llica. Different  organs (stem, leaves and grains) were  used to isolate bacteria and endophytic  fungi. Microorganisms from the  rhizosphere and rhizoplane were also  isolated. Samples were placed in plastic  bags, kept cold in coolers and transported  to the laboratory where they were stored  at 10°C until processing.  Samples  destined to molecular analysis were stored  at -20°C.   B) Isolation of endophytic bacteria: For  the isolation of endophytic bacteria, the  protocol “Microbiology Manual” of Dion  and Magallon (2009) was used. Tissues  were fragmented, superficially sterilized,  then each piece was placed in Trypticase  Soy Agar (TSA) and incubated at 28°C  for 72 hours. Once colonies were grown,  they were isolated in test tubes with TSA  for further characterization (Figure 1).   C) Characterization of environmental  services by microorganisms: Once  isolated, the environmental service  provided by each bacterial culture was  researched. The following services were  identified: nitrogen fixation, phosphorus  solubilization, and production of indole  acetic acid (IAA). The potential offered  by these microorganisms, to develop  future biotech products for recycling  nutrients, promoting growth and  protecting quinoa plants in their highly  vulnerable habitat, was established. The  procedure to determine each of the  environmental services was as follows: c.1. Nitrogen-fixation: Work was  performed on the basis of the Dion and  Magallon (2009) protocol. Bacterial  strains were planted in Burk’s culture  medium. Plates were incubated 5 to 15  days at 28ºC. The incubation time varied  according to the kind of bacteria treated,  which is why a daily monitoring of the test  was performed. c.2. Phosphorus-solubilization: Bacteria  to be assessed were planted in a plate  containing NBRIP with tricalcium  phosphate as culture medium. Plates were  incubated 5 to 15 days at 28 ºC.  Incubation time varied depending on the  kind of bacteria treated, which is why a  daily monitoring of the test was  performed (CIP, 2008). Bacterial strains  that showed a transparent halo around the  planted colony were recorded as positive. c.3. Indole acetic acid (IAA) generation:  IAA is a secondary metabolite produced  by bacteria in their stationary period of  growth. Therefore, the culture broth  incubation time depended on the bacterial  growth curve. Incubation then was  extended long enough to ensure that  bacteria reached the stationary phase. For    this purpose the studied strains were  reactivated in Soy Trypticase broth  (TSB), seeding the colonies of each strain  in a tube with TSB medium,  supplemented with 5 μM (micro mol) of  L-tryptophan, and incubated for 7 days at  28°C (Gordon and Weber, 1950).  Samples that revealed with tones of red  were reported as positive. Once grown,  bacteria colonies were isolated in tubes  with TSA for further testing and  characterization. D) Molecular identification: Genome  regions of each microbial isolation, were  amplified through PCR, conserved and  used as identity indicators; using primers  whose sequences were obtained from the  literature (Lane, 1991, Krüger et al.,  2009). These conserved regions  correspond to genes encoding ribosomal  RNA from the small and large ribosomal  subunit. The primers used for these  bacteria were: 27A or 27C (sense primer)  and 1488 or 1492 (antisense primer),  (Lane, 1991). The primers were  synthesized by AlphaDNA, Quebec,  Canada; and a DNA Polymerase  (Phusion, Finnzymes, Finland) with high  fidelity was used in order to minimize the  introduction of mutations in the amplified  genome regions. Each PCR product was  purified with GeneJet (Fermentas, USA)  columns prior to their shipment to the  Sequencing Center at the University of  Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA, where  fragments were sequenced using the  Sanger technique (Sanger et al., 1977).  The sequences obtained were edited with  the BioEdit software (Hall, 1999) and then  checked against databases using the  BLAST software (Altschul et al., 1990).   Results and discussion   Diversity by region   The results showed that the variability of  microbial populations in the rhizosphere  and rhizoplane are higher, where more  symbiont or non-symbiont  micro-organisms are concentrated (Figure  2). It was also determined that there are  endophytic microorganisms in quinoa  seeds or grains, being the dominant strains  from the species Bacillus subtilis, B.  pumilus and B. amiloliquefasciens and  other unidentified. Endophytism is one of  the most efficient forms of  plant-microorganism symbiosis, mainly  because microorganisms have the same  dissemination system as the plant; this  natural mechanism ensures that quinoa  grains will be accompanied by their  symbionts, wherever they go (Figure 3).   Isolation and characterization of  environmental services   Some nitrogen-fixing bacteria are  free-living, ie which do not require a host  plant for carrying out the process of  nitrogen fixation. 260 strains of  endophytic bacteria where isolated from  quinoa samples from the Southern  Altiplano.  31 isolations were detected as  potential for nitrogen fixation (Figure 4). Out of 480 strains of quinoa endophytic  bacteria from plants of the Southern  Altiplano, 72 were detected as phosphorus  solubilizers (Figure 5). 28 positive strains with the ability to  generate the phytohormone IAA were  isolated (Figure 6).   Particular emphasis should be placed on  the isolation of Bacillus thuringiensis  found as an endophyte, because after  being sprayed it can stay protected from  ultraviolet rays inside the plant, having a  longer residual effect as entomopathogen.   The species Bacillus cereus, an  entomopathogen of Coleoptera, was also  isolated from soil samples.  This species is  important for the development of  bioinsecticides that can contribute to the  management of this group of insect pests.   Conclusions   • show there a   significant number of bacteria  associated with quinoa plants, several  of which are beneficial species that  provide environmental services.   These bacteria have great  biotechnological and agroindustrial  potential for organic and sustainable  quinoa production.  • nitrogen-fixing 72   phosphorous solubilizing bacteria and  28 IAA generating strains were  detected. The fact that some species  are repeated does not necessarily mean  that they are the same strain. There are  isolates from the genera Azotobacter,  Pseudomonas, Rhizobium and  Flavobacterium that are free-living  and nitrogen fixers, a fact that still    needs to be studied.  •  Bacillus   subtilis, B. pumilus and B.  amiloliquefasciens and other  non-identified were detected in quinoa  grains.  •   Bacillus thuringiensis, for the control  of lepidopteran, is a resource that must  be evaluated given its potential for the  development of bioinsecticides for  organic pest management.  •  Bacillus cereus, as entomopathogen is   representative of strains that can be  used for the management of  Coleopteran pests not only for quinoa  production, but for other crops in the  Altiplano region.   Cited References   Altschul, S., Gish, W., Miller, W., Myers, E.,   Lipman, D. 1990. Basic local alignment  search tool. J. Mol. Biol. 215:403-410.  Bécquer, C., Lazarovits, G., Lalin, I. 2013.   Interacción in vitro entre Trichoderma  harzianum  y bacterias rizosféricas   estimuladoras del crecimiento vegetal.  Revista Cubana de Ciencia Agrícola.  Volume 47, Number 1  CIP. 2008. Protocolos de trabajo con bacterias   PGPR. Lima Perú. pp. 47-50.  Dion, P., Magallón, P. 2009. Manual de   microbiología agrícola “Importancia de   los microorganismos promotores de  crecimiento vegetal para los pequeños  productores de Bolivia. Université Laval.  Québec, Canada. 90:31-32.  Gordon, S., Weber, R. 1950. Colorimetric   estimation of indole acetic acid. Plant  Physiol. 26:192-195.  Hall, T. 1999. BioEdit: a user-friendly biological   sequence alignment editor and analysis  program for Windows 95/98/NT. Nucleic  Acids Symp. Ser. 41:95-98.  Harrison, M. 2005. Signaling in the arbuscular   mycorrhizal symbiosis. Ann. Rev.  Microbiol. 59:19-42.  Kubicek, C., Harman, G. 2002. Trichoderma &   Gliocladium. Basic Biology, Taxonomy  and Genetics. 1:1-271.  Krüger, M., Stockinger, H., Krüger C.,   Schüßler, A. 2009. DNA-based species-  level detection of arbuscular mycorrhizal  fungi: One PCR primer set for all AMF.  New Phytologist. 183:212-223  Lane, D. 1991. 16S/23S sequencing. In:   Nucleic Acid Techniques in Bacterial    Systematics (ed. Stackebrandt, E. &  Goodfellow, M.), Chichester: John Wiley  & Sons. pp. 115-175.  Muñoz-Rojas, J., Caballero-Mellado, J. 2003.   Population Dynamics Of  Gluconacetobacter diazotrophicus In:  Sugarcane Cultivars and Its Effect on  Plant Growth. Microbial Ecol.  46(4):454-464.  Reinhold-Hurek, B., Hurek, T. 1998. Trends   Microbiol. Apr; 6(4): 139-44. Review.  Erratum in: 6(5):202  Sanger, F., Nicklen, S., Coulson, A. 1977.   DNA sequencing with chain-terminating  inhibitors. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA.  74:5463–5467.  Sturz, A., Christie, B., Nowak, J. 2000.   Bacterial Endophytes: Potential Role in  Developing Sustainable Systems of Crop  Production Critical Reviews in Plant  Sciences Prince Edward Island. Canada.  19(1):1–30.     Revista de Agricultura, Nro. 54 - Julio de 2014    Area: Technology Development 55                 Figure 1 Process of endophytic   microorganisms isolation   In Table 1 it is important to note that the  species identified as H. gelotopoeon, in  2008, was currently identified as  Helicoverpa quinoa by the same author.   This new species was reported as a quinoa  pests based on morphological characters,  genitalia dissection and mitochondrial  analysis. This author suggests that it is  difficult to distinguish between H. quinoa  and H. gelotopoen only by their  morphological differences and that  analysis of genitalia is required. Other  species that have undergone changes in  taxonomy are Heliothis titicaquensis and  Agrotis andina, which were identified as  Helicoverpa titicacae and Agrotis  peruviana according to a morphological  and phylogenetic analysis performed by  Pogue (2014) and San Blas (2014).  Another aspect that stands out is the  inclusion of Copitarsia patagonica in the    2014 list. The other species listed in the  Table maintained their identification.   Geographical distribution of the  identified species    Table 2 shows the list of lepidopteran  pests species associated with the quinoa  crop in the Bolivian Altiplano, detailing  the family to which they belong, the  method of collection, the type of pest and  its geographical distribution. This table  shows that five species of Lepidoptera:  Eurysacca melanocampta, Eurysacca  quinoae, Copitarsia incommoda,  Helicoverpa titicacae and Helicoverpa  quinoa, were listed as key crop pests of  quinoa in the Bolivian Altiplano, four as  casual pests: Copitarsia patagonica,  Helicoverpa atacamae, Dargida  acanthus, Tatochila mercedis and one as  potential pest: Agrotis peruviana.   Figure 1 describes, in detail, the  geographical distribution and abundance  of the species Helicoverpa titicacae and  H. quinoa in the Bolivian Altiplano. It can  be observed that Helicoverpa titicacae is  found mainly in the Northern Altiplano  and extends into the Central Altiplano.  Conversely  H. quinoa is distributed in   quinoa production areas located between  the salt flats of Uyuni and Coipasa  (Southern Altiplano), extending into the  Central Altiplano without reaching the  Northern Altiplano.   Figure 2 shows the distribution and  abundance of Eurysacca melanocampta  and E. quinoae in different quinoa  production areas of the Bolivian  Altiplano. According to this figure, Eurysacca  melanocampta is abundant in the  Northern Altiplano and extends into the  Central Altiplano. In contrast, E. quinoae  is abundant in the South and Central  Altiplano where it is found in high  populations.      Introduction   Most soils, where naturally propagated  plants grow, are colonized by microbial  communities covering a wide variety of  genera and species. These obligate or  facultative symbiont microbiota, is  associated with the recycling of nutrients,  increasing plant growth and speeding up  development, and improving the  resistance of plants to environmental  stress. There is also a relation with the  production of plant hormones, metabolites  and enzymes to induce basal plant  resistance; with soil pathogen suppression  or action as entomopathogens (Sturz  et   al., 2000 and Harrison, 2005). There are microorganisms (fungi,  bacteria, actinomycetes and others) living  within plants and are called endophytes.  These are located in intracellular or  intercellular spaces in the vascular tissue  (Reinhold-Hurek and Hurek, 1998).  These, being in close association with  plants, have beneficial effects of greater  importance compared to those living in  the area influenced by the root  (rhizosphere). Endophytic  microorganisms have less competition for  nutrients than those located in the  rhizosphere and therefore provide direct  benefits to the host plant (Muñoz-Rojas  and Caballero, 2003). This paper seeks to explore the natural  advantages of symbiosis that quinoa  plants have in their natural habitat, in the  Bolivian Southern Altiplano.  This arid  and semi-deserted region has soils with  low fertility and high erosion, where  processes of nutrient cycling, retention of  soil moisture and microbial activity are  limited. Due to these characteristics there  is low diversity of native and cultivated  species in the region.   Despite the rough climatic and edaphic  conditions of the Altiplano, quinoa  develops properly, namely it is a plant  adapted to those ecological conditions.  Although no experimental data are  available, it can be assumed that the  symbiotic microorganisms in quinoa  should also be well adapted to this habitat.  Therefore, exploring the microbiology of  this plant is an opportunity to understand  the phenomena of plant nutrition, fertility  restoration, pathogen suppression and  other mechanisms that are present in these  extreme ecosystems. This knowledge  holds great potential to restore soil  fertility in the Altiplano in an attempt to  mitigate the negative effects of the  environment.   Materials and methods   A) Sampling: The plant samples were  collected from organic quinoa production  plots. Five plants were systematically  collected from each production plot, 10  plots were considered from three  communities in the areas of Salinas de  Garci Mendoza, Challapata and Quillacas  from the department of Oruro. Likewise,  in the department of Potosí samples were  collected from plots in the communities of  Chacala, Mañica and Llica. Different  organs (stem, leaves and grains) were  used to isolate bacteria and endophytic  fungi. Microorganisms from the  rhizosphere and rhizoplane were also  isolated. Samples were placed in plastic  bags, kept cold in coolers and transported  to the laboratory where they were stored  at 10°C until processing.  Samples  destined to molecular analysis were stored  at -20°C.   B) Isolation of endophytic bacteria: For  the isolation of endophytic bacteria, the  protocol “Microbiology Manual” of Dion  and Magallon (2009) was used. Tissues  were fragmented, superficially sterilized,  then each piece was placed in Trypticase  Soy Agar (TSA) and incubated at 28°C  for 72 hours. Once colonies were grown,  they were isolated in test tubes with TSA  for further characterization (Figure 1).   C) Characterization of environmental  services by microorganisms: Once  isolated, the environmental service  provided by each bacterial culture was  researched. The following services were  identified: nitrogen fixation, phosphorus  solubilization, and production of indole  acetic acid (IAA). The potential offered  by these microorganisms, to develop  future biotech products for recycling  nutrients, promoting growth and  protecting quinoa plants in their highly  vulnerable habitat, was established. The  procedure to determine each of the  environmental services was as follows: c.1. Nitrogen-fixation: Work was  performed on the basis of the Dion and  Magallon (2009) protocol. Bacterial  strains were planted in Burk’s culture  medium. Plates were incubated 5 to 15  days at 28ºC. The incubation time varied  according to the kind of bacteria treated,  which is why a daily monitoring of the test  was performed. c.2. Phosphorus-solubilization: Bacteria  to be assessed were planted in a plate  containing NBRIP with tricalcium  phosphate as culture medium. Plates were  incubated 5 to 15 days at 28 ºC.  Incubation time varied depending on the  kind of bacteria treated, which is why a  daily monitoring of the test was  performed (CIP, 2008). Bacterial strains  that showed a transparent halo around the  planted colony were recorded as positive. c.3. Indole acetic acid (IAA) generation:  IAA is a secondary metabolite produced  by bacteria in their stationary period of  growth. Therefore, the culture broth  incubation time depended on the bacterial  growth curve. Incubation then was  extended long enough to ensure that  bacteria reached the stationary phase. For    this purpose the studied strains were  reactivated in Soy Trypticase broth  (TSB), seeding the colonies of each strain  in a tube with TSB medium,  supplemented with 5 μM (micro mol) of  L-tryptophan, and incubated for 7 days at  28°C (Gordon and Weber, 1950).  Samples that revealed with tones of red  were reported as positive. Once grown,  bacteria colonies were isolated in tubes  with TSA for further testing and  characterization. D) Molecular identification: Genome  regions of each microbial isolation, were  amplified through PCR, conserved and  used as identity indicators; using primers  whose sequences were obtained from the  literature (Lane, 1991, Krüger et al.,  2009). These conserved regions  correspond to genes encoding ribosomal  RNA from the small and large ribosomal  subunit. The primers used for these  bacteria were: 27A or 27C (sense primer)  and 1488 or 1492 (antisense primer),  (Lane, 1991). The primers were  synthesized by AlphaDNA, Quebec,  Canada; and a DNA Polymerase  (Phusion, Finnzymes, Finland) with high  fidelity was used in order to minimize the  introduction of mutations in the amplified  genome regions. Each PCR product was  purified with GeneJet (Fermentas, USA)  columns prior to their shipment to the  Sequencing Center at the University of  Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA, where  fragments were sequenced using the  Sanger technique (Sanger et al., 1977).  The sequences obtained were edited with  the BioEdit software (Hall, 1999) and then  checked against databases using the  BLAST software (Altschul et al., 1990).   Results and discussion   Diversity by region   The results showed that the variability of  microbial populations in the rhizosphere  and rhizoplane are higher, where more  symbiont or non-symbiont  micro-organisms are concentrated (Figure  2). It was also determined that there are  endophytic microorganisms in quinoa  seeds or grains, being the dominant strains  from the species Bacillus subtilis, B.  pumilus and B. amiloliquefasciens and  other unidentified. Endophytism is one of  the most efficient forms of  plant-microorganism symbiosis, mainly  because microorganisms have the same  dissemination system as the plant; this  natural mechanism ensures that quinoa  grains will be accompanied by their  symbionts, wherever they go (Figure 3).   Isolation and characterization of  environmental services   Some nitrogen-fixing bacteria are  free-living, ie which do not require a host  plant for carrying out the process of  nitrogen fixation. 260 strains of  endophytic bacteria where isolated from  quinoa samples from the Southern  Altiplano.  31 isolations were detected as  potential for nitrogen fixation (Figure 4). Out of 480 strains of quinoa endophytic  bacteria from plants of the Southern  Altiplano, 72 were detected as phosphorus  solubilizers (Figure 5). 28 positive strains with the ability to  generate the phytohormone IAA were  isolated (Figure 6).   Particular emphasis should be placed on  the isolation of Bacillus thuringiensis  found as an endophyte, because after  being sprayed it can stay protected from  ultraviolet rays inside the plant, having a  longer residual effect as entomopathogen.   The species Bacillus cereus, an  entomopathogen of Coleoptera, was also  isolated from soil samples.  This species is  important for the development of  bioinsecticides that can contribute to the  management of this group of insect pests.   Conclusions   • show there a   significant number of bacteria  associated with quinoa plants, several  of which are beneficial species that  provide environmental services.   These bacteria have great  biotechnological and agroindustrial  potential for organic and sustainable  quinoa production.  • nitrogen-fixing 72   phosphorous solubilizing bacteria and  28 IAA generating strains were  detected. The fact that some species  are repeated does not necessarily mean  that they are the same strain. There are  isolates from the genera Azotobacter,  Pseudomonas, Rhizobium and  Flavobacterium that are free-living  and nitrogen fixers, a fact that still    needs to be studied.  •  Bacillus   subtilis, B. pumilus and B.  amiloliquefasciens and other  non-identified were detected in quinoa  grains.  •   Bacillus thuringiensis, for the control  of lepidopteran, is a resource that must  be evaluated given its potential for the  development of bioinsecticides for  organic pest management.  •  Bacillus cereus, as entomopathogen is   representative of strains that can be  used for the management of  Coleopteran pests not only for quinoa  production, but for other crops in the  Altiplano region.   Cited References   Altschul, S., Gish, W., Miller, W., Myers, E.,   Lipman, D. 1990. Basic local alignment  search tool. J. Mol. Biol. 215:403-410.  Bécquer, C., Lazarovits, G., Lalin, I. 2013.   Interacción in vitro entre Trichoderma  harzianum  y bacterias rizosféricas   estimuladoras del crecimiento vegetal.  Revista Cubana de Ciencia Agrícola.  Volume 47, Number 1  CIP. 2008. Protocolos de trabajo con bacterias   PGPR. Lima Perú. pp. 47-50.  Dion, P., Magallón, P. 2009. Manual de   microbiología agrícola “Importancia de   los microorganismos promotores de  crecimiento vegetal para los pequeños  productores de Bolivia. Université Laval.  Québec, Canada. 90:31-32.  Gordon, S., Weber, R. 1950. Colorimetric   estimation of indole acetic acid. Plant  Physiol. 26:192-195.  Hall, T. 1999. BioEdit: a user-friendly biological   sequence alignment editor and analysis  program for Windows 95/98/NT. Nucleic  Acids Symp. Ser. 41:95-98.  Harrison, M. 2005. Signaling in the arbuscular   mycorrhizal symbiosis. Ann. Rev.  Microbiol. 59:19-42.  Kubicek, C., Harman, G. 2002. Trichoderma &   Gliocladium. Basic Biology, Taxonomy  and Genetics. 1:1-271.  Krüger, M., Stockinger, H., Krüger C.,   Schüßler, A. 2009. DNA-based species-  level detection of arbuscular mycorrhizal  fungi: One PCR primer set for all AMF.  New Phytologist. 183:212-223  Lane, D. 1991. 16S/23S sequencing. In:   Nucleic Acid Techniques in Bacterial    Systematics (ed. Stackebrandt, E. &  Goodfellow, M.), Chichester: John Wiley  & Sons. pp. 115-175.  Muñoz-Rojas, J., Caballero-Mellado, J. 2003.   Population Dynamics Of  Gluconacetobacter diazotrophicus In:  Sugarcane Cultivars and Its Effect on  Plant Growth. Microbial Ecol.  46(4):454-464.  Reinhold-Hurek, B., Hurek, T. 1998. Trends   Microbiol. Apr; 6(4): 139-44. Review.  Erratum in: 6(5):202  Sanger, F., Nicklen, S., Coulson, A. 1977.   DNA sequencing with chain-terminating  inhibitors. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA.  74:5463–5467.  Sturz, A., Christie, B., Nowak, J. 2000.   Bacterial Endophytes: Potential Role in  Developing Sustainable Systems of Crop  Production Critical Reviews in Plant  Sciences Prince Edward Island. Canada.  19(1):1–30.     ISSN 1998 - 9652    Area: Technology Development 56   In Table 1 it is important to note that the  species identified as H. gelotopoeon, in  2008, was currently identified as  Helicoverpa quinoa by the same author.   This new species was reported as a quinoa  pests based on morphological characters,  genitalia dissection and mitochondrial  analysis. This author suggests that it is  difficult to distinguish between H. quinoa  and H. gelotopoen only by their  morphological differences and that  analysis of genitalia is required. Other  species that have undergone changes in  taxonomy are Heliothis titicaquensis and  Agrotis andina, which were identified as  Helicoverpa titicacae and Agrotis  peruviana according to a morphological  and phylogenetic analysis performed by  Pogue (2014) and San Blas (2014).  Another aspect that stands out is the  inclusion of Copitarsia patagonica in the    2014 list. The other species listed in the  Table maintained their identification.   Geographical distribution of the  identified species    Table 2 shows the list of lepidopteran  pests species associated with the quinoa  crop in the Bolivian Altiplano, detailing  the family to which they belong, the  method of collection, the type of pest and  its geographical distribution. This table  shows that five species of Lepidoptera:  Eurysacca melanocampta, Eurysacca  quinoae, Copitarsia incommoda,  Helicoverpa titicacae and Helicoverpa  quinoa, were listed as key crop pests of  quinoa in the Bolivian Altiplano, four as  casual pests: Copitarsia patagonica,  Helicoverpa atacamae, Dargida  acanthus, Tatochila mercedis and one as  potential pest: Agrotis peruviana.   Figure 1 describes, in detail, the  geographical distribution and abundance  of the species Helicoverpa titicacae and  H. quinoa in the Bolivian Altiplano. It can  be observed that Helicoverpa titicacae is  found mainly in the Northern Altiplano  and extends into the Central Altiplano.  Conversely  H. quinoa is distributed in   quinoa production areas located between  the salt flats of Uyuni and Coipasa  (Southern Altiplano), extending into the  Central Altiplano without reaching the  Northern Altiplano.   Figure 2 shows the distribution and  abundance of Eurysacca melanocampta  and E. quinoae in different quinoa  production areas of the Bolivian  Altiplano. According to this figure, Eurysacca  melanocampta is abundant in the  Northern Altiplano and extends into the  Central Altiplano. In contrast, E. quinoae  is abundant in the South and Central  Altiplano where it is found in high  populations.      Introduction   Most soils, where naturally propagated  plants grow, are colonized by microbial  communities covering a wide variety of  genera and species. These obligate or  facultative symbiont microbiota, is  associated with the recycling of nutrients,  increasing plant growth and speeding up  development, and improving the  resistance of plants to environmental  stress. There is also a relation with the  production of plant hormones, metabolites  and enzymes to induce basal plant  resistance; with soil pathogen suppression  or action as entomopathogens (Sturz  et   al., 2000 and Harrison, 2005). There are microorganisms (fungi,  bacteria, actinomycetes and others) living  within plants and are called endophytes.  These are located in intracellular or  intercellular spaces in the vascular tissue  (Reinhold-Hurek and Hurek, 1998).  These, being in close association with  plants, have beneficial effects of greater  importance compared to those living in  the area influenced by the root  (rhizosphere). Endophytic  microorganisms have less competition for  nutrients than those located in the  rhizosphere and therefore provide direct  benefits to the host plant (Muñoz-Rojas  and Caballero, 2003). This paper seeks to explore the natural  advantages of symbiosis that quinoa  plants have in their natural habitat, in the  Bolivian Southern Altiplano.  This arid  and semi-deserted region has soils with  low fertility and high erosion, where  processes of nutrient cycling, retention of  soil moisture and microbial activity are  limited. Due to these characteristics there  is low diversity of native and cultivated  species in the region.   Despite the rough climatic and edaphic  conditions of the Altiplano, quinoa  develops properly, namely it is a plant  adapted to those ecological conditions.  Although no experimental data are  available, it can be assumed that the  symbiotic microorganisms in quinoa  should also be well adapted to this habitat.  Therefore, exploring the microbiology of  this plant is an opportunity to understand  the phenomena of plant nutrition, fertility  restoration, pathogen suppression and  other mechanisms that are present in these  extreme ecosystems. This knowledge  holds great potential to restore soil  fertility in the Altiplano in an attempt to  mitigate the negative effects of the  environment.   Materials and methods   A) Sampling: The plant samples were  collected from organic quinoa production  plots. Five plants were systematically  collected from each production plot, 10  plots were considered from three  communities in the areas of Salinas de  Garci Mendoza, Challapata and Quillacas  from the department of Oruro. Likewise,  in the department of Potosí samples were  collected from plots in the communities of  Chacala, Mañica and Llica. Different  organs (stem, leaves and grains) were  used to isolate bacteria and endophytic  fungi. Microorganisms from the  rhizosphere and rhizoplane were also  isolated. Samples were placed in plastic  bags, kept cold in coolers and transported  to the laboratory where they were stored  at 10°C until processing.  Samples  destined to molecular analysis were stored  at -20°C.   B) Isolation of endophytic bacteria: For  the isolation of endophytic bacteria, the  protocol “Microbiology Manual” of Dion  and Magallon (2009) was used. Tissues  were fragmented, superficially sterilized,  then each piece was placed in Trypticase  Soy Agar (TSA) and incubated at 28°C  for 72 hours. Once colonies were grown,  they were isolated in test tubes with TSA  for further characterization (Figure 1).   C) Characterization of environmental  services by microorganisms: Once  isolated, the environmental service  provided by each bacterial culture was  researched. The following services were  identified: nitrogen fixation, phosphorus  solubilization, and production of indole  acetic acid (IAA). The potential offered  by these microorganisms, to develop  future biotech products for recycling  nutrients, promoting growth and  protecting quinoa plants in their highly  vulnerable habitat, was established. The  procedure to determine each of the  environmental services was as follows: c.1. Nitrogen-fixation: Work was  performed on the basis of the Dion and  Magallon (2009) protocol. Bacterial  strains were planted in Burk’s culture  medium. Plates were incubated 5 to 15  days at 28ºC. The incubation time varied  according to the kind of bacteria treated,  which is why a daily monitoring of the test  was performed. c.2. Phosphorus-solubilization: Bacteria  to be assessed were planted in a plate  containing NBRIP with tricalcium  phosphate as culture medium. Plates were  incubated 5 to 15 days at 28 ºC.  Incubation time varied depending on the  kind of bacteria treated, which is why a  daily monitoring of the test was  performed (CIP, 2008). Bacterial strains  that showed a transparent halo around the  planted colony were recorded as positive. c.3. Indole acetic acid (IAA) generation:  IAA is a secondary metabolite produced  by bacteria in their stationary period of  growth. Therefore, the culture broth  incubation time depended on the bacterial  growth curve. Incubation then was  extended long enough to ensure that  bacteria reached the stationary phase. For    this purpose the studied strains were  reactivated in Soy Trypticase broth  (TSB), seeding the colonies of each strain  in a tube with TSB medium,  supplemented with 5 μM (micro mol) of  L-tryptophan, and incubated for 7 days at  28°C (Gordon and Weber, 1950).  Samples that revealed with tones of red  were reported as positive. Once grown,  bacteria colonies were isolated in tubes  with TSA for further testing and  characterization. D) Molecular identification: Genome  regions of each microbial isolation, were  amplified through PCR, conserved and  used as identity indicators; using primers  whose sequences were obtained from the  literature (Lane, 1991, Krüger et al.,  2009). These conserved regions  correspond to genes encoding ribosomal  RNA from the small and large ribosomal  subunit. The primers used for these  bacteria were: 27A or 27C (sense primer)  and 1488 or 1492 (antisense primer),  (Lane, 1991). The primers were  synthesized by AlphaDNA, Quebec,  Canada; and a DNA Polymerase  (Phusion, Finnzymes, Finland) with high  fidelity was used in order to minimize the  introduction of mutations in the amplified  genome regions. Each PCR product was  purified with GeneJet (Fermentas, USA)  columns prior to their shipment to the  Sequencing Center at the University of  Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA, where  fragments were sequenced using the  Sanger technique (Sanger et al., 1977).  The sequences obtained were edited with  the BioEdit software (Hall, 1999) and then  checked against databases using the  BLAST software (Altschul et al., 1990).   Results and discussion   Diversity by region   The results showed that the variability of  microbial populations in the rhizosphere  and rhizoplane are higher, where more  symbiont or non-symbiont  micro-organisms are concentrated (Figure  2). It was also determined that there are  endophytic microorganisms in quinoa  seeds or grains, being the dominant strains  from the species Bacillus subtilis, B.  pumilus and B. amiloliquefasciens and  other unidentified. Endophytism is one of  the most efficient forms of  plant-microorganism symbiosis, mainly  because microorganisms have the same  dissemination system as the plant; this  natural mechanism ensures that quinoa  grains will be accompanied by their  symbionts, wherever they go (Figure 3).   Isolation and characterization of  environmental services   Some nitrogen-fixing bacteria are  free-living, ie which do not require a host  plant for carrying out the process of  nitrogen fixation. 260 strains of  endophytic bacteria where isolated from  quinoa samples from the Southern  Altiplano.  31 isolations were detected as  potential for nitrogen fixation (Figure 4). Out of 480 strains of quinoa endophytic  bacteria from plants of the Southern  Altiplano, 72 were detected as phosphorus  solubilizers (Figure 5). 28 positive strains with the ability to  generate the phytohormone IAA were  isolated (Figure 6).   Particular emphasis should be placed on  the isolation of Bacillus thuringiensis  found as an endophyte, because after  being sprayed it can stay protected from  ultraviolet rays inside the plant, having a  longer residual effect as entomopathogen.   The species Bacillus cereus, an  entomopathogen of Coleoptera, was also  isolated from soil samples.  This species is  important for the development of  bioinsecticides that can contribute to the  management of this group of insect pests.   Conclusions   • show there a   significant number of bacteria  associated with quinoa plants, several  of which are beneficial species that  provide environmental services.   These bacteria have great  biotechnological and agroindustrial  potential for organic and sustainable  quinoa production.  • nitrogen-fixing 72   phosphorous solubilizing bacteria and  28 IAA generating strains were  detected. The fact that some species  are repeated does not necessarily mean  that they are the same strain. There are  isolates from the genera Azotobacter,  Pseudomonas, Rhizobium and  Flavobacterium that are free-living  and nitrogen fixers, a fact that still    needs to be studied.  •  Bacillus   subtilis, B. pumilus and B.  amiloliquefasciens and other  non-identified were detected in quinoa  grains.  •   Bacillus thuringiensis, for the control  of lepidopteran, is a resource that must  be evaluated given its potential for the  development of bioinsecticides for  organic pest management.  •  Bacillus cereus, as entomopathogen is   representative of strains that can be  used for the management of  Coleopteran pests not only for quinoa  production, but for other crops in the  Altiplano region.   Cited References   Altschul, S., Gish, W., Miller, W., Myers, E.,   Lipman, D. 1990. Basic local alignment  search tool. J. Mol. Biol. 215:403-410.  Bécquer, C., Lazarovits, G., Lalin, I. 2013.   Interacción in vitro entre Trichoderma  harzianum  y bacterias rizosféricas   estimuladoras del crecimiento vegetal.  Revista Cubana de Ciencia Agrícola.  Volume 47, Number 1  CIP. 2008. Protocolos de trabajo con bacterias   PGPR. Lima Perú. pp. 47-50.  Dion, P., Magallón, P. 2009. Manual de   microbiología agrícola “Importancia de   los microorganismos promotores de  crecimiento vegetal para los pequeños  productores de Bolivia. Université Laval.  Québec, Canada. 90:31-32.  Gordon, S., Weber, R. 1950. Colorimetric   estimation of indole acetic acid. Plant  Physiol. 26:192-195.  Hall, T. 1999. BioEdit: a user-friendly biological   sequence alignment editor and analysis  program for Windows 95/98/NT. Nucleic  Acids Symp. Ser. 41:95-98.  Harrison, M. 2005. Signaling in the arbuscular   mycorrhizal symbiosis. Ann. Rev.  Microbiol. 59:19-42.  Kubicek, C., Harman, G. 2002. Trichoderma &   Gliocladium. Basic Biology, Taxonomy  and Genetics. 1:1-271.  Krüger, M., Stockinger, H., Krüger C.,   Schüßler, A. 2009. DNA-based species-  level detection of arbuscular mycorrhizal  fungi: One PCR primer set for all AMF.  New Phytologist. 183:212-223  Lane, D. 1991. 16S/23S sequencing. In:   Nucleic Acid Techniques in Bacterial    Systematics (ed. Stackebrandt, E. &  Goodfellow, M.), Chichester: John Wiley  & Sons. pp. 115-175.  Muñoz-Rojas, J., Caballero-Mellado, J. 2003.   Population Dynamics Of  Gluconacetobacter diazotrophicus In:  Sugarcane Cultivars and Its Effect on  Plant Growth. Microbial Ecol.  46(4):454-464.  Reinhold-Hurek, B., Hurek, T. 1998. Trends   Microbiol. Apr; 6(4): 139-44. Review.  Erratum in: 6(5):202  Sanger, F., Nicklen, S., Coulson, A. 1977.   DNA sequencing with chain-terminating  inhibitors. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA.  74:5463–5467.  Sturz, A., Christie, B., Nowak, J. 2000.   Bacterial Endophytes: Potential Role in  Developing Sustainable Systems of Crop  Production Critical Reviews in Plant  Sciences Prince Edward Island. Canada.  19(1):1–30.     Revista de Agricultura, Nro. 54 - Julio de 2014    Area: Technology Development 57     B   A   Figure 2. Endophytic bacterial colonies isolated from: A) roots B) leaves            Figure 3. Isolation of microbial populations associated with quinoa plants   from different communities in the Southern Altiplano  Figure 4. Reaction of nitrogen-fixing  free life strains of quinoa bacteria  in culture media   Figure 5. Evaluation of phosphorus solubilizing  strains (The ones showing the halo   around the colony are positive)   2000 1500 1000  500  0  Salinas Quillacas Challapata Chacala Mañica Llica  Rizoplane Grain Leaves Rizosphere   In Table 1 it is important to note that the  species identified as H. gelotopoeon, in  2008, was currently identified as  Helicoverpa quinoa by the same author.   This new species was reported as a quinoa  pests based on morphological characters,  genitalia dissection and mitochondrial  analysis. This author suggests that it is  difficult to distinguish between H. quinoa  and H. gelotopoen only by their  morphological differences and that  analysis of genitalia is required. Other  species that have undergone changes in  taxonomy are Heliothis titicaquensis and  Agrotis andina, which were identified as  Helicoverpa titicacae and Agrotis  peruviana according to a morphological  and phylogenetic analysis performed by  Pogue (2014) and San Blas (2014).  Another aspect that stands out is the  inclusion of Copitarsia patagonica in the    2014 list. The other species listed in the  Table maintained their identification.   Geographical distribution of the  identified species    Table 2 shows the list of lepidopteran  pests species associated with the quinoa  crop in the Bolivian Altiplano, detailing  the family to which they belong, the  method of collection, the type of pest and  its geographical distribution. This table  shows that five species of Lepidoptera:  Eurysacca melanocampta, Eurysacca  quinoae, Copitarsia incommoda,  Helicoverpa titicacae and Helicoverpa  quinoa, were listed as key crop pests of  quinoa in the Bolivian Altiplano, four as  casual pests: Copitarsia patagonica,  Helicoverpa atacamae, Dargida  acanthus, Tatochila mercedis and one as  potential pest: Agrotis peruviana.   Figure 1 describes, in detail, the  geographical distribution and abundance  of the species Helicoverpa titicacae and  H. quinoa in the Bolivian Altiplano. It can  be observed that Helicoverpa titicacae is  found mainly in the Northern Altiplano  and extends into the Central Altiplano.  Conversely  H. quinoa is distributed in   quinoa production areas located between  the salt flats of Uyuni and Coipasa  (Southern Altiplano), extending into the  Central Altiplano without reaching the  Northern Altiplano.   Figure 2 shows the distribution and  abundance of Eurysacca melanocampta  and E. quinoae in different quinoa  production areas of the Bolivian  Altiplano. According to this figure, Eurysacca  melanocampta is abundant in the  Northern Altiplano and extends into the  Central Altiplano. In contrast, E. quinoae  is abundant in the South and Central  Altiplano where it is found in high  populations.     Particular emphasis should be placed on  the isolation of Bacillus thuringiensis  found as an endophyte, because after  being sprayed it can stay protected from  ultraviolet rays inside the plant, having a  longer residual effect as entomopathogen.   The species Bacillus cereus, an  entomopathogen of Coleoptera, was also  isolated from soil samples.  This species is  important for the development of  bioinsecticides that can contribute to the  management of this group of insect pests.   Conclusions   • show there a   significant number of bacteria  associated with quinoa plants, several  of which are beneficial species that  provide environmental services.   These bacteria have great  biotechnological and agroindustrial  potential for organic and sustainable  quinoa production.  • nitrogen-fixing 72   phosphorous solubilizing bacteria and  28 IAA generating strains were  detected. The fact that some species  are repeated does not necessarily mean  that they are the same strain. There are  isolates from the genera Azotobacter,  Pseudomonas, Rhizobium and  Flavobacterium that are free-living  and nitrogen fixers, a fact that still    needs to be studied.  •  Bacillus   subtilis, B. pumilus and B.  amiloliquefasciens and other  non-identified were detected in quinoa  grains.  •   Bacillus thuringiensis, for the control  of lepidopteran, is a resource that must  be evaluated given its potential for the  development of bioinsecticides for  organic pest management.  •  Bacillus cereus, as entomopathogen is   representative of strains that can be  used for the management of  Coleopteran pests not only for quinoa  production, but for other crops in the  Altiplano region.   Cited References   Altschul, S., Gish, W., Miller, W., Myers, E.,   Lipman, D. 1990. Basic local alignment  search tool. J. Mol. Biol. 215:403-410.  Bécquer, C., Lazarovits, G., Lalin, I. 2013.   Interacción in vitro entre Trichoderma  harzianum  y bacterias rizosféricas   estimuladoras del crecimiento vegetal.  Revista Cubana de Ciencia Agrícola.  Volume 47, Number 1  CIP. 2008. Protocolos de trabajo con bacterias   PGPR. Lima Perú. pp. 47-50.  Dion, P., Magallón, P. 2009. Manual de   microbiología agrícola “Importancia de   los microorganismos promotores de  crecimiento vegetal para los pequeños  productores de Bolivia. Université Laval.  Québec, Canada. 90:31-32.  Gordon, S., Weber, R. 1950. Colorimetric   estimation of indole acetic acid. Plant  Physiol. 26:192-195.  Hall, T. 1999. BioEdit: a user-friendly biological   sequence alignment editor and analysis  program for Windows 95/98/NT. Nucleic  Acids Symp. Ser. 41:95-98.  Harrison, M. 2005. Signaling in the arbuscular   mycorrhizal symbiosis. Ann. Rev.  Microbiol. 59:19-42.  Kubicek, C., Harman, G. 2002. Trichoderma &   Gliocladium. Basic Biology, Taxonomy  and Genetics. 1:1-271.  Krüger, M., Stockinger, H., Krüger C.,   Schüßler, A. 2009. DNA-based species-  level detection of arbuscular mycorrhizal  fungi: One PCR primer set for all AMF.  New Phytologist. 183:212-223  Lane, D. 1991. 16S/23S sequencing. In:   Nucleic Acid Techniques in Bacterial    Systematics (ed. Stackebrandt, E. &  Goodfellow, M.), Chichester: John Wiley  & Sons. pp. 115-175.  Muñoz-Rojas, J., Caballero-Mellado, J. 2003.   Population Dynamics Of  Gluconacetobacter diazotrophicus In:  Sugarcane Cultivars and Its Effect on  Plant Growth. Microbial Ecol.  46(4):454-464.  Reinhold-Hurek, B., Hurek, T. 1998. Trends   Microbiol. Apr; 6(4): 139-44. Review.  Erratum in: 6(5):202  Sanger, F., Nicklen, S., Coulson, A. 1977.   DNA sequencing with chain-terminating  inhibitors. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA.  74:5463–5467.  Sturz, A., Christie, B., Nowak, J. 2000.   Bacterial Endophytes: Potential Role in  Developing Sustainable Systems of Crop  Production Critical Reviews in Plant  Sciences Prince Edward Island. Canada.  19(1):1–30.     ISSN 1998 - 9652   Area: Technology Development 58   Figure 6. Revealing of the IAA   (Bacteria that produce phytohormones  have a dark red color)   In Table 1 it is important to note that the  species identified as H. gelotopoeon, in  2008, was currently identified as  Helicoverpa quinoa by the same author.   This new species was reported as a quinoa  pests based on morphological characters,  genitalia dissection and mitochondrial  analysis. This author suggests that it is  difficult to distinguish between H. quinoa  and H. gelotopoen only by their  morphological differences and that  analysis of genitalia is required. Other  species that have undergone changes in  taxonomy are Heliothis titicaquensis and  Agrotis andina, which were identified as  Helicoverpa titicacae and Agrotis  peruviana according to a morphological  and phylogenetic analysis performed by  Pogue (2014) and San Blas (2014).  Another aspect that stands out is the  inclusion of Copitarsia patagonica in the    2014 list. The other species listed in the  Table maintained their identification.   Geographical distribution of the  identified species    Table 2 shows the list of lepidopteran  pests species associated with the quinoa  crop in the Bolivian Altiplano, detailing  the family to which they belong, the  method of collection, the type of pest and  its geographical distribution. This table  shows that five species of Lepidoptera:  Eurysacca melanocampta, Eurysacca  quinoae, Copitarsia incommoda,  Helicoverpa titicacae and Helicoverpa  quinoa, were listed as key crop pests of  quinoa in the Bolivian Altiplano, four as  casual pests: Copitarsia patagonica,  Helicoverpa atacamae, Dargida  acanthus, Tatochila mercedis and one as  potential pest: Agrotis peruviana.   Figure 1 describes, in detail, the  geographical distribution and abundance  of the species Helicoverpa titicacae and  H. quinoa in the Bolivian Altiplano. It can  be observed that Helicoverpa titicacae is  found mainly in the Northern Altiplano  and extends into the Central Altiplano.  Conversely  H. quinoa is distributed in   quinoa production areas located between  the salt flats of Uyuni and Coipasa  (Southern Altiplano), extending into the  Central Altiplano without reaching the  Northern Altiplano.   Figure 2 shows the distribution and  abundance of Eurysacca melanocampta  and E. quinoae in different quinoa  production areas of the Bolivian  Altiplano. According to this figure, Eurysacca  melanocampta is abundant in the  Northern Altiplano and extends into the  Central Altiplano. In contrast, E. quinoae  is abundant in the South and Central  Altiplano where it is found in high  populations.      Several strains of bacteria were identified  based on their ability to provide  environmental services to quinoa plants.   The following distribution was obtained:  • 235 nitrogen-fixing strains • 456 phosphorus solubilizing strains  • 789 IAA generating strains  This demonstrates the potential of  microbial biodiversity for the  development of technology that can help  mitigate the effects of soil erosion in these  arid regions of Bolivia.   Molecular identification of bacterial  isolations    Molecular identification of a number of  bacterial isolations that were selected by  their functional characteristics and  environmental services, was performed  through sequencing of the gene encoding  16S ribosomal RNA and the use of the  BLAST software. The most frequent  bacteria with high agroindustrial potential  were the following: • amyloliquefaciens;  B.   tequilensis; B. vallismortis; B. subtilis;    B. pumilus; B. licheniformis and  B.   firmus (isolated from leaves).  •  Bacillus aryabhattai; Bacillus  horikoshii; B. megaterium; B. pumilus  and Paenibacillus odorifer;  Pseudomonas  sp.;  B. subtilis;   Azotobacter sp. (isolated from roots).  •  Bacillus subtilis; B. pumilus; B.  amilequefasciens (isolated from  quinoa grain).  There is no observable relationship  between species of bacteria, the  environmental service, and collection  areas (Table 1).  There seems to be a  random possibility of finding  predominance of a strain in a given area of  the Bolivian Altiplano. The bacteria identified as Azotobacter sp.,  in addition to being nitrogen-fixing, is  capable of solubilizing phosphorus. On  the other hand, the genus Rhizobium  isolated from the rhizosphere of quinoa  plants belongs to a group of rhizobia that  do not enter in symbiosis with plants,  meaning they are free-living (Becquer et  al., 2013).  A similar situation takes place   with isolations from the genus  Flavobacterium, which act freely fixing  nitrogen to the soil. The endophytic bacteria have advantages  over rhizospheric bacteria, due to the wide  variety of nutrients they can access, and  the protection provided by the plant  against adverse environmental conditions  (Reinhold-Hurek & Hurek, 1998). The  endophytic bacteria are important  especially for plants growing under  extreme conditions.  An example of this is  B. subtilis that, in addition to promoting  growth in plants, is a systemic resistance  inducer. It activates the jasmonic acid  cycle, which is responsible for inducing  plant resistance to pathogen attack.   Particular emphasis should be placed on  the isolation of Bacillus thuringiensis  found as an endophyte, because after  being sprayed it can stay protected from  ultraviolet rays inside the plant, having a  longer residual effect as entomopathogen.   The species Bacillus cereus, an  entomopathogen of Coleoptera, was also  isolated from soil samples.  This species is  important for the development of  bioinsecticides that can contribute to the  management of this group of insect pests.   Conclusions   • show there a   significant number of bacteria  associated with quinoa plants, several  of which are beneficial species that  provide environmental services.   These bacteria have great  biotechnological and agroindustrial  potential for organic and sustainable  quinoa production.  • nitrogen-fixing 72   phosphorous solubilizing bacteria and  28 IAA generating strains were  detected. The fact that some species  are repeated does not necessarily mean  that they are the same strain. There are  isolates from the genera Azotobacter,  Pseudomonas, Rhizobium and  Flavobacterium that are free-living  and nitrogen fixers, a fact that still    needs to be studied.  •  Bacillus   subtilis, B. pumilus and B.  amiloliquefasciens and other  non-identified were detected in quinoa  grains.  •   Bacillus thuringiensis, for the control  of lepidopteran, is a resource that must  be evaluated given its potential for the  development of bioinsecticides for  organic pest management.  •  Bacillus cereus, as entomopathogen is   representative of strains that can be  used for the management of  Coleopteran pests not only for quinoa  production, but for other crops in the  Altiplano region.   Cited References   Altschul, S., Gish, W., Miller, W., Myers, E.,   Lipman, D. 1990. Basic local alignment  search tool. J. Mol. Biol. 215:403-410.  Bécquer, C., Lazarovits, G., Lalin, I. 2013.   Interacción in vitro entre Trichoderma  harzianum  y bacterias rizosféricas   estimuladoras del crecimiento vegetal.  Revista Cubana de Ciencia Agrícola.  Volume 47, Number 1  CIP. 2008. Protocolos de trabajo con bacterias   PGPR. Lima Perú. pp. 47-50.  Dion, P., Magallón, P. 2009. Manual de   microbiología agrícola “Importancia de   los microorganismos promotores de  crecimiento vegetal para los pequeños  productores de Bolivia. Université Laval.  Québec, Canada. 90:31-32.  Gordon, S., Weber, R. 1950. Colorimetric   estimation of indole acetic acid. Plant  Physiol. 26:192-195.  Hall, T. 1999. BioEdit: a user-friendly biological   sequence alignment editor and analysis  program for Windows 95/98/NT. Nucleic  Acids Symp. Ser. 41:95-98.  Harrison, M. 2005. Signaling in the arbuscular   mycorrhizal symbiosis. Ann. Rev.  Microbiol. 59:19-42.  Kubicek, C., Harman, G. 2002. Trichoderma &   Gliocladium. Basic Biology, Taxonomy  and Genetics. 1:1-271.  Krüger, M., Stockinger, H., Krüger C.,   Schüßler, A. 2009. DNA-based species-  level detection of arbuscular mycorrhizal  fungi: One PCR primer set for all AMF.  New Phytologist. 183:212-223  Lane, D. 1991. 16S/23S sequencing. In:   Nucleic Acid Techniques in Bacterial    Systematics (ed. Stackebrandt, E. &  Goodfellow, M.), Chichester: John Wiley  & Sons. pp. 115-175.  Muñoz-Rojas, J., Caballero-Mellado, J. 2003.   Population Dynamics Of  Gluconacetobacter diazotrophicus In:  Sugarcane Cultivars and Its Effect on  Plant Growth. Microbial Ecol.  46(4):454-464.  Reinhold-Hurek, B., Hurek, T. 1998. Trends   Microbiol. Apr; 6(4): 139-44. Review.  Erratum in: 6(5):202  Sanger, F., Nicklen, S., Coulson, A. 1977.   DNA sequencing with chain-terminating  inhibitors. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA.  74:5463–5467.  Sturz, A., Christie, B., Nowak, J. 2000.   Bacterial Endophytes: Potential Role in  Developing Sustainable Systems of Crop  Production Critical Reviews in Plant  Sciences Prince Edward Island. Canada.  19(1):1–30.     Revista de Agricultura, Nro. 54 - Julio de 2014   Area: Technology Development 59   Table 1. Collection areas, molecular identification and environmental services   provided by bacteria associated with the quinoa crop       Collection Area Identity Environmental service  Salinas de Garci          Mendoza   Bacillus pumilus,   Bacillus liquefasciens  Phosphorus solubilization   Chacala, Llica y Salinas   de Garci Mendoza   Bacillus subtilis,   Bacillus vallismortis,   Bacillus liquefasciens   Indole Acetic Acid (IAA)  Chacala, Challapata,   Llica  Bacillus sp.,  Bacillus aryabhattai,   Bacillus horikoshii   Indole Acetic Acid (IAA)  Llica, Chacala, Quillacas  Bacillus firmus,   Bacillus tequilensis  Phosphorus solubilization  Llica, Quillacas  Bacillus pumilus Phosphorus solubilization  Quillacas, Mañica,  Chacala   Bacillus subtilis Indole Acetic Acid (IAA) Nitrogen fixation Salinas de Garci         Mendoza   Paenibacillus  Chacala y Mañica  Bacillus simplex  Indole Acetic Acid (IAA)  Quillacas, Chacala  Bacillus licheniformis,   Bacillus subtilis,   Bacillus liquefasciens    Phosphorus and IAA solubilization   Challapata  Azotobacter sp.  Pseudomonas sp.   Nitrogen fixation and Phosphorus solubilization  Challapata y Quillacas  Rhizobium sp.,   Flavobacterium sp.   Nitrogen fixation       In Table 1 it is important to note that the  species identified as H. gelotopoeon, in  2008, was currently identified as  Helicoverpa quinoa by the same author.   This new species was reported as a quinoa  pests based on morphological characters,  genitalia dissection and mitochondrial  analysis. This author suggests that it is  difficult to distinguish between H. quinoa  and H. gelotopoen only by their  morphological differences and that  analysis of genitalia is required. Other  species that have undergone changes in  taxonomy are Heliothis titicaquensis and  Agrotis andina, which were identified as  Helicoverpa titicacae and Agrotis  peruviana according to a morphological  and phylogenetic analysis performed by  Pogue (2014) and San Blas (2014).  Another aspect that stands out is the  inclusion of Copitarsia patagonica in the    2014 list. The other species listed in the  Table maintained their identification.   Geographical distribution of the  identified species    Table 2 shows the list of lepidopteran  pests species associated with the quinoa  crop in the Bolivian Altiplano, detailing  the family to which they belong, the  method of collection, the type of pest and  its geographical distribution. This table  shows that five species of Lepidoptera:  Eurysacca melanocampta, Eurysacca  quinoae, Copitarsia incommoda,  Helicoverpa titicacae and Helicoverpa  quinoa, were listed as key crop pests of  quinoa in the Bolivian Altiplano, four as  casual pests: Copitarsia patagonica,  Helicoverpa atacamae, Dargida  acanthus, Tatochila mercedis and one as  potential pest: Agrotis peruviana.   Figure 1 describes, in detail, the  geographical distribution and abundance  of the species Helicoverpa titicacae and  H. quinoa in the Bolivian Altiplano. It can  be observed that Helicoverpa titicacae is  found mainly in the Northern Altiplano  and extends into the Central Altiplano.  Conversely  H. quinoa is distributed in   quinoa production areas located between  the salt flats of Uyuni and Coipasa  (Southern Altiplano), extending into the  Central Altiplano without reaching the  Northern Altiplano.   Figure 2 shows the distribution and  abundance of Eurysacca melanocampta  and E. quinoae in different quinoa  production areas of the Bolivian  Altiplano. According to this figure, Eurysacca  melanocampta is abundant in the  Northern Altiplano and extends into the  Central Altiplano. In contrast, E. quinoae  is abundant in the South and Central  Altiplano where it is found in high  populations.      Likewise, the genus Azotobacter, which  acts as nitrogen-fixing for non-legume  species like quinoa, is an alternative to  develop research programs to improve the  production of organic quinoa in the  Bolivian Altiplano.   Other genuses   Bacillus thuringiensis was obtained from  13 samples, eight soil samples, four from  the rhizosphere and one quinoa endophyte    (Table 2). To understand the insecticidal  spectrum activity of Cry toxins  (δ-endotoxin crystal) held by the bacteria,  10 genes Cry were analyzed by PCR.  Results indicate that most of the quinoa  related B. thuringiensis isolates, have the   Cry 1 and Cry 2 genes. These Cry 1 genes  are active against lepidopteran insects  (moths and butterflies) and Cry 2 toxins  affect mainly Diptera (flies), but also  Lepidoptera. Characterization must be  continued to specify toxin subgroups and  confirm their toxic activity through  bioassays on insect larvae.   Particular emphasis should be placed on  the isolation of Bacillus thuringiensis  found as an endophyte, because after  being sprayed it can stay protected from  ultraviolet rays inside the plant, having a  longer residual effect as entomopathogen.   The species Bacillus cereus, an  entomopathogen of Coleoptera, was also  isolated from soil samples.  This species is  important for the development of  bioinsecticides that can contribute to the  management of this group of insect pests.   Conclusions   • show there a   significant number of bacteria  associated with quinoa plants, several  of which are beneficial species that  provide environmental services.   These bacteria have great  biotechnological and agroindustrial  potential for organic and sustainable  quinoa production.  • nitrogen-fixing 72   phosphorous solubilizing bacteria and  28 IAA generating strains were  detected. The fact that some species  are repeated does not necessarily mean  that they are the same strain. There are  isolates from the genera Azotobacter,  Pseudomonas, Rhizobium and  Flavobacterium that are free-living  and nitrogen fixers, a fact that still    needs to be studied.  •  Bacillus   subtilis, B. pumilus and B.  amiloliquefasciens and other  non-identified were detected in quinoa  grains.  •   Bacillus thuringiensis, for the control  of lepidopteran, is a resource that must  be evaluated given its potential for the  development of bioinsecticides for  organic pest management.  •  Bacillus cereus, as entomopathogen is   representative of strains that can be  used for the management of  Coleopteran pests not only for quinoa  production, but for other crops in the  Altiplano region.   Cited References   Altschul, S., Gish, W., Miller, W., Myers, E.,   Lipman, D. 1990. Basic local alignment  search tool. J. Mol. Biol. 215:403-410.  Bécquer, C., Lazarovits, G., Lalin, I. 2013.   Interacción in vitro entre Trichoderma  harzianum  y bacterias rizosféricas   estimuladoras del crecimiento vegetal.  Revista Cubana de Ciencia Agrícola.  Volume 47, Number 1  CIP. 2008. Protocolos de trabajo con bacterias   PGPR. Lima Perú. pp. 47-50.  Dion, P., Magallón, P. 2009. Manual de   microbiología agrícola “Importancia de   los microorganismos promotores de  crecimiento vegetal para los pequeños  productores de Bolivia. Université Laval.  Québec, Canada. 90:31-32.  Gordon, S., Weber, R. 1950. Colorimetric   estimation of indole acetic acid. Plant  Physiol. 26:192-195.  Hall, T. 1999. BioEdit: a user-friendly biological   sequence alignment editor and analysis  program for Windows 95/98/NT. Nucleic  Acids Symp. Ser. 41:95-98.  Harrison, M. 2005. Signaling in the arbuscular   mycorrhizal symbiosis. Ann. Rev.  Microbiol. 59:19-42.  Kubicek, C., Harman, G. 2002. Trichoderma &   Gliocladium. Basic Biology, Taxonomy  and Genetics. 1:1-271.  Krüger, M., Stockinger, H., Krüger C.,   Schüßler, A. 2009. DNA-based species-  level detection of arbuscular mycorrhizal  fungi: One PCR primer set for all AMF.  New Phytologist. 183:212-223  Lane, D. 1991. 16S/23S sequencing. In:   Nucleic Acid Techniques in Bacterial    Systematics (ed. Stackebrandt, E. &  Goodfellow, M.), Chichester: John Wiley  & Sons. pp. 115-175.  Muñoz-Rojas, J., Caballero-Mellado, J. 2003.   Population Dynamics Of  Gluconacetobacter diazotrophicus In:  Sugarcane Cultivars and Its Effect on  Plant Growth. Microbial Ecol.  46(4):454-464.  Reinhold-Hurek, B., Hurek, T. 1998. Trends   Microbiol. Apr; 6(4): 139-44. Review.  Erratum in: 6(5):202  Sanger, F., Nicklen, S., Coulson, A. 1977.   DNA sequencing with chain-terminating  inhibitors. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA.  74:5463–5467.  Sturz, A., Christie, B., Nowak, J. 2000.   Bacterial Endophytes: Potential Role in  Developing Sustainable Systems of Crop  Production Critical Reviews in Plant  Sciences Prince Edward Island. Canada.  19(1):1–30.     ISSN 1998 - 9652   Area: Technology Development 60   Table 2. Other genera of bacteria detected in different collection areas,  molecularly identified, and the environmental services they provide  Collection Area Identity Environmental service  Llica, Chacala, Challapata   Bacillus thuringiensis Entomopathogenic of Lepi- doptera and other species  Llica, Mañica, Qillacas,   Challapata   Bacillus cereus Entomopathogenic of Coleoptera   In Table 1 it is important to note that the  species identified as H. gelotopoeon, in  2008, was currently identified as  Helicoverpa quinoa by the same author.   This new species was reported as a quinoa  pests based on morphological characters,  genitalia dissection and mitochondrial  analysis. This author suggests that it is  difficult to distinguish between H. quinoa  and H. gelotopoen only by their  morphological differences and that  analysis of genitalia is required. Other  species that have undergone changes in  taxonomy are Heliothis titicaquensis and  Agrotis andina, which were identified as  Helicoverpa titicacae and Agrotis  peruviana according to a morphological  and phylogenetic analysis performed by  Pogue (2014) and San Blas (2014).  Another aspect that stands out is the  inclusion of Copitarsia patagonica in the    2014 list. The other species listed in the  Table maintained their identification.   Geographical distribution of the  identified species    Table 2 shows the list of lepidopteran  pests species associated with the quinoa  crop in the Bolivian Altiplano, detailing  the family to which they belong, the  method of collection, the type of pest and  its geographical distribution. This table  shows that five species of Lepidoptera:  Eurysacca melanocampta, Eurysacca  quinoae, Copitarsia incommoda,  Helicoverpa titicacae and Helicoverpa  quinoa, were listed as key crop pests of  quinoa in the Bolivian Altiplano, four as  casual pests: Copitarsia patagonica,  Helicoverpa atacamae, Dargida  acanthus, Tatochila mercedis and one as  potential pest: Agrotis peruviana.   Figure 1 describes, in detail, the  geographical distribution and abundance  of the species Helicoverpa titicacae and  H. quinoa in the Bolivian Altiplano. It can  be observed that Helicoverpa titicacae is  found mainly in the Northern Altiplano  and extends into the Central Altiplano.  Conversely  H. quinoa is distributed in   quinoa production areas located between  the salt flats of Uyuni and Coipasa  (Southern Altiplano), extending into the  Central Altiplano without reaching the  Northern Altiplano.   Figure 2 shows the distribution and  abundance of Eurysacca melanocampta  and E. quinoae in different quinoa  production areas of the Bolivian  Altiplano. According to this figure, Eurysacca  melanocampta is abundant in the  Northern Altiplano and extends into the  Central Altiplano. In contrast, E. quinoae  is abundant in the South and Central  Altiplano where it is found in high  populations.      Particular emphasis should be placed on  the isolation of Bacillus thuringiensis  found as an endophyte, because after  being sprayed it can stay protected from  ultraviolet rays inside the plant, having a  longer residual effect as entomopathogen.   The species Bacillus cereus, an  entomopathogen of Coleoptera, was also  isolated from soil samples.  This species is  important for the development of  bioinsecticides that can contribute to the  management of this group of insect pests.   Conclusions   • show there a   significant number of bacteria  associated with quinoa plants, several  of which are beneficial species that  provide environmental services.   These bacteria have great  biotechnological and agroindustrial  potential for organic and sustainable  quinoa production.  • nitrogen-fixing 72   phosphorous solubilizing bacteria and  28 IAA generating strains were  detected. The fact that some species  are repeated does not necessarily mean  that they are the same strain. There are  isolates from the genera Azotobacter,  Pseudomonas, Rhizobium and  Flavobacterium that are free-living  and nitrogen fixers, a fact that still    needs to be studied.  •  Bacillus   subtilis, B. pumilus and B.  amiloliquefasciens and other  non-identified were detected in quinoa  grains.  •   Bacillus thuringiensis, for the control  of lepidopteran, is a resource that must  be evaluated given its potential for the  development of bioinsecticides for  organic pest management.  •  Bacillus cereus, as entomopathogen is   representative of strains that can be  used for the management of  Coleopteran pests not only for quinoa  production, but for other crops in the  Altiplano region.   Cited References   Altschul, S., Gish, W., Miller, W., Myers, E.,   Lipman, D. 1990. Basic local alignment  search tool. J. Mol. Biol. 215:403-410.  Bécquer, C., Lazarovits, G., Lalin, I. 2013.   Interacción in vitro entre Trichoderma  harzianum  y bacterias rizosféricas   estimuladoras del crecimiento vegetal.  Revista Cubana de Ciencia Agrícola.  Volume 47, Number 1  CIP. 2008. Protocolos de trabajo con bacterias   PGPR. Lima Perú. pp. 47-50.  Dion, P., Magallón, P. 2009. Manual de   microbiología agrícola “Importancia de    los microorganismos promotores de  crecimiento vegetal para los pequeños  productores de Bolivia. Université Laval.  Québec, Canada. 90:31-32.  Gordon, S., Weber, R. 1950. Colorimetric   estimation of indole acetic acid. Plant  Physiol. 26:192-195.  Hall, T. 1999. BioEdit: a user-friendly biological   sequence alignment editor and analysis  program for Windows 95/98/NT. Nucleic  Acids Symp. Ser. 41:95-98.  Harrison, M. 2005. Signaling in the arbuscular   mycorrhizal symbiosis. Ann. Rev.  Microbiol. 59:19-42.  Kubicek, C., Harman, G. 2002. Trichoderma &   Gliocladium. Basic Biology, Taxonomy  and Genetics. 1:1-271.  Krüger, M., Stockinger, H., Krüger C.,   Schüßler, A. 2009. DNA-based species-  level detection of arbuscular mycorrhizal  fungi: One PCR primer set for all AMF.  New Phytologist. 183:212-223  Lane, D. 1991. 16S/23S sequencing. In:   Nucleic Acid Techniques in Bacterial    Systematics (ed. Stackebrandt, E. &  Goodfellow, M.), Chichester: John Wiley  & Sons. pp. 115-175.  Muñoz-Rojas, J., Caballero-Mellado, J. 2003.   Population Dynamics Of  Gluconacetobacter diazotrophicus In:  Sugarcane Cultivars and Its Effect on  Plant Growth. Microbial Ecol.  46(4):454-464.  Reinhold-Hurek, B., Hurek, T. 1998. Trends   Microbiol. Apr; 6(4): 139-44. Review.  Erratum in: 6(5):202  Sanger, F., Nicklen, S., Coulson, A. 1977.   DNA sequencing with chain-terminating  inhibitors. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA.  74:5463–5467.  Sturz, A., Christie, B., Nowak, J. 2000.   Bacterial Endophytes: Potential Role in  Developing Sustainable Systems of Crop  Production Critical Reviews in Plant  Sciences Prince Edward Island. Canada.  19(1):1–30.     Revista de Agricultura, Nro. 54 - Julio de 2014   Area: Technology Development 61   Article received on June 23, 2014 – Article accepted on July 2, 2014   Editores: Raúl Saravia, Giovanna Plata, Antonio Gandarillas Año de publicación: 2014 La quinua en los últimos años ha tomado un interés  global, se la cultiva en más de 50 países en todos  los continentes y en diferentes pisos y zonas  agroecológicas. Sin embargo, la mayor producción  es en la zona Andina de Bolivia y Perú donde ha  sido domesticada, cubriendo actualmente cerca  del 80% de la demanda internacional. Es en esta  zona donde se ha generado la mayor información  sobre el manejo del cultivo, su diversidad genética  y sus problemas. Por ello, el presente documento  hace referencia principalmente a las plagas y  enfermedades, sus ciclos, comportamientos y los  efectos causados en la productividad.   Oficina Central Cochabamba Av. Meneces s/n, Km. 4 (zona El Paso) Telf.: (591-4) 4319595 •  Fax: (591-4) 4319600  E-mail: proinpa@proinpa.org    Mayores informes: Fundación PROINPA   Plagas y enfermedades en el cultivo de Quinua   Particular emphasis should be placed on  the isolation of Bacillus thuringiensis  found as an endophyte, because after  being sprayed it can stay protected from  ultraviolet rays inside the plant, having a  longer residual effect as entomopathogen.   The species Bacillus cereus, an  entomopathogen of Coleoptera, was also  isolated from soil samples.  This species is  important for the development of  bioinsecticides that can contribute to the  management of this group of insect pests.   Conclusions   • show there a   significant number of bacteria  associated with quinoa plants, several  of which are beneficial species that  provide environmental services.   These bacteria have great  biotechnological and agroindustrial  potential for organic and sustainable  quinoa production.  • nitrogen-fixing 72   phosphorous solubilizing bacteria and  28 IAA generating strains were  detected. The fact that some species  are repeated does not necessarily mean  that they are the same strain. There are  isolates from the genera Azotobacter,  Pseudomonas, Rhizobium and  Flavobacterium that are free-living  and nitrogen fixers, a fact that still    needs to be studied.  •  Bacillus   subtilis, B. pumilus and B.  amiloliquefasciens and other  non-identified were detected in quinoa  grains.  •   Bacillus thuringiensis, for the control  of lepidopteran, is a resource that must  be evaluated given its potential for the  development of bioinsecticides for  organic pest management.  •  Bacillus cereus, as entomopathogen is   representative of strains that can be  used for the management of  Coleopteran pests not only for quinoa  production, but for other crops in the  Altiplano region.   Cited References   Altschul, S., Gish, W., Miller, W., Myers, E.,   Lipman, D. 1990. Basic local alignment  search tool. J. Mol. Biol. 215:403-410.  Bécquer, C., Lazarovits, G., Lalin, I. 2013.   Interacción in vitro entre Trichoderma  harzianum  y bacterias rizosféricas   estimuladoras del crecimiento vegetal.  Revista Cubana de Ciencia Agrícola.  Volume 47, Number 1  CIP. 2008. Protocolos de trabajo con bacterias   PGPR. Lima Perú. pp. 47-50.  Dion, P., Magallón, P. 2009. Manual de   microbiología agrícola “Importancia de    los microorganismos promotores de  crecimiento vegetal para los pequeños  productores de Bolivia. Université Laval.  Québec, Canada. 90:31-32.  Gordon, S., Weber, R. 1950. Colorimetric   estimation of indole acetic acid. Plant  Physiol. 26:192-195.  Hall, T. 1999. BioEdit: a user-friendly biological   sequence alignment editor and analysis  program for Windows 95/98/NT. Nucleic  Acids Symp. Ser. 41:95-98.  Harrison, M. 2005. Signaling in the arbuscular   mycorrhizal symbiosis. Ann. Rev.  Microbiol. 59:19-42.  Kubicek, C., Harman, G. 2002. Trichoderma &   Gliocladium. Basic Biology, Taxonomy  and Genetics. 1:1-271.  Krüger, M., Stockinger, H., Krüger C.,   Schüßler, A. 2009. DNA-based species-  level detection of arbuscular mycorrhizal  fungi: One PCR primer set for all AMF.  New Phytologist. 183:212-223  Lane, D. 1991. 16S/23S sequencing. In:   Nucleic Acid Techniques in Bacterial    Systematics (ed. Stackebrandt, E. &  Goodfellow, M.), Chichester: John Wiley  & Sons. pp. 115-175.  Muñoz-Rojas, J., Caballero-Mellado, J. 2003.   Population Dynamics Of  Gluconacetobacter diazotrophicus In:  Sugarcane Cultivars and Its Effect on  Plant Growth. Microbial Ecol.  46(4):454-464.  Reinhold-Hurek, B., Hurek, T. 1998. Trends   Microbiol. Apr; 6(4): 139-44. Review.  Erratum in: 6(5):202  Sanger, F., Nicklen, S., Coulson, A. 1977.   DNA sequencing with chain-terminating  inhibitors. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA.  74:5463–5467.  Sturz, A., Christie, B., Nowak, J. 2000.   Bacterial Endophytes: Potential Role in  Developing Sustainable Systems of Crop  Production Critical Reviews in Plant  Sciences Prince Edward Island. Canada.  19(1):1–30.   Problem description and  Project actions   Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) Is  one of the most important crops in  Bolivia, acreage extends up to 131,190  hectares and production reached 61,659  tons in 2013 The families involved in its  cultivation are around 45,000, from the  North, South and Central Altiplano  (PROINPA Foundation and AUTAPO  Foundation, 2005).| One of the factors that adversely affects  crop productivity is the incidence of a  variety of insect pests, such as the socalled  ticona (cutworm) complex composed of  several species of moths,  Copitarsia   incommoda, Helicoverpa quinoa, Agrotis  andina and the quinoa moth Eurysacca  quinoae  (PROINPA, 2010). These pests   in their larval state produce damage to the  crop, affecting grain quality and causing  production losses of up to 30%, which for  2013 correspond to 147.520.893.- USD  per annum (based on the price of 1,800 BS  / qq, prevailing at the Challapata market in  June 2014). To control these pests in organic  production systems, products registered  and accepted in organic regulations must  be used. However, there is limited supply  of these products to be able to use them in  an extensive scale. For that reason  PROINPA has developed a strategy for  the efficient management of pest control,  based on bio-registered products  approved for organic production. With the  purpose of expanding and disseminating  the strategy, PROINPA has partnered  with BIOTOP SRL, who coordinated  outreach activities with independent    producers, organic quinoa associations  and companies.   Methodology   The strategy proposed by PROINPA, for  integrated pest management (IPM) in  organic production has been implemented  quite successfully in over 20,000 hectares  in 2013. This strategy is based on  monitoring of adults and larvae,  preventive treatments, alternation of  products (active ingredients and modes of  action), timely applications and use of  adjuvant products. The integrated  management components are: a  Installation of pheromone traps (for   noctuidae): The installation of four traps  per hectare within the plot (with a distance  of at least 25 m between traps), helps  identify the first presence of adult insects  and the beginning of the oviposition  period. In areas where the population of  noctuidae is still low, the use of the four  traps/ha keeps larval populations at levels  that do not cause significant damage (≤5%  damage). a  Field Inspection: Regular inspection   visits should be made in at least four  stages of crop development: six true  leaves, beginning of panicle formation,  grain formation and milky grain. At each  inspection at least 10 plants per hectare  should be sampled at random. If the  presence of eggs and / or early stages of  larvae are observed in 20% of the  evaluated plants, preventive applications  are recommended. When larvae of more  advanced stages are observed or in case of  increased incidence, the application of  control treatments is recommended.   a  Application of preventive treatments:   the application of lime sulfur plus chili is  recommended because of its contact mode  of action which affects the central nervous  system of the insect, allowing good  control of eggs and of larvae in early  stages. Additionally, this product has a  repellent effect for adult insects,  protecting the crop for at least 15 days  from new pest oviposition phases. a Application of control treatments: a  control treatment at the beginning of  panicle formation is recommended.  During this phenological period  protection against these pests is very  important. Control treatments can be  made when insect monitoring detects  populations that justify applications.  Damage to the crop causes proliferation of  side branches resulting in handling  difficulties and lower performance. When  the presence of at least one larva per plant  is observed, the application of Spinosad ®  is recommended. Another moment of care is the growth  stage of milky grain, because it is the time  when the larvae begin to feed on the grain  in formation, and can cause significant  economic damage. At this point it is  important to perform field inspections.   For ticonas (cutworms), if five larvae per  panicle are observed in ten plants, and in  the case of moths, if five larvae are  observed per panicle; the application of  Spinosad ® is recommended.  Spinosad ®  is a natural high efficiency insecticide (>  93%) accepted in organic production,  whose mode of action is through contact  and ingestion, allowing an efficient larval  control and minimal effect on existing  beneficial insect fauna.   a Alternation of treatments: Following  IPM principles and in order to avoid the  emergence of resistant populations,  alternation of treatments is recommended;  ie alternating the application of natural  insecticides considering their active  ingredients and different modes of action,  avoiding more than two continuous  applications of the same product per crop  cycle. For example, lime sulfur and chili  extract can be alternated with Spinosad ®. a Using adjuvants: Because of the   presence of large amounts of oxalates in  the surfaces of leaves, stems and panicles  of quinoa, bio-adhesion is difficult.   Therefore, it is very important to apply a  bonding agent such as Agricultural  Vegetable Oil, which acts as a dispersing  agent, improves application coverage and  prevents the formation of large droplets.  Application of Agricultural Oil ensures  the efficiency of products.   Achievements   During the 2013-2014 crop year, the  alliance PROINPA and BIOTOP SRL,  has worked in partnership with various  producer associations and companies: In CADEQUIR, ANAPQUI,  CADEPQUIOR, SINDAN, Jacha Inti,  APQUISA, APQO Villa Florida,  APQO-Toledo, APQO-Keluyo, FDTA  Valles, IDEPRO, APROACH,  APROCAL, Andean Valley,  APROQUIROT, APROCOVES,  APROACAY,  APROQUIOS, and APRACCUK,  knowledge, attitudes and practices of  approximately 2,800 associates (men and  women) were strengthened. These   farmers were reached through capacity  building events delivered by technicians  and promoters, who personally spread the  Integrated Pest Management strategy for  organic quinoa production, reaching about  20,000 acres with this technology. The implementation of the strategy  reduced losses from 30% to 10% in the  20,000 acres that used Integrated Pest  Management. In economic terms, with  values of 1.800 Bs/qq (market price in  June 2014), this means, 14,618,275 USD  that producers have stopped losing, and  represent a benefit to the country through  improvement of crop productivity,  enhanced yield, better product quality and  environmental stewardship. On the other hand, in quinoa production  areas of the Bolivian Altiplano, a total of  70,926 units of pheromones for quinoa  cutworms (ticonas) have been sold,  covering more the 20,000 ha, representing  30% of the area cultivated with organic  quinoa. In the case of lime sulfur and chili  extract, in the past three crop years, a total  of 20,684 liters have been sold, covering  approximately 8300 hectares. In the case  of Spinosad®, in the past three crop years,  a total of 117,400 grams have been sold,  covering approximately 4000 hectares. Figure 1 shows the positive trend of the  use of products in the last three years,  particularly high for the case of lime  sulfur and higher for Spinosad.   Conclusions and  recommendations   • a of and ng   activities for technicians, promoters  and farmers, the quinoa pest  management strategy developed by    PROINPA and disseminated by  BIOTOP SRL, has been accepted by  organic quinoa producers, and in  several cases has been adjusted with  the implementation of local practices  and inputs. This situation can be  evidenced through sales data recorded  by BIOTOP SRL.  • initiative PROINPA   BIOTOP SRL has been well received,  especially by producer associations  and companies dedicated to the  production of organic quinoa. The  process has resulted in agreements,  higher volumes of bio-inputs sold and  supported by training for adequate use;  being all reflected in higher income for  farmers.  •   Integrated Management of insect pests  used for organic quinoa production in  20,000 hectares, allowed producers to  reduce losses in 14.618.275.- USD.  • task is larger   dissemination of the integrated  management strategy, in order for  most producers to have access to it and  to bio-inputs for application in organic  quinoa production. For example, many  farmers still use spraying backpacks,  resulting in an inefficient product  application and control.    The implementation of community   control campaigns should also be  considered, because if one farmer  controls and others don’t, efficiency is  lost and the damages continues. This  will depend on the coordinated efforts  of producers, associations, companies,  state institutions (municipalities,  governorates, etc.), organic certifiers  and other actors.    • development an   management strategy that responds to  organic production demands is a  continuous research work that should  be directed to the development of new,  more efficient bio-inputs (plant  extracts, etc.) permitted for organic  production and which can be easily  accessed in local markets.   Suggested references   Aroni, G., Saravia R. 2008. Evaluación de la   eficiencia de ecoplaguicidas en el control  de Noctuideos (ticonas y kcona kconas)  en  Chenopodium quinoa  Willd. In:   Informe del Proyecto Desarrollo de  Ecoplaguicidas para el Control de Plagas  Insectiles del Cultivo de la Quinua.  PROINPA Foundation.   Arragan, T. 2010. Nivel de daño económico de   la polilla de la quinua (Eurysacca  quinoae) en la localidad de Jalsuri –  Altiplano Central. Bachelor degree thesis,  Faculty of Agriculture, Universidad Mayor  de San Andrés. La Paz, Bolivia.  FAO. 1994. La quinua, cultivo milenario para   contribuir a la seguridad alimentaria.  Oficina Regional para América Latina y el  Caribe.  Fundación PROINPA, Fundación AUTAPO.   2005. Module 2: Manejo Agronómico de  la Quinua Orgánica. La Paz, Bolivia. 105  p.  Saravia, R. Bonifacio, A., Aduviri, J. 2010. La   identificación de enemigos de la quinua,  una tarea esencial en el MIP. In:  Compendio de Actividades, PROINPA  Foundation, 2010. pp. 27-29.      ISSN 1998 - 9652   Area: Technology Development 62   Synthesis and development of sex pheromones   for two species of Noctuidae, key pests   of the quinoa crop   Raúl Saravia; Luis Crespo; Reinaldo Quispe; Milton Villca    Work funded by: AUTAPO Foundation, The McKnight Foundation,  Dutch Embassy; PROINPA Foundation  E mail: r.saravia@proinpa.org    Particular emphasis should be placed on  the isolation of Bacillus thuringiensis  found as an endophyte, because after  being sprayed it can stay protected from  ultraviolet rays inside the plant, having a  longer residual effect as entomopathogen.   The species Bacillus cereus, an  entomopathogen of Coleoptera, was also  isolated from soil samples.  This species is  important for the development of  bioinsecticides that can contribute to the  management of this group of insect pests.   Conclusions   • show there a   significant number of bacteria  associated with quinoa plants, several  of which are beneficial species that  provide environmental services.   These bacteria have great  biotechnological and agroindustrial  potential for organic and sustainable  quinoa production.  • nitrogen-fixing 72   phosphorous solubilizing bacteria and  28 IAA generating strains were  detected. The fact that some species  are repeated does not necessarily mean  that they are the same strain. There are  isolates from the genera Azotobacter,  Pseudomonas, Rhizobium and  Flavobacterium that are free-living  and nitrogen fixers, a fact that still    needs to be studied.  •  Bacillus   subtilis, B. pumilus and B.  amiloliquefasciens and other  non-identified were detected in quinoa  grains.  •   Bacillus thuringiensis, for the control  of lepidopteran, is a resource that must  be evaluated given its potential for the  development of bioinsecticides for  organic pest management.  •  Bacillus cereus, as entomopathogen is   representative of strains that can be  used for the management of  Coleopteran pests not only for quinoa  production, but for other crops in the  Altiplano region.   Cited References   Altschul, S., Gish, W., Miller, W., Myers, E.,   Lipman, D. 1990. Basic local alignment  search tool. J. Mol. Biol. 215:403-410.  Bécquer, C., Lazarovits, G., Lalin, I. 2013.   Interacción in vitro entre Trichoderma  harzianum  y bacterias rizosféricas   estimuladoras del crecimiento vegetal.  Revista Cubana de Ciencia Agrícola.  Volume 47, Number 1  CIP. 2008. Protocolos de trabajo con bacterias   PGPR. Lima Perú. pp. 47-50.  Dion, P., Magallón, P. 2009. Manual de   microbiología agrícola “Importancia de   los microorganismos promotores de  crecimiento vegetal para los pequeños  productores de Bolivia. Université Laval.  Québec, Canada. 90:31-32.  Gordon, S., Weber, R. 1950. Colorimetric   estimation of indole acetic acid. Plant  Physiol. 26:192-195.  Hall, T. 1999. BioEdit: a user-friendly biological   sequence alignment editor and analysis  program for Windows 95/98/NT. Nucleic  Acids Symp. Ser. 41:95-98.  Harrison, M. 2005. Signaling in the arbuscular   mycorrhizal symbiosis. Ann. Rev.  Microbiol. 59:19-42.  Kubicek, C., Harman, G. 2002. Trichoderma &   Gliocladium. Basic Biology, Taxonomy  and Genetics. 1:1-271.  Krüger, M., Stockinger, H., Krüger C.,   Schüßler, A. 2009. DNA-based species-  level detection of arbuscular mycorrhizal  fungi: One PCR primer set for all AMF.  New Phytologist. 183:212-223  Lane, D. 1991. 16S/23S sequencing. In:   Nucleic Acid Techniques in Bacterial    Systematics (ed. Stackebrandt, E. &  Goodfellow, M.), Chichester: John Wiley  & Sons. pp. 115-175.  Muñoz-Rojas, J., Caballero-Mellado, J. 2003.   Population Dynamics Of  Gluconacetobacter diazotrophicus In:  Sugarcane Cultivars and Its Effect on  Plant Growth. Microbial Ecol.  46(4):454-464.  Reinhold-Hurek, B., Hurek, T. 1998. Trends   Microbiol. Apr; 6(4): 139-44. Review.  Erratum in: 6(5):202  Sanger, F., Nicklen, S., Coulson, A. 1977.   DNA sequencing with chain-terminating  inhibitors. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA.  74:5463–5467.  Sturz, A., Christie, B., Nowak, J. 2000.   Bacterial Endophytes: Potential Role in  Developing Sustainable Systems of Crop  Production Critical Reviews in Plant  Sciences Prince Edward Island. Canada.  19(1):1–30.   Summary.  The work describes the synthesis and development process of sex   pheromones for two species of Noctuidae (Helicoverpa quinoa and  Copitarsia   incommoda), considered key pests of the quinoa crop. It is a joint effort between  researchers from PROINPA and the Pherobank Company of the Netherlands. In this  context, PROINPA was responsible for mass rearing of the species under laboratory  conditions, the permanent provision of pupae, field evaluations of protopheromones and  the development of traps for their use. Pherobank was responsible for the identification  of compounds, synthesis of protopheromones and pheromones. As a result of this  coordinated effort, the specific synthesis of sex pheromones was achieved for H. quinoa,  an important pest in the Southern Altiplano, and C. incommoda,  key pest in the Central   and Northern Altiplano.  Keywords: Helicoverpa quinoa; Copitarsia incommoda, Integrated Pests Management Resumen. y de sexuales dos  plagas clave del cultivo de quinua. El trabajo describe el proceso de síntesis y  desarrollo de feromonas sexuales para dos especies de noctuideos (Helicoverpa quinoa  y  Copitarsia incommoda), consideradas plagas clave del cultivo de la quinua, en un   trabajo conjunto entre investigadores de la Fundación PROINPA y la Empresa  Pherobank de Holanda. En este marco, PROINPA fue responsable de la cría masiva de  las especies en condiciones de laboratorio, la provisión permanente de pupas, las  evaluaciones de las protoferomas en campo y el desarrollo de trampas para su uso.  Pherobank estuvo a cargo de la identificación de los compuestos, la síntesis de las  protoferomonas y la síntesis de las feromonas. Producto de este trabajo coordinado se  logró sintetizar feromonas sexuales específicas para H. quinoa, plaga importante en el  Altiplano Sur y C. incommoda, plaga clave en el Altiplano Central y Altiplano Norte. Palabras clave:  Helicoverpa quinoa; Copitarsia incommoda¸ Manejo Integrado de   Plagas   Problem description and  Project actions   Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) Is  one of the most important crops in  Bolivia, acreage extends up to 131,190  hectares and production reached 61,659  tons in 2013 The families involved in its  cultivation are around 45,000, from the  North, South and Central Altiplano  (PROINPA Foundation and AUTAPO  Foundation, 2005).| One of the factors that adversely affects  crop productivity is the incidence of a  variety of insect pests, such as the socalled  ticona (cutworm) complex composed of  several species of moths,  Copitarsia   incommoda, Helicoverpa quinoa, Agrotis  andina and the quinoa moth Eurysacca  quinoae  (PROINPA, 2010). These pests   in their larval state produce damage to the  crop, affecting grain quality and causing  production losses of up to 30%, which for  2013 correspond to 147.520.893.- USD  per annum (based on the price of 1,800 BS  / qq, prevailing at the Challapata market in  June 2014). To control these pests in organic  production systems, products registered  and accepted in organic regulations must  be used. However, there is limited supply  of these products to be able to use them in  an extensive scale. For that reason  PROINPA has developed a strategy for  the efficient management of pest control,  based on bio-registered products  approved for organic production. With the  purpose of expanding and disseminating  the strategy, PROINPA has partnered  with BIOTOP SRL, who coordinated  outreach activities with independent    producers, organic quinoa associations  and companies.   Methodology   The strategy proposed by PROINPA, for  integrated pest management (IPM) in  organic production has been implemented  quite successfully in over 20,000 hectares  in 2013. This strategy is based on  monitoring of adults and larvae,  preventive treatments, alternation of  products (active ingredients and modes of  action), timely applications and use of  adjuvant products. The integrated  management components are: a  Installation of pheromone traps (for   noctuidae): The installation of four traps  per hectare within the plot (with a distance  of at least 25 m between traps), helps  identify the first presence of adult insects  and the beginning of the oviposition  period. In areas where the population of  noctuidae is still low, the use of the four  traps/ha keeps larval populations at levels  that do not cause significant damage (≤5%  damage). a  Field Inspection: Regular inspection   visits should be made in at least four  stages of crop development: six true  leaves, beginning of panicle formation,  grain formation and milky grain. At each  inspection at least 10 plants per hectare  should be sampled at random. If the  presence of eggs and / or early stages of  larvae are observed in 20% of the  evaluated plants, preventive applications  are recommended. When larvae of more  advanced stages are observed or in case of  increased incidence, the application of  control treatments is recommended.   a  Application of preventive treatments:   the application of lime sulfur plus chili is  recommended because of its contact mode  of action which affects the central nervous  system of the insect, allowing good  control of eggs and of larvae in early  stages. Additionally, this product has a  repellent effect for adult insects,  protecting the crop for at least 15 days  from new pest oviposition phases. a Application of control treatments: a  control treatment at the beginning of  panicle formation is recommended.  During this phenological period  protection against these pests is very  important. Control treatments can be  made when insect monitoring detects  populations that justify applications.  Damage to the crop causes proliferation of  side branches resulting in handling  difficulties and lower performance. When  the presence of at least one larva per plant  is observed, the application of Spinosad ®  is recommended. Another moment of care is the growth  stage of milky grain, because it is the time  when the larvae begin to feed on the grain  in formation, and can cause significant  economic damage. At this point it is  important to perform field inspections.   For ticonas (cutworms), if five larvae per  panicle are observed in ten plants, and in  the case of moths, if five larvae are  observed per panicle; the application of  Spinosad ® is recommended.  Spinosad ®  is a natural high efficiency insecticide (>  93%) accepted in organic production,  whose mode of action is through contact  and ingestion, allowing an efficient larval  control and minimal effect on existing  beneficial insect fauna.   a Alternation of treatments: Following  IPM principles and in order to avoid the  emergence of resistant populations,  alternation of treatments is recommended;  ie alternating the application of natural  insecticides considering their active  ingredients and different modes of action,  avoiding more than two continuous  applications of the same product per crop  cycle. For example, lime sulfur and chili  extract can be alternated with Spinosad ®. a Using adjuvants: Because of the   presence of large amounts of oxalates in  the surfaces of leaves, stems and panicles  of quinoa, bio-adhesion is difficult.   Therefore, it is very important to apply a  bonding agent such as Agricultural  Vegetable Oil, which acts as a dispersing  agent, improves application coverage and  prevents the formation of large droplets.  Application of Agricultural Oil ensures  the efficiency of products.   Achievements   During the 2013-2014 crop year, the  alliance PROINPA and BIOTOP SRL,  has worked in partnership with various  producer associations and companies: In CADEQUIR, ANAPQUI,  CADEPQUIOR, SINDAN, Jacha Inti,  APQUISA, APQO Villa Florida,  APQO-Toledo, APQO-Keluyo, FDTA  Valles, IDEPRO, APROACH,  APROCAL, Andean Valley,  APROQUIROT, APROCOVES,  APROACAY,  APROQUIOS, and APRACCUK,  knowledge, attitudes and practices of  approximately 2,800 associates (men and  women) were strengthened. These   farmers were reached through capacity  building events delivered by technicians  and promoters, who personally spread the  Integrated Pest Management strategy for  organic quinoa production, reaching about  20,000 acres with this technology. The implementation of the strategy  reduced losses from 30% to 10% in the  20,000 acres that used Integrated Pest  Management. In economic terms, with  values of 1.800 Bs/qq (market price in  June 2014), this means, 14,618,275 USD  that producers have stopped losing, and  represent a benefit to the country through  improvement of crop productivity,  enhanced yield, better product quality and  environmental stewardship. On the other hand, in quinoa production  areas of the Bolivian Altiplano, a total of  70,926 units of pheromones for quinoa  cutworms (ticonas) have been sold,  covering more the 20,000 ha, representing  30% of the area cultivated with organic  quinoa. In the case of lime sulfur and chili  extract, in the past three crop years, a total  of 20,684 liters have been sold, covering  approximately 8300 hectares. In the case  of Spinosad®, in the past three crop years,  a total of 117,400 grams have been sold,  covering approximately 4000 hectares. Figure 1 shows the positive trend of the  use of products in the last three years,  particularly high for the case of lime  sulfur and higher for Spinosad.   Conclusions and  recommendations   • a of and ng   activities for technicians, promoters  and farmers, the quinoa pest  management strategy developed by    PROINPA and disseminated by  BIOTOP SRL, has been accepted by  organic quinoa producers, and in  several cases has been adjusted with  the implementation of local practices  and inputs. This situation can be  evidenced through sales data recorded  by BIOTOP SRL.  • initiative PROINPA   BIOTOP SRL has been well received,  especially by producer associations  and companies dedicated to the  production of organic quinoa. The  process has resulted in agreements,  higher volumes of bio-inputs sold and  supported by training for adequate use;  being all reflected in higher income for  farmers.  •   Integrated Management of insect pests  used for organic quinoa production in  20,000 hectares, allowed producers to  reduce losses in 14.618.275.- USD.  • task is larger   dissemination of the integrated  management strategy, in order for  most producers to have access to it and  to bio-inputs for application in organic  quinoa production. For example, many  farmers still use spraying backpacks,  resulting in an inefficient product  application and control.    The implementation of community   control campaigns should also be  considered, because if one farmer  controls and others don’t, efficiency is  lost and the damages continues. This  will depend on the coordinated efforts  of producers, associations, companies,  state institutions (municipalities,  governorates, etc.), organic certifiers  and other actors.    • development an   management strategy that responds to  organic production demands is a  continuous research work that should  be directed to the development of new,  more efficient bio-inputs (plant  extracts, etc.) permitted for organic  production and which can be easily  accessed in local markets.   Suggested references   Aroni, G., Saravia R. 2008. Evaluación de la   eficiencia de ecoplaguicidas en el control  de Noctuideos (ticonas y kcona kconas)  en  Chenopodium quinoa  Willd. In:   Informe del Proyecto Desarrollo de  Ecoplaguicidas para el Control de Plagas  Insectiles del Cultivo de la Quinua.  PROINPA Foundation.   Arragan, T. 2010. Nivel de daño económico de   la polilla de la quinua (Eurysacca  quinoae) en la localidad de Jalsuri –  Altiplano Central. Bachelor degree thesis,  Faculty of Agriculture, Universidad Mayor  de San Andrés. La Paz, Bolivia.  FAO. 1994. La quinua, cultivo milenario para   contribuir a la seguridad alimentaria.  Oficina Regional para América Latina y el  Caribe.  Fundación PROINPA, Fundación AUTAPO.   2005. Module 2: Manejo Agronómico de  la Quinua Orgánica. La Paz, Bolivia. 105  p.  Saravia, R. Bonifacio, A., Aduviri, J. 2010. La   identificación de enemigos de la quinua,  una tarea esencial en el MIP. In:  Compendio de Actividades, PROINPA  Foundation, 2010. pp. 27-29.      Revista de Agricultura, Nro. 54 - Julio de 2014   Area: Technology Development 63   Particular emphasis should be placed on  the isolation of Bacillus thuringiensis  found as an endophyte, because after  being sprayed it can stay protected from  ultraviolet rays inside the plant, having a  longer residual effect as entomopathogen.   The species Bacillus cereus, an  entomopathogen of Coleoptera, was also  isolated from soil samples.  This species is  important for the development of  bioinsecticides that can contribute to the  management of this group of insect pests.   Conclusions   • show there a   significant number of bacteria  associated with quinoa plants, several  of which are beneficial species that  provide environmental services.   These bacteria have great  biotechnological and agroindustrial  potential for organic and sustainable  quinoa production.  • nitrogen-fixing 72   phosphorous solubilizing bacteria and  28 IAA generating strains were  detected. The fact that some species  are repeated does not necessarily mean  that they are the same strain. There are  isolates from the genera Azotobacter,  Pseudomonas, Rhizobium and  Flavobacterium that are free-living  and nitrogen fixers, a fact that still    needs to be studied.  •  Bacillus   subtilis, B. pumilus and B.  amiloliquefasciens and other  non-identified were detected in quinoa  grains.  •   Bacillus thuringiensis, for the control  of lepidopteran, is a resource that must  be evaluated given its potential for the  development of bioinsecticides for  organic pest management.  •  Bacillus cereus, as entomopathogen is   representative of strains that can be  used for the management of  Coleopteran pests not only for quinoa  production, but for other crops in the  Altiplano region.   Cited References   Altschul, S., Gish, W., Miller, W., Myers, E.,   Lipman, D. 1990. Basic local alignment  search tool. J. Mol. Biol. 215:403-410.  Bécquer, C., Lazarovits, G., Lalin, I. 2013.   Interacción in vitro entre Trichoderma  harzianum  y bacterias rizosféricas   estimuladoras del crecimiento vegetal.  Revista Cubana de Ciencia Agrícola.  Volume 47, Number 1  CIP. 2008. Protocolos de trabajo con bacterias   PGPR. Lima Perú. pp. 47-50.  Dion, P., Magallón, P. 2009. Manual de   microbiología agrícola “Importancia de   los microorganismos promotores de  crecimiento vegetal para los pequeños  productores de Bolivia. Université Laval.  Québec, Canada. 90:31-32.  Gordon, S., Weber, R. 1950. Colorimetric   estimation of indole acetic acid. Plant  Physiol. 26:192-195.  Hall, T. 1999. BioEdit: a user-friendly biological   sequence alignment editor and analysis  program for Windows 95/98/NT. Nucleic  Acids Symp. Ser. 41:95-98.  Harrison, M. 2005. Signaling in the arbuscular   mycorrhizal symbiosis. Ann. Rev.  Microbiol. 59:19-42.  Kubicek, C., Harman, G. 2002. Trichoderma &   Gliocladium. Basic Biology, Taxonomy  and Genetics. 1:1-271.  Krüger, M., Stockinger, H., Krüger C.,   Schüßler, A. 2009. DNA-based species-  level detection of arbuscular mycorrhizal  fungi: One PCR primer set for all AMF.  New Phytologist. 183:212-223  Lane, D. 1991. 16S/23S sequencing. In:   Nucleic Acid Techniques in Bacterial    Systematics (ed. Stackebrandt, E. &  Goodfellow, M.), Chichester: John Wiley  & Sons. pp. 115-175.  Muñoz-Rojas, J., Caballero-Mellado, J. 2003.   Population Dynamics Of  Gluconacetobacter diazotrophicus In:  Sugarcane Cultivars and Its Effect on  Plant Growth. Microbial Ecol.  46(4):454-464.  Reinhold-Hurek, B., Hurek, T. 1998. Trends   Microbiol. Apr; 6(4): 139-44. Review.  Erratum in: 6(5):202  Sanger, F., Nicklen, S., Coulson, A. 1977.   DNA sequencing with chain-terminating  inhibitors. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA.  74:5463–5467.  Sturz, A., Christie, B., Nowak, J. 2000.   Bacterial Endophytes: Potential Role in  Developing Sustainable Systems of Crop  Production Critical Reviews in Plant  Sciences Prince Edward Island. Canada.  19(1):1–30.   Introduction   Helicoverpa quinoa and Copitarsia  incommoda are key pests of the quinoa  crop in the Bolivian Altiplano, where the  largest volumes of this Andean grain are  produced for both domestic and export  markets. The larvae of these species along  with others that make up the Noctuidae  complex (Helicoverpa titicacae and  Dargida acanthus) cause considerable  losses, reaching up to 30% of yield per  year and an estimate of USD 60 million  for the year 2014. The type of damage  caused by these larvae depends largely on  the species, the phenological state of the  plant and the stage of the larvae. The  newly hatched larvae feed on the quinoa  plant inflorescence during its formation,  and when the larvae are larger they  behave as defoliators. During the phenological stages of  flowering and physiological maturity,  larvae cause significant damage by eating  the forming grain or by drilling the rachis  of the panicle, causing its collapse. The greatest damage from these  Noctuidea species are caused during grain  filling at the stage of milky ripening and  starchy ripening, when larvae begin to eat  the grains. Farmers fight them using light  traps and through the application of  eco-insecticides or chemical-pesticides,  depending on the destination of  production. Five years ago, to provide farmers with  organic easy to apply control alternatives,  PROINPA posed the synthesis and  development of sex pheromones. These  sex pheromones are chemical signals  emitted by females to attract males of the    same species. The artificially synthesized  pheromones are installed in traps, which  catch male insects, preventing the next  generation, thus reducing the pest  population. Currently sex pheromones of  different species are successfully used as a  component of Integrated Pest  Management (IPM). The objective of the work delivered was  to synthesize and develop sex pheromones  for  H. quinoa and  C. incommode, key   pests of the quinoa crop in the Bolivian  Altiplano. Life cycle of H. quinoa. According to  studies performed in the Quipaquipani  Center (Viachan, La Paz), the life cycle of  H. quinoa is very singular. Of a total of  400 larvae under observation in  conditions of 25°C temperature and 65%  relative humidity, 50% reported a lifespan  of 223 ± 36 days from egg to adult  (including adult longevity), 25%  remained in the pupal stage until the next  agricultural season, and 15 % died before  reaching adulthood. Life cycle of C. incommoda. According to  Choquehuanca (2011) The life cycle of C.   incommoda  reared in laboratory at 25°C   temperature and 65% relative humidity,  has a duration of 99.91 days including  adult longevity. The incubation period is  5.5 days, the duration of the larval stage is  29.04 days, prepupal status lasts 3.03 days  and pupal 16.3 days; adults live an  average of 19.85 days. Damages and losses caused by larvae  from the Noctuidae complex. Damages  caused by larvae from the Noctuidae  complex are multiple. Young larvae mine  the inflorescence during formation, in    more advanced stages larvae defoliate  plants, drill the stem at the base causing  the collapse of the panicle and, consume  the grains. Estimated losses due to the  attack of larvae from the Noctuidae  complex and of the quinoa moth are of  approximately 30% of yield (Saravia and  Quispe, 2005). Geographical distribution of H. quinoa  and C. incommoda. Studies on the  distribution of these species in the quinoa  producing regions have shown that H.  quinoa is the dominant species in the  Southern Altiplano Bolivia, and C.  incommoda is the dominant species in the  Central and Northern Altiplano. In these  regions the species H. titicacae and  Dargida acanthus can also be found but in  lower population densities. Pheromones.  They are secretions that   cause specific reactions in individuals of  the same species that perceive them  (Ramirez, 1996). Pedigo (1996) states that  sex pheromones are chemical signals  emitted by females to attract males of the  same species. Currently sex pheromones  of different species can be synthesized  and used for Integrated Pest Management  (IPM). Types of pheromones. There are several  types of pheromones, including sexual,  aggregation, tracking and alarm  pheromones (Owen, 2013). Advantages and disadvantages of  pheromones. Like any tool used for IPM,   pheromones have advantages and  disadvantages. The main advantages  attributed to them are: they are specific  and ensure the survival of natural  enemies; they are not toxic and do not    leave chemical residue on the crops, that  is to say it is an environmentally clean  technology. They are biodegradable and  environmentally friendly; they are easy to  install and operate. For all the above  mentioned benefits, pheromones are  accepted in organic production. The  identified disadvantages include the  following: only attract males, may be  affected by weather (winds) and do not  provide information on the direct damage  to the crop (Cisneros, 1997). Pheromone traps. Pheromones should be  used in traps. There are various types of  traps designed to increase the efficiency  of capture, that are currently offered by  companies that produce pheromones.  Traps are designed taking into account the  flight behavior of different species of  pests. To capture H. quinoa, the traps  tested were: drum type, basin type, cone  and several variants of the funnel, which  can operate with or without water. Of  these traps, the most widespread type in  quinoa producing areas of the Altiplano is  the dry funnel because it does not require  water to catch insects.   Materials and methods   Noctuidae rearing for pheromone  synthesis.  The synthesis of the sex   pheromone of H. quinoa and C.  incommoda, began in 2007 with the mass  rearing of these species and several  deliveries of pupae to the Pherobank  Company of the Netherlands. Noctuidae  rearing was implemented through a  protocol developed at PROINPA’s  Entomology Laboratory from March to  December 2007.  The protocol includes  the steps listed below:   Collection of larvae. Larvae of Noctuidae  were collected in quinoa plots, at different  times and in different locations of the  Southern and Central Altiplano. Larvae adaptation to laboratory  conditions. Larvae were separated  individually in medium size plastic  containers in order to prevent  cannibalism. These larvae were fed with  quinoa leaves until they pupated (Figure  1). Once they reached the pupal stage they  were disinfected and separated into  groups of ten, and placed in larger plastic  containers until eclosion.  Reproduction. The eclosioned adults were   installed in groups of 10-16 individuals, in  plastic bottles of 3800 cc volume, as  recommended by Quispe (2000). These  vials were used as reproduction cameras  and to obtain eggs (Figure 2). To facilitate  the laying of eggs, blotter strips were hung  on the side walls of the bottles.  Oviposition was verified, collection took  place through cutting lots of blotting  paper containing the eggs. These lots of  paper were later placed in medium size  containers for maturation, eclosion and  breeding of a new generation of larvae.   Rearing of the next generation. The new  generation of larvae was reared on an  artificial diet developed and adjusted in  the Entomology Laboratory of PROINPA,  through placing 30 neonate larvae per  container with diet (Figure 3).  After 10 days larvae were separated in  containers with diet, where they  concluded their larval stage and reached    the pupal stage. Subsequently pupae  were-harvested (Figure 4), disinfected  with a 10% concentration of sodium  hypochlorite, separated into groups of ten  individuals and placed in medium plastic  jars until adult emergence.  Pheromone synthesis. For the synthesis  of pheromones pupae of the species H.  quinoa and C. incommoda where sent to   Pherobank in the Netherlands where the  pheromone components of these species  were identified using the combined  method of Gas Chromatography (GC)  linked to Mass Spectrometry (MS) and  Electroantennography (EAG). Once protopheromones were developed  by Pherobank, they were sent back to  Bolivia for field trials and adjustments in  the formulation of the pheromone. These evaluations were performed in the  community of Chacala, municipality of  Uyuni, and in the Quipaquipani Center,  located in the department of La Paz.   Results and discussion    Pupae shipments for identification  and synthesis of specific pheromones   Several shipments of pupae to Pherobank  were performed. Pupae came from the  mass rearing of these species in the  Entomology Laboratory of PROINPA.  The samples were enclosed in plastic  containers, in batches of 20 to 40 properly  sexed pupae (Figure 5).   Synthesis of pheromones    In late April 2008, as a result of laboratory  work delivered by Pherobank in the  Netherlands, 17 protopheromones for the  Noctuidae complex were formulated  (Figure 6).   Based on the information generated in  field trials carried out by PROINPA’s  technical staff in the Bolivian Altiplano,  until June 2009 a pheromone for the  species H. quinoa was synthesized; and in  June 2013 another pheromone was  synthesized for C. incommoda.   Conclusions   •   H. quinoa and C. incommoda.  • are pheromones  H.   quinoa, key pest of the quinoa crop in  the Southern Altiplano; C.  incommoda, key pest of the quinoa  crop in the Central and Northern  Altiplano; and Agrotis peruviana,  considered a potential pest of the  quinoa crop in Bolivia.   Cited references   Cisneros, A. 1997. Lactonas en síntesis de   feromonas. Thesis for the degree of  Master of Science. Universidad    Autónoma de Nuevo León, Faculty of  Chemical Sciences. 106 p.  Choquehuanca M. 2011. Ciclo biológico de   Copitarsia incommoda Walker plaga del  cultivo de la quinua en condiciones de  laboratorio. Thesis for the degree of  Agricultural Engeneer, UMSA, Faculty of  Agronomy. La Paz, Bolivia.  Owen, J. 2013. Feromonas: Una herramienta   básica en IPM. IN: III Jornadas  internacionales sobre feromonas,  atrayentes, trampas y control biológico.  Murcia, España.  Pedigo, L. 1996. Entomology and Pest   Management. Second Edition. 1996.  Prentice-Hall Pub., Englewood Cliffs, NJ.  679 p.  Ramírez P. 1996. Las feromonas de insectos y   su aplicación en la agricultura. PALMAS,  Volume 17, No. 3.  Saravia R., Quispe, R. 2005. Manejo integrado   de las plagas insectiles del cultivo de la  quinua. In: Module 2: Manejo Agronómico  de la quinua orgánica. PROINPA  Foundation. pp. 53-86.   Problem description and  Project actions   Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) Is  one of the most important crops in  Bolivia, acreage extends up to 131,190  hectares and production reached 61,659  tons in 2013 The families involved in its  cultivation are around 45,000, from the  North, South and Central Altiplano  (PROINPA Foundation and AUTAPO  Foundation, 2005).| One of the factors that adversely affects  crop productivity is the incidence of a  variety of insect pests, such as the socalled  ticona (cutworm) complex composed of  several species of moths,  Copitarsia   incommoda, Helicoverpa quinoa, Agrotis  andina and the quinoa moth Eurysacca  quinoae  (PROINPA, 2010). These pests   in their larval state produce damage to the  crop, affecting grain quality and causing  production losses of up to 30%, which for  2013 correspond to 147.520.893.- USD  per annum (based on the price of 1,800 BS  / qq, prevailing at the Challapata market in  June 2014). To control these pests in organic  production systems, products registered  and accepted in organic regulations must  be used. However, there is limited supply  of these products to be able to use them in  an extensive scale. For that reason  PROINPA has developed a strategy for  the efficient management of pest control,  based on bio-registered products  approved for organic production. With the  purpose of expanding and disseminating  the strategy, PROINPA has partnered  with BIOTOP SRL, who coordinated  outreach activities with independent    producers, organic quinoa associations  and companies.   Methodology   The strategy proposed by PROINPA, for  integrated pest management (IPM) in  organic production has been implemented  quite successfully in over 20,000 hectares  in 2013. This strategy is based on  monitoring of adults and larvae,  preventive treatments, alternation of  products (active ingredients and modes of  action), timely applications and use of  adjuvant products. The integrated  management components are: a  Installation of pheromone traps (for   noctuidae): The installation of four traps  per hectare within the plot (with a distance  of at least 25 m between traps), helps  identify the first presence of adult insects  and the beginning of the oviposition  period. In areas where the population of  noctuidae is still low, the use of the four  traps/ha keeps larval populations at levels  that do not cause significant damage (≤5%  damage). a  Field Inspection: Regular inspection   visits should be made in at least four  stages of crop development: six true  leaves, beginning of panicle formation,  grain formation and milky grain. At each  inspection at least 10 plants per hectare  should be sampled at random. If the  presence of eggs and / or early stages of  larvae are observed in 20% of the  evaluated plants, preventive applications  are recommended. When larvae of more  advanced stages are observed or in case of  increased incidence, the application of  control treatments is recommended.   a  Application of preventive treatments:   the application of lime sulfur plus chili is  recommended because of its contact mode  of action which affects the central nervous  system of the insect, allowing good  control of eggs and of larvae in early  stages. Additionally, this product has a  repellent effect for adult insects,  protecting the crop for at least 15 days  from new pest oviposition phases. a Application of control treatments: a  control treatment at the beginning of  panicle formation is recommended.  During this phenological period  protection against these pests is very  important. Control treatments can be  made when insect monitoring detects  populations that justify applications.  Damage to the crop causes proliferation of  side branches resulting in handling  difficulties and lower performance. When  the presence of at least one larva per plant  is observed, the application of Spinosad ®  is recommended. Another moment of care is the growth  stage of milky grain, because it is the time  when the larvae begin to feed on the grain  in formation, and can cause significant  economic damage. At this point it is  important to perform field inspections.   For ticonas (cutworms), if five larvae per  panicle are observed in ten plants, and in  the case of moths, if five larvae are  observed per panicle; the application of  Spinosad ® is recommended.  Spinosad ®  is a natural high efficiency insecticide (>  93%) accepted in organic production,  whose mode of action is through contact  and ingestion, allowing an efficient larval  control and minimal effect on existing  beneficial insect fauna.   a Alternation of treatments: Following  IPM principles and in order to avoid the  emergence of resistant populations,  alternation of treatments is recommended;  ie alternating the application of natural  insecticides considering their active  ingredients and different modes of action,  avoiding more than two continuous  applications of the same product per crop  cycle. For example, lime sulfur and chili  extract can be alternated with Spinosad ®. a Using adjuvants:  Because of the   presence of large amounts of oxalates in  the surfaces of leaves, stems and panicles  of quinoa, bio-adhesion is difficult.   Therefore, it is very important to apply a  bonding agent such as Agricultural  Vegetable Oil, which acts as a dispersing  agent, improves application coverage and  prevents the formation of large droplets.  Application of Agricultural Oil ensures  the efficiency of products.   Achievements   During the 2013-2014 crop year, the  alliance PROINPA and BIOTOP SRL,  has worked in partnership with various  producer associations and companies: In CADEQUIR, ANAPQUI,  CADEPQUIOR, SINDAN, Jacha Inti,  APQUISA, APQO Villa Florida,  APQO-Toledo, APQO-Keluyo, FDTA  Valles, IDEPRO, APROACH,  APROCAL, Andean Valley,  APROQUIROT, APROCOVES,  APROACAY,  APROQUIOS, and APRACCUK,  knowledge, attitudes and practices of  approximately 2,800 associates (men and  women) were strengthened. These   farmers were reached through capacity  building events delivered by technicians  and promoters, who personally spread the  Integrated Pest Management strategy for  organic quinoa production, reaching about  20,000 acres with this technology. The implementation of the strategy  reduced losses from 30% to 10% in the  20,000 acres that used Integrated Pest  Management. In economic terms, with  values of 1.800 Bs/qq (market price in  June 2014), this means, 14,618,275 USD  that producers have stopped losing, and  represent a benefit to the country through  improvement of crop productivity,  enhanced yield, better product quality and  environmental stewardship. On the other hand, in quinoa production  areas of the Bolivian Altiplano, a total of  70,926 units of pheromones for quinoa  cutworms (ticonas) have been sold,  covering more the 20,000 ha, representing  30% of the area cultivated with organic  quinoa. In the case of lime sulfur and chili  extract, in the past three crop years, a total  of 20,684 liters have been sold, covering  approximately 8300 hectares. In the case  of Spinosad®, in the past three crop years,  a total of 117,400 grams have been sold,  covering approximately 4000 hectares. Figure 1 shows the positive trend of the  use of products in the last three years,  particularly high for the case of lime  sulfur and higher for Spinosad.   Conclusions and  recommendations   • a of and ng   activities for technicians, promoters  and farmers, the quinoa pest  management strategy developed by    PROINPA and disseminated by  BIOTOP SRL, has been accepted by  organic quinoa producers, and in  several cases has been adjusted with  the implementation of local practices  and inputs. This situation can be  evidenced through sales data recorded  by BIOTOP SRL.  • initiative PROINPA   BIOTOP SRL has been well received,  especially by producer associations  and companies dedicated to the  production of organic quinoa. The  process has resulted in agreements,  higher volumes of bio-inputs sold and  supported by training for adequate use;  being all reflected in higher income for  farmers.  •   Integrated Management of insect pests  used for organic quinoa production in  20,000 hectares, allowed producers to  reduce losses in 14.618.275.- USD.  • task is larger   dissemination of the integrated  management strategy, in order for  most producers to have access to it and  to bio-inputs for application in organic  quinoa production. For example, many  farmers still use spraying backpacks,  resulting in an inefficient product  application and control.    The implementation of community   control campaigns should also be  considered, because if one farmer  controls and others don’t, efficiency is  lost and the damages continues. This  will depend on the coordinated efforts  of producers, associations, companies,  state institutions (municipalities,  governorates, etc.), organic certifiers  and other actors.    • development an   management strategy that responds to  organic production demands is a  continuous research work that should  be directed to the development of new,  more efficient bio-inputs (plant  extracts, etc.) permitted for organic  production and which can be easily  accessed in local markets.   Suggested references   Aroni, G., Saravia R. 2008. Evaluación de la   eficiencia de ecoplaguicidas en el control  de Noctuideos (ticonas y kcona kconas)  en  Chenopodium quinoa  Willd. In:   Informe del Proyecto Desarrollo de  Ecoplaguicidas para el Control de Plagas  Insectiles del Cultivo de la Quinua.  PROINPA Foundation.   Arragan, T. 2010. Nivel de daño económico de   la polilla de la quinua (Eurysacca  quinoae) en la localidad de Jalsuri –  Altiplano Central. Bachelor degree thesis,  Faculty of Agriculture, Universidad Mayor  de San Andrés. La Paz, Bolivia.  FAO. 1994. La quinua, cultivo milenario para   contribuir a la seguridad alimentaria.  Oficina Regional para América Latina y el  Caribe.  Fundación PROINPA, Fundación AUTAPO.   2005. Module 2: Manejo Agronómico de  la Quinua Orgánica. La Paz, Bolivia. 105  p.  Saravia, R. Bonifacio, A., Aduviri, J. 2010. La   identificación de enemigos de la quinua,  una tarea esencial en el MIP. In:  Compendio de Actividades, PROINPA  Foundation, 2010. pp. 27-29.      ISSN 1998 - 9652   Area: Technology Development 64   Particular emphasis should be placed on  the isolation of Bacillus thuringiensis  found as an endophyte, because after  being sprayed it can stay protected from  ultraviolet rays inside the plant, having a  longer residual effect as entomopathogen.   The species Bacillus cereus, an  entomopathogen of Coleoptera, was also  isolated from soil samples.  This species is  important for the development of  bioinsecticides that can contribute to the  management of this group of insect pests.   Conclusions   • show there a   significant number of bacteria  associated with quinoa plants, several  of which are beneficial species that  provide environmental services.   These bacteria have great  biotechnological and agroindustrial  potential for organic and sustainable  quinoa production.  • nitrogen-fixing 72   phosphorous solubilizing bacteria and  28 IAA generating strains were  detected. The fact that some species  are repeated does not necessarily mean  that they are the same strain. There are  isolates from the genera Azotobacter,  Pseudomonas, Rhizobium and  Flavobacterium that are free-living  and nitrogen fixers, a fact that still    needs to be studied.  •  Bacillus   subtilis, B. pumilus and B.  amiloliquefasciens and other  non-identified were detected in quinoa  grains.  •   Bacillus thuringiensis, for the control  of lepidopteran, is a resource that must  be evaluated given its potential for the  development of bioinsecticides for  organic pest management.  •  Bacillus cereus, as entomopathogen is   representative of strains that can be  used for the management of  Coleopteran pests not only for quinoa  production, but for other crops in the  Altiplano region.   Cited References   Altschul, S., Gish, W., Miller, W., Myers, E.,   Lipman, D. 1990. Basic local alignment  search tool. J. Mol. Biol. 215:403-410.  Bécquer, C., Lazarovits, G., Lalin, I. 2013.   Interacción in vitro entre Trichoderma  harzianum  y bacterias rizosféricas   estimuladoras del crecimiento vegetal.  Revista Cubana de Ciencia Agrícola.  Volume 47, Number 1  CIP. 2008. Protocolos de trabajo con bacterias   PGPR. Lima Perú. pp. 47-50.  Dion, P., Magallón, P. 2009. Manual de   microbiología agrícola “Importancia de   los microorganismos promotores de  crecimiento vegetal para los pequeños  productores de Bolivia. Université Laval.  Québec, Canada. 90:31-32.  Gordon, S., Weber, R. 1950. Colorimetric   estimation of indole acetic acid. Plant  Physiol. 26:192-195.  Hall, T. 1999. BioEdit: a user-friendly biological   sequence alignment editor and analysis  program for Windows 95/98/NT. Nucleic  Acids Symp. Ser. 41:95-98.  Harrison, M. 2005. Signaling in the arbuscular   mycorrhizal symbiosis. Ann. Rev.  Microbiol. 59:19-42.  Kubicek, C., Harman, G. 2002. Trichoderma &   Gliocladium. Basic Biology, Taxonomy  and Genetics. 1:1-271.  Krüger, M., Stockinger, H., Krüger C.,   Schüßler, A. 2009. DNA-based species-  level detection of arbuscular mycorrhizal  fungi: One PCR primer set for all AMF.  New Phytologist. 183:212-223  Lane, D. 1991. 16S/23S sequencing. In:   Nucleic Acid Techniques in Bacterial    Systematics (ed. Stackebrandt, E. &  Goodfellow, M.), Chichester: John Wiley  & Sons. pp. 115-175.  Muñoz-Rojas, J., Caballero-Mellado, J. 2003.   Population Dynamics Of  Gluconacetobacter diazotrophicus In:  Sugarcane Cultivars and Its Effect on  Plant Growth. Microbial Ecol.  46(4):454-464.  Reinhold-Hurek, B., Hurek, T. 1998. Trends   Microbiol. Apr; 6(4): 139-44. Review.  Erratum in: 6(5):202  Sanger, F., Nicklen, S., Coulson, A. 1977.   DNA sequencing with chain-terminating  inhibitors. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA.  74:5463–5467.  Sturz, A., Christie, B., Nowak, J. 2000.   Bacterial Endophytes: Potential Role in  Developing Sustainable Systems of Crop  Production Critical Reviews in Plant  Sciences Prince Edward Island. Canada.  19(1):1–30.   Introduction   Helicoverpa quinoa and Copitarsia  incommoda are key pests of the quinoa  crop in the Bolivian Altiplano, where the  largest volumes of this Andean grain are  produced for both domestic and export  markets. The larvae of these species along  with others that make up the Noctuidae  complex (Helicoverpa titicacae and  Dargida acanthus) cause considerable  losses, reaching up to 30% of yield per  year and an estimate of USD 60 million  for the year 2014. The type of damage  caused by these larvae depends largely on  the species, the phenological state of the  plant and the stage of the larvae. The  newly hatched larvae feed on the quinoa  plant inflorescence during its formation,  and when the larvae are larger they  behave as defoliators. During the phenological stages of  flowering and physiological maturity,  larvae cause significant damage by eating  the forming grain or by drilling the rachis  of the panicle, causing its collapse. The greatest damage from these  Noctuidea species are caused during grain  filling at the stage of milky ripening and  starchy ripening, when larvae begin to eat  the grains. Farmers fight them using light  traps and through the application of  eco-insecticides or chemical-pesticides,  depending on the destination of  production. Five years ago, to provide farmers with  organic easy to apply control alternatives,  PROINPA posed the synthesis and  development of sex pheromones. These  sex pheromones are chemical signals  emitted by females to attract males of the    same species. The artificially synthesized  pheromones are installed in traps, which  catch male insects, preventing the next  generation, thus reducing the pest  population. Currently sex pheromones of  different species are successfully used as a  component of Integrated Pest  Management (IPM). The objective of the work delivered was  to synthesize and develop sex pheromones  for  H. quinoa and  C. incommode, key   pests of the quinoa crop in the Bolivian  Altiplano. Life cycle of H. quinoa. According to  studies performed in the Quipaquipani  Center (Viachan, La Paz), the life cycle of  H. quinoa is very singular. Of a total of  400 larvae under observation in  conditions of 25°C temperature and 65%  relative humidity, 50% reported a lifespan  of 223 ± 36 days from egg to adult  (including adult longevity), 25%  remained in the pupal stage until the next  agricultural season, and 15 % died before  reaching adulthood. Life cycle of C. incommoda. According to  Choquehuanca (2011) The life cycle of C.   incommoda  reared in laboratory at 25°C   temperature and 65% relative humidity,  has a duration of 99.91 days including  adult longevity. The incubation period is  5.5 days, the duration of the larval stage is  29.04 days, prepupal status lasts 3.03 days  and pupal 16.3 days; adults live an  average of 19.85 days. Damages and losses caused by larvae  from the Noctuidae complex. Damages  caused by larvae from the Noctuidae  complex are multiple. Young larvae mine  the inflorescence during formation, in    more advanced stages larvae defoliate  plants, drill the stem at the base causing  the collapse of the panicle and, consume  the grains. Estimated losses due to the  attack of larvae from the Noctuidae  complex and of the quinoa moth are of  approximately 30% of yield (Saravia and  Quispe, 2005). Geographical distribution of H. quinoa  and C. incommoda. Studies on the  distribution of these species in the quinoa  producing regions have shown that H.  quinoa is the dominant species in the  Southern Altiplano Bolivia, and C.  incommoda is the dominant species in the  Central and Northern Altiplano. In these  regions the species H. titicacae and  Dargida acanthus can also be found but in  lower population densities. Pheromones.  They are secretions that   cause specific reactions in individuals of  the same species that perceive them  (Ramirez, 1996). Pedigo (1996) states that  sex pheromones are chemical signals  emitted by females to attract males of the  same species. Currently sex pheromones  of different species can be synthesized  and used for Integrated Pest Management  (IPM). Types of pheromones. There are several  types of pheromones, including sexual,  aggregation, tracking and alarm  pheromones (Owen, 2013). Advantages and disadvantages of  pheromones. Like any tool used for IPM,   pheromones have advantages and  disadvantages. The main advantages  attributed to them are: they are specific  and ensure the survival of natural  enemies; they are not toxic and do not    leave chemical residue on the crops, that  is to say it is an environmentally clean  technology. They are biodegradable and  environmentally friendly; they are easy to  install and operate. For all the above  mentioned benefits, pheromones are  accepted in organic production. The  identified disadvantages include the  following: only attract males, may be  affected by weather (winds) and do not  provide information on the direct damage  to the crop (Cisneros, 1997). Pheromone traps. Pheromones should be  used in traps. There are various types of  traps designed to increase the efficiency  of capture, that are currently offered by  companies that produce pheromones.  Traps are designed taking into account the  flight behavior of different species of  pests. To capture H. quinoa, the traps  tested were: drum type, basin type, cone  and several variants of the funnel, which  can operate with or without water. Of  these traps, the most widespread type in  quinoa producing areas of the Altiplano is  the dry funnel because it does not require  water to catch insects.   Materials and methods   Noctuidae rearing for pheromone  synthesis.  The synthesis of the sex   pheromone of H. quinoa and C.  incommoda, began in 2007 with the mass  rearing of these species and several  deliveries of pupae to the Pherobank  Company of the Netherlands. Noctuidae  rearing was implemented through a  protocol developed at PROINPA’s  Entomology Laboratory from March to  December 2007.  The protocol includes  the steps listed below:   Collection of larvae. Larvae of Noctuidae  were collected in quinoa plots, at different  times and in different locations of the  Southern and Central Altiplano. Larvae adaptation to laboratory  conditions. Larvae were separated  individually in medium size plastic  containers in order to prevent  cannibalism. These larvae were fed with  quinoa leaves until they pupated (Figure  1). Once they reached the pupal stage they  were disinfected and separated into  groups of ten, and placed in larger plastic  containers until eclosion.  Reproduction. The eclosioned adults were   installed in groups of 10-16 individuals, in  plastic bottles of 3800 cc volume, as  recommended by Quispe (2000). These  vials were used as reproduction cameras  and to obtain eggs (Figure 2). To facilitate  the laying of eggs, blotter strips were hung  on the side walls of the bottles.  Oviposition was verified, collection took  place through cutting lots of blotting  paper containing the eggs. These lots of  paper were later placed in medium size  containers for maturation, eclosion and  breeding of a new generation of larvae.   Rearing of the next generation. The new  generation of larvae was reared on an  artificial diet developed and adjusted in  the Entomology Laboratory of PROINPA,  through placing 30 neonate larvae per  container with diet (Figure 3).  After 10 days larvae were separated in  containers with diet, where they  concluded their larval stage and reached    the pupal stage. Subsequently pupae  were-harvested (Figure 4), disinfected  with a 10% concentration of sodium  hypochlorite, separated into groups of ten  individuals and placed in medium plastic  jars until adult emergence.  Pheromone synthesis. For the synthesis  of pheromones pupae of the species H.  quinoa and C. incommoda where sent to   Pherobank in the Netherlands where the  pheromone components of these species  were identified using the combined  method of Gas Chromatography (GC)  linked to Mass Spectrometry (MS) and  Electroantennography (EAG). Once protopheromones were developed  by Pherobank, they were sent back to  Bolivia for field trials and adjustments in  the formulation of the pheromone. These evaluations were performed in the  community of Chacala, municipality of  Uyuni, and in the Quipaquipani Center,  located in the department of La Paz.   Results and discussion    Pupae shipments for identification  and synthesis of specific pheromones   Several shipments of pupae to Pherobank  were performed. Pupae came from the  mass rearing of these species in the  Entomology Laboratory of PROINPA.  The samples were enclosed in plastic  containers, in batches of 20 to 40 properly  sexed pupae (Figure 5).   Synthesis of pheromones    In late April 2008, as a result of laboratory  work delivered by Pherobank in the  Netherlands, 17 protopheromones for the  Noctuidae complex were formulated  (Figure 6).   Based on the information generated in  field trials carried out by PROINPA’s  technical staff in the Bolivian Altiplano,  until June 2009 a pheromone for the  species H. quinoa was synthesized; and in  June 2013 another pheromone was  synthesized for C. incommoda.   Conclusions   •   H. quinoa and C. incommoda.  • are pheromones  H.   quinoa, key pest of the quinoa crop in  the Southern Altiplano; C.  incommoda, key pest of the quinoa  crop in the Central and Northern  Altiplano; and Agrotis peruviana,  considered a potential pest of the  quinoa crop in Bolivia.   Cited references   Cisneros, A. 1997. Lactonas en síntesis de   feromonas. Thesis for the degree of  Master of Science. Universidad    Autónoma de Nuevo León, Faculty of  Chemical Sciences. 106 p.  Choquehuanca M. 2011. Ciclo biológico de   Copitarsia incommoda Walker plaga del  cultivo de la quinua en condiciones de  laboratorio. Thesis for the degree of  Agricultural Engeneer, UMSA, Faculty of  Agronomy. La Paz, Bolivia.  Owen, J. 2013. Feromonas: Una herramienta   básica en IPM. IN: III Jornadas  internacionales sobre feromonas,  atrayentes, trampas y control biológico.  Murcia, España.  Pedigo, L. 1996. Entomology and Pest   Management. Second Edition. 1996.  Prentice-Hall Pub., Englewood Cliffs, NJ.  679 p.  Ramírez P. 1996. Las feromonas de insectos y   su aplicación en la agricultura. PALMAS,  Volume 17, No. 3.  Saravia R., Quispe, R. 2005. Manejo integrado   de las plagas insectiles del cultivo de la  quinua. In: Module 2: Manejo Agronómico  de la quinua orgánica. PROINPA  Foundation. pp. 53-86.   Problem description and  Project actions   Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) Is  one of the most important crops in  Bolivia, acreage extends up to 131,190  hectares and production reached 61,659  tons in 2013 The families involved in its  cultivation are around 45,000, from the  North, South and Central Altiplano  (PROINPA Foundation and AUTAPO  Foundation, 2005).| One of the factors that adversely affects  crop productivity is the incidence of a  variety of insect pests, such as the socalled  ticona (cutworm) complex composed of  several species of moths,  Copitarsia   incommoda, Helicoverpa quinoa, Agrotis  andina and the quinoa moth Eurysacca  quinoae  (PROINPA, 2010). These pests   in their larval state produce damage to the  crop, affecting grain quality and causing  production losses of up to 30%, which for  2013 correspond to 147.520.893.- USD  per annum (based on the price of 1,800 BS  / qq, prevailing at the Challapata market in  June 2014). To control these pests in organic  production systems, products registered  and accepted in organic regulations must  be used. However, there is limited supply  of these products to be able to use them in  an extensive scale. For that reason  PROINPA has developed a strategy for  the efficient management of pest control,  based on bio-registered products  approved for organic production. With the  purpose of expanding and disseminating  the strategy, PROINPA has partnered  with BIOTOP SRL, who coordinated  outreach activities with independent    producers, organic quinoa associations  and companies.   Methodology   The strategy proposed by PROINPA, for  integrated pest management (IPM) in  organic production has been implemented  quite successfully in over 20,000 hectares  in 2013. This strategy is based on  monitoring of adults and larvae,  preventive treatments, alternation of  products (active ingredients and modes of  action), timely applications and use of  adjuvant products. The integrated  management components are: a  Installation of pheromone traps (for   noctuidae): The installation of four traps  per hectare within the plot (with a distance  of at least 25 m between traps), helps  identify the first presence of adult insects  and the beginning of the oviposition  period. In areas where the population of  noctuidae is still low, the use of the four  traps/ha keeps larval populations at levels  that do not cause significant damage (≤5%  damage). a  Field Inspection: Regular inspection   visits should be made in at least four  stages of crop development: six true  leaves, beginning of panicle formation,  grain formation and milky grain. At each  inspection at least 10 plants per hectare  should be sampled at random. If the  presence of eggs and / or early stages of  larvae are observed in 20% of the  evaluated plants, preventive applications  are recommended. When larvae of more  advanced stages are observed or in case of  increased incidence, the application of  control treatments is recommended.   a  Application of preventive treatments:   the application of lime sulfur plus chili is  recommended because of its contact mode  of action which affects the central nervous  system of the insect, allowing good  control of eggs and of larvae in early  stages. Additionally, this product has a  repellent effect for adult insects,  protecting the crop for at least 15 days  from new pest oviposition phases. a Application of control treatments: a  control treatment at the beginning of  panicle formation is recommended.  During this phenological period  protection against these pests is very  important. Control treatments can be  made when insect monitoring detects  populations that justify applications.  Damage to the crop causes proliferation of  side branches resulting in handling  difficulties and lower performance. When  the presence of at least one larva per plant  is observed, the application of Spinosad ®  is recommended. Another moment of care is the growth  stage of milky grain, because it is the time  when the larvae begin to feed on the grain  in formation, and can cause significant  economic damage. At this point it is  important to perform field inspections.   For ticonas (cutworms), if five larvae per  panicle are observed in ten plants, and in  the case of moths, if five larvae are  observed per panicle; the application of  Spinosad ® is recommended.  Spinosad ®  is a natural high efficiency insecticide (>  93%) accepted in organic production,  whose mode of action is through contact  and ingestion, allowing an efficient larval  control and minimal effect on existing  beneficial insect fauna.   a Alternation of treatments: Following  IPM principles and in order to avoid the  emergence of resistant populations,  alternation of treatments is recommended;  ie alternating the application of natural  insecticides considering their active  ingredients and different modes of action,  avoiding more than two continuous  applications of the same product per crop  cycle. For example, lime sulfur and chili  extract can be alternated with Spinosad ®. a Using adjuvants: Because of the   presence of large amounts of oxalates in  the surfaces of leaves, stems and panicles  of quinoa, bio-adhesion is difficult.   Therefore, it is very important to apply a  bonding agent such as Agricultural  Vegetable Oil, which acts as a dispersing  agent, improves application coverage and  prevents the formation of large droplets.  Application of Agricultural Oil ensures  the efficiency of products.   Achievements   During the 2013-2014 crop year, the  alliance PROINPA and BIOTOP SRL,  has worked in partnership with various  producer associations and companies: In CADEQUIR, ANAPQUI,  CADEPQUIOR, SINDAN, Jacha Inti,  APQUISA, APQO Villa Florida,  APQO-Toledo, APQO-Keluyo, FDTA  Valles, IDEPRO, APROACH,  APROCAL, Andean Valley,  APROQUIROT, APROCOVES,  APROACAY,  APROQUIOS, and APRACCUK,  knowledge, attitudes and practices of  approximately 2,800 associates (men and  women) were strengthened. These   farmers were reached through capacity  building events delivered by technicians  and promoters, who personally spread the  Integrated Pest Management strategy for  organic quinoa production, reaching about  20,000 acres with this technology. The implementation of the strategy  reduced losses from 30% to 10% in the  20,000 acres that used Integrated Pest  Management. In economic terms, with  values of 1.800 Bs/qq (market price in  June 2014), this means, 14,618,275 USD  that producers have stopped losing, and  represent a benefit to the country through  improvement of crop productivity,  enhanced yield, better product quality and  environmental stewardship. On the other hand, in quinoa production  areas of the Bolivian Altiplano, a total of  70,926 units of pheromones for quinoa  cutworms (ticonas) have been sold,  covering more the 20,000 ha, representing  30% of the area cultivated with organic  quinoa. In the case of lime sulfur and chili  extract, in the past three crop years, a total  of 20,684 liters have been sold, covering  approximately 8300 hectares. In the case  of Spinosad®, in the past three crop years,  a total of 117,400 grams have been sold,  covering approximately 4000 hectares. Figure 1 shows the positive trend of the  use of products in the last three years,  particularly high for the case of lime  sulfur and higher for Spinosad.   Conclusions and  recommendations   • a of and ng   activities for technicians, promoters  and farmers, the quinoa pest  management strategy developed by    PROINPA and disseminated by  BIOTOP SRL, has been accepted by  organic quinoa producers, and in  several cases has been adjusted with  the implementation of local practices  and inputs. This situation can be  evidenced through sales data recorded  by BIOTOP SRL.  • initiative PROINPA   BIOTOP SRL has been well received,  especially by producer associations  and companies dedicated to the  production of organic quinoa. The  process has resulted in agreements,  higher volumes of bio-inputs sold and  supported by training for adequate use;  being all reflected in higher income for  farmers.  •   Integrated Management of insect pests  used for organic quinoa production in  20,000 hectares, allowed producers to  reduce losses in 14.618.275.- USD.  • task is larger   dissemination of the integrated  management strategy, in order for  most producers to have access to it and  to bio-inputs for application in organic  quinoa production. For example, many   farmers still use spraying backpacks,  resulting in an inefficient product  application and control.    The implementation of community   control campaigns should also be  considered, because if one farmer  controls and others don’t, efficiency is  lost and the damages continues. This  will depend on the coordinated efforts  of producers, associations, companies,  state institutions (municipalities,  governorates, etc.), organic certifiers  and other actors.    • development an   management strategy that responds to  organic production demands is a  continuous research work that should  be directed to the development of new,  more efficient bio-inputs (plant  extracts, etc.) permitted for organic  production and which can be easily  accessed in local markets.   Suggested references   Aroni, G., Saravia R. 2008. Evaluación de la   eficiencia de ecoplaguicidas en el control  de Noctuideos (ticonas y kcona kconas)  en  Chenopodium quinoa  Willd. In:   Informe del Proyecto Desarrollo de  Ecoplaguicidas para el Control de Plagas  Insectiles del Cultivo de la Quinua.  PROINPA Foundation.   Arragan, T. 2010. Nivel de daño económico de   la polilla de la quinua (Eurysacca  quinoae) en la localidad de Jalsuri –  Altiplano Central. Bachelor degree thesis,  Faculty of Agriculture, Universidad Mayor  de San Andrés. La Paz, Bolivia.  FAO. 1994. La quinua, cultivo milenario para   contribuir a la seguridad alimentaria.  Oficina Regional para América Latina y el  Caribe.  Fundación PROINPA, Fundación AUTAPO.   2005. Module 2: Manejo Agronómico de  la Quinua Orgánica. La Paz, Bolivia. 105  p.  Saravia, R. Bonifacio, A., Aduviri, J. 2010. La   identificación de enemigos de la quinua,  una tarea esencial en el MIP. In:  Compendio de Actividades, PROINPA  Foundation, 2010. pp. 27-29.      Revista de Agricultura, Nro. 54 - Julio de 2014   Area: Technology Development 65   Figure 1. Larvae fed with  quinoa leaves   Figure 2. Reproduction camera  Figure 3. Rearing with artificial diet   Particular emphasis should be placed on  the isolation of Bacillus thuringiensis  found as an endophyte, because after  being sprayed it can stay protected from  ultraviolet rays inside the plant, having a  longer residual effect as entomopathogen.   The species Bacillus cereus, an  entomopathogen of Coleoptera, was also  isolated from soil samples.  This species is  important for the development of  bioinsecticides that can contribute to the  management of this group of insect pests.   Conclusions   • show there a   significant number of bacteria  associated with quinoa plants, several  of which are beneficial species that  provide environmental services.   These bacteria have great  biotechnological and agroindustrial  potential for organic and sustainable  quinoa production.  • nitrogen-fixing 72   phosphorous solubilizing bacteria and  28 IAA generating strains were  detected. The fact that some species  are repeated does not necessarily mean  that they are the same strain. There are  isolates from the genera Azotobacter,  Pseudomonas, Rhizobium and  Flavobacterium that are free-living  and nitrogen fixers, a fact that still    needs to be studied.  •  Bacillus   subtilis, B. pumilus and B.  amiloliquefasciens and other  non-identified were detected in quinoa  grains.  •   Bacillus thuringiensis, for the control  of lepidopteran, is a resource that must  be evaluated given its potential for the  development of bioinsecticides for  organic pest management.  •  Bacillus cereus, as entomopathogen is   representative of strains that can be  used for the management of  Coleopteran pests not only for quinoa  production, but for other crops in the  Altiplano region.   Cited References   Altschul, S., Gish, W., Miller, W., Myers, E.,   Lipman, D. 1990. Basic local alignment  search tool. J. Mol. Biol. 215:403-410.  Bécquer, C., Lazarovits, G., Lalin, I. 2013.   Interacción in vitro entre Trichoderma  harzianum  y bacterias rizosféricas   estimuladoras del crecimiento vegetal.  Revista Cubana de Ciencia Agrícola.  Volume 47, Number 1  CIP. 2008. Protocolos de trabajo con bacterias   PGPR. Lima Perú. pp. 47-50.  Dion, P., Magallón, P. 2009. Manual de   microbiología agrícola “Importancia de   los microorganismos promotores de  crecimiento vegetal para los pequeños  productores de Bolivia. Université Laval.  Québec, Canada. 90:31-32.  Gordon, S., Weber, R. 1950. Colorimetric   estimation of indole acetic acid. Plant  Physiol. 26:192-195.  Hall, T. 1999. BioEdit: a user-friendly biological   sequence alignment editor and analysis  program for Windows 95/98/NT. Nucleic  Acids Symp. Ser. 41:95-98.  Harrison, M. 2005. Signaling in the arbuscular   mycorrhizal symbiosis. Ann. Rev.  Microbiol. 59:19-42.  Kubicek, C., Harman, G. 2002. Trichoderma &   Gliocladium. Basic Biology, Taxonomy  and Genetics. 1:1-271.  Krüger, M., Stockinger, H., Krüger C.,   Schüßler, A. 2009. DNA-based species-  level detection of arbuscular mycorrhizal  fungi: One PCR primer set for all AMF.  New Phytologist. 183:212-223  Lane, D. 1991. 16S/23S sequencing. In:   Nucleic Acid Techniques in Bacterial    Systematics (ed. Stackebrandt, E. &  Goodfellow, M.), Chichester: John Wiley  & Sons. pp. 115-175.  Muñoz-Rojas, J., Caballero-Mellado, J. 2003.   Population Dynamics Of  Gluconacetobacter diazotrophicus In:  Sugarcane Cultivars and Its Effect on  Plant Growth. Microbial Ecol.  46(4):454-464.  Reinhold-Hurek, B., Hurek, T. 1998. Trends   Microbiol. Apr; 6(4): 139-44. Review.  Erratum in: 6(5):202  Sanger, F., Nicklen, S., Coulson, A. 1977.   DNA sequencing with chain-terminating  inhibitors. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA.  74:5463–5467.  Sturz, A., Christie, B., Nowak, J. 2000.   Bacterial Endophytes: Potential Role in  Developing Sustainable Systems of Crop  Production Critical Reviews in Plant  Sciences Prince Edward Island. Canada.  19(1):1–30.   Introduction   Helicoverpa quinoa and Copitarsia  incommoda are key pests of the quinoa  crop in the Bolivian Altiplano, where the  largest volumes of this Andean grain are  produced for both domestic and export  markets. The larvae of these species along  with others that make up the Noctuidae  complex (Helicoverpa titicacae and  Dargida acanthus) cause considerable  losses, reaching up to 30% of yield per  year and an estimate of USD 60 million  for the year 2014. The type of damage  caused by these larvae depends largely on  the species, the phenological state of the  plant and the stage of the larvae. The  newly hatched larvae feed on the quinoa  plant inflorescence during its formation,  and when the larvae are larger they  behave as defoliators. During the phenological stages of  flowering and physiological maturity,  larvae cause significant damage by eating  the forming grain or by drilling the rachis  of the panicle, causing its collapse. The greatest damage from these  Noctuidea species are caused during grain  filling at the stage of milky ripening and  starchy ripening, when larvae begin to eat  the grains. Farmers fight them using light  traps and through the application of  eco-insecticides or chemical-pesticides,  depending on the destination of  production. Five years ago, to provide farmers with  organic easy to apply control alternatives,  PROINPA posed the synthesis and  development of sex pheromones. These  sex pheromones are chemical signals  emitted by females to attract males of the    same species. The artificially synthesized  pheromones are installed in traps, which  catch male insects, preventing the next  generation, thus reducing the pest  population. Currently sex pheromones of  different species are successfully used as a  component of Integrated Pest  Management (IPM). The objective of the work delivered was  to synthesize and develop sex pheromones  for  H. quinoa and  C. incommode, key   pests of the quinoa crop in the Bolivian  Altiplano. Life cycle of H. quinoa. According to  studies performed in the Quipaquipani  Center (Viachan, La Paz), the life cycle of  H. quinoa is very singular. Of a total of  400 larvae under observation in  conditions of 25°C temperature and 65%  relative humidity, 50% reported a lifespan  of 223 ± 36 days from egg to adult  (including adult longevity), 25%  remained in the pupal stage until the next  agricultural season, and 15 % died before  reaching adulthood. Life cycle of C. incommoda. According to  Choquehuanca (2011) The life cycle of C.   incommoda  reared in laboratory at 25°C   temperature and 65% relative humidity,  has a duration of 99.91 days including  adult longevity. The incubation period is  5.5 days, the duration of the larval stage is  29.04 days, prepupal status lasts 3.03 days  and pupal 16.3 days; adults live an  average of 19.85 days. Damages and losses caused by larvae  from the Noctuidae complex. Damages  caused by larvae from the Noctuidae  complex are multiple. Young larvae mine  the inflorescence during formation, in    more advanced stages larvae defoliate  plants, drill the stem at the base causing  the collapse of the panicle and, consume  the grains. Estimated losses due to the  attack of larvae from the Noctuidae  complex and of the quinoa moth are of  approximately 30% of yield (Saravia and  Quispe, 2005). Geographical distribution of H. quinoa  and C. incommoda. Studies on the  distribution of these species in the quinoa  producing regions have shown that H.  quinoa is the dominant species in the  Southern Altiplano Bolivia, and C.  incommoda is the dominant species in the  Central and Northern Altiplano. In these  regions the species H. titicacae and  Dargida acanthus can also be found but in  lower population densities. Pheromones.  They are secretions that   cause specific reactions in individuals of  the same species that perceive them  (Ramirez, 1996). Pedigo (1996) states that  sex pheromones are chemical signals  emitted by females to attract males of the  same species. Currently sex pheromones  of different species can be synthesized  and used for Integrated Pest Management  (IPM). Types of pheromones. There are several  types of pheromones, including sexual,  aggregation, tracking and alarm  pheromones (Owen, 2013). Advantages and disadvantages of  pheromones. Like any tool used for IPM,   pheromones have advantages and  disadvantages. The main advantages  attributed to them are: they are specific  and ensure the survival of natural  enemies; they are not toxic and do not    leave chemical residue on the crops, that  is to say it is an environmentally clean  technology. They are biodegradable and  environmentally friendly; they are easy to  install and operate. For all the above  mentioned benefits, pheromones are  accepted in organic production. The  identified disadvantages include the  following: only attract males, may be  affected by weather (winds) and do not  provide information on the direct damage  to the crop (Cisneros, 1997). Pheromone traps. Pheromones should be  used in traps. There are various types of  traps designed to increase the efficiency  of capture, that are currently offered by  companies that produce pheromones.  Traps are designed taking into account the  flight behavior of different species of  pests. To capture H. quinoa, the traps  tested were: drum type, basin type, cone  and several variants of the funnel, which  can operate with or without water. Of  these traps, the most widespread type in  quinoa producing areas of the Altiplano is  the dry funnel because it does not require  water to catch insects.   Materials and methods   Noctuidae rearing for pheromone  synthesis.  The synthesis of the sex   pheromone of H. quinoa and C.  incommoda, began in 2007 with the mass  rearing of these species and several  deliveries of pupae to the Pherobank  Company of the Netherlands. Noctuidae  rearing was implemented through a  protocol developed at PROINPA’s  Entomology Laboratory from March to  December 2007.  The protocol includes  the steps listed below:   Collection of larvae. Larvae of Noctuidae   were collected in quinoa plots, at different  times and in different locations of the  Southern and Central Altiplano. Larvae adaptation to laboratory   conditions. Larvae were separated   individually in medium size plastic  containers in order to prevent  cannibalism. These larvae were fed with  quinoa leaves until they pupated (Figure  1). Once they reached the pupal stage they  were disinfected and separated into  groups of ten, and placed in larger plastic  containers until eclosion.  Reproduction. The eclosioned adults were   installed in groups of 10-16 individuals, in  plastic bottles of 3800 cc volume, as  recommended by Quispe (2000). These  vials were used as reproduction cameras  and to obtain eggs (Figure 2). To facilitate  the laying of eggs, blotter strips were hung  on the side walls of the bottles.  Oviposition was verified, collection took  place through cutting lots of blotting  paper containing the eggs. These lots of  paper were later placed in medium size  containers for maturation, eclosion and  breeding of a new generation of larvae.   Rearing of the next generation. The new   generation of larvae was reared on an  artificial diet developed and adjusted in  the Entomology Laboratory of PROINPA,  through placing 30 neonate larvae per  container with diet (Figure 3).  After 10 days larvae were separated in  containers with diet, where they  concluded their larval stage and reached    the pupal stage. Subsequently pupae  were-harvested (Figure 4), disinfected  with a 10% concentration of sodium  hypochlorite, separated into groups of ten  individuals and placed in medium plastic  jars until adult emergence.  Pheromone synthesis. For the synthesis  of pheromones pupae of the species H.  quinoa and C. incommoda where sent to   Pherobank in the Netherlands where the  pheromone components of these species  were identified using the combined  method of Gas Chromatography (GC)  linked to Mass Spectrometry (MS) and  Electroantennography (EAG). Once protopheromones were developed  by Pherobank, they were sent back to  Bolivia for field trials and adjustments in  the formulation of the pheromone. These evaluations were performed in the  community of Chacala, municipality of  Uyuni, and in the Quipaquipani Center,  located in the department of La Paz.   Results and discussion    Pupae shipments for identification  and synthesis of specific pheromones   Several shipments of pupae to Pherobank  were performed. Pupae came from the  mass rearing of these species in the  Entomology Laboratory of PROINPA.  The samples were enclosed in plastic  containers, in batches of 20 to 40 properly  sexed pupae (Figure 5).   Synthesis of pheromones    In late April 2008, as a result of laboratory  work delivered by Pherobank in the  Netherlands, 17 protopheromones for the  Noctuidae complex were formulated  (Figure 6).   Based on the information generated in  field trials carried out by PROINPA’s  technical staff in the Bolivian Altiplano,  until June 2009 a pheromone for the  species H. quinoa was synthesized; and in  June 2013 another pheromone was  synthesized for C. incommoda.   Conclusions   •   H. quinoa and C. incommoda.  • are pheromones  H.   quinoa, key pest of the quinoa crop in  the Southern Altiplano; C.  incommoda, key pest of the quinoa  crop in the Central and Northern  Altiplano; and Agrotis peruviana,  considered a potential pest of the  quinoa crop in Bolivia.   Cited references   Cisneros, A. 1997. Lactonas en síntesis de   feromonas. Thesis for the degree of  Master of Science. Universidad    Autónoma de Nuevo León, Faculty of  Chemical Sciences. 106 p.  Choquehuanca M. 2011. Ciclo biológico de   Copitarsia incommoda Walker plaga del  cultivo de la quinua en condiciones de  laboratorio. Thesis for the degree of  Agricultural Engeneer, UMSA, Faculty of  Agronomy. La Paz, Bolivia.  Owen, J. 2013. Feromonas: Una herramienta   básica en IPM. IN: III Jornadas  internacionales sobre feromonas,  atrayentes, trampas y control biológico.  Murcia, España.  Pedigo, L. 1996. Entomology and Pest   Management. Second Edition. 1996.  Prentice-Hall Pub., Englewood Cliffs, NJ.  679 p.  Ramírez P. 1996. Las feromonas de insectos y   su aplicación en la agricultura. PALMAS,  Volume 17, No. 3.  Saravia R., Quispe, R. 2005. Manejo integrado   de las plagas insectiles del cultivo de la  quinua. In: Module 2: Manejo Agronómico  de la quinua orgánica. PROINPA  Foundation. pp. 53-86.   Problem description and  Project actions   Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) Is  one of the most important crops in  Bolivia, acreage extends up to 131,190  hectares and production reached 61,659  tons in 2013 The families involved in its  cultivation are around 45,000, from the  North, South and Central Altiplano  (PROINPA Foundation and AUTAPO  Foundation, 2005).| One of the factors that adversely affects  crop productivity is the incidence of a  variety of insect pests, such as the socalled  ticona (cutworm) complex composed of  several species of moths,  Copitarsia   incommoda, Helicoverpa quinoa, Agrotis  andina and the quinoa moth Eurysacca  quinoae  (PROINPA, 2010). These pests   in their larval state produce damage to the  crop, affecting grain quality and causing  production losses of up to 30%, which for  2013 correspond to 147.520.893.- USD  per annum (based on the price of 1,800 BS  / qq, prevailing at the Challapata market in  June 2014). To control these pests in organic  production systems, products registered  and accepted in organic regulations must  be used. However, there is limited supply  of these products to be able to use them in  an extensive scale. For that reason  PROINPA has developed a strategy for  the efficient management of pest control,  based on bio-registered products  approved for organic production. With the  purpose of expanding and disseminating  the strategy, PROINPA has partnered  with BIOTOP SRL, who coordinated  outreach activities with independent    producers, organic quinoa associations  and companies.   Methodology   The strategy proposed by PROINPA, for  integrated pest management (IPM) in  organic production has been implemented  quite successfully in over 20,000 hectares  in 2013. This strategy is based on  monitoring of adults and larvae,  preventive treatments, alternation of  products (active ingredients and modes of  action), timely applications and use of  adjuvant products. The integrated  management components are: a  Installation of pheromone traps (for   noctuidae): The installation of four traps  per hectare within the plot (with a distance  of at least 25 m between traps), helps  identify the first presence of adult insects  and the beginning of the oviposition  period. In areas where the population of  noctuidae is still low, the use of the four  traps/ha keeps larval populations at levels  that do not cause significant damage (≤5%  damage). a  Field Inspection: Regular inspection   visits should be made in at least four  stages of crop development: six true  leaves, beginning of panicle formation,  grain formation and milky grain. At each  inspection at least 10 plants per hectare  should be sampled at random. If the  presence of eggs and / or early stages of  larvae are observed in 20% of the  evaluated plants, preventive applications  are recommended. When larvae of more  advanced stages are observed or in case of  increased incidence, the application of  control treatments is recommended.   a  Application of preventive treatments:   the application of lime sulfur plus chili is  recommended because of its contact mode  of action which affects the central nervous  system of the insect, allowing good  control of eggs and of larvae in early  stages. Additionally, this product has a  repellent effect for adult insects,  protecting the crop for at least 15 days  from new pest oviposition phases. a Application of control treatments: a  control treatment at the beginning of  panicle formation is recommended.  During this phenological period  protection against these pests is very  important. Control treatments can be  made when insect monitoring detects  populations that justify applications.  Damage to the crop causes proliferation of  side branches resulting in handling  difficulties and lower performance. When  the presence of at least one larva per plant  is observed, the application of Spinosad ®  is recommended. Another moment of care is the growth  stage of milky grain, because it is the time  when the larvae begin to feed on the grain  in formation, and can cause significant  economic damage. At this point it is  important to perform field inspections.   For ticonas (cutworms), if five larvae per  panicle are observed in ten plants, and in  the case of moths, if five larvae are  observed per panicle; the application of  Spinosad ® is recommended.  Spinosad ®  is a natural high efficiency insecticide (>  93%) accepted in organic production,  whose mode of action is through contact  and ingestion, allowing an efficient larval  control and minimal effect on existing  beneficial insect fauna.   a Alternation of treatments: Following  IPM principles and in order to avoid the  emergence of resistant populations,  alternation of treatments is recommended;  ie alternating the application of natural  insecticides considering their active  ingredients and different modes of action,  avoiding more than two continuous  applications of the same product per crop  cycle. For example, lime sulfur and chili  extract can be alternated with Spinosad ®. a Using adjuvants: Because of the   presence of large amounts of oxalates in  the surfaces of leaves, stems and panicles  of quinoa, bio-adhesion is difficult.   Therefore, it is very important to apply a  bonding agent such as Agricultural  Vegetable Oil, which acts as a dispersing  agent, improves application coverage and  prevents the formation of large droplets.  Application of Agricultural Oil ensures  the efficiency of products.   Achievements   During the 2013-2014 crop year, the  alliance PROINPA and BIOTOP SRL,  has worked in partnership with various  producer associations and companies: In CADEQUIR, ANAPQUI,  CADEPQUIOR, SINDAN, Jacha Inti,  APQUISA, APQO Villa Florida,  APQO-Toledo, APQO-Keluyo, FDTA  Valles, IDEPRO, APROACH,  APROCAL, Andean Valley,  APROQUIROT, APROCOVES,  APROACAY,  APROQUIOS, and APRACCUK,  knowledge, attitudes and practices of  approximately 2,800 associates (men and  women) were strengthened. These   farmers were reached through capacity  building events delivered by technicians  and promoters, who personally spread the  Integrated Pest Management strategy for  organic quinoa production, reaching about  20,000 acres with this technology. The implementation of the strategy  reduced losses from 30% to 10% in the  20,000 acres that used Integrated Pest  Management. In economic terms, with  values of 1.800 Bs/qq (market price in  June 2014), this means, 14,618,275 USD  that producers have stopped losing, and  represent a benefit to the country through  improvement of crop productivity,  enhanced yield, better product quality and  environmental stewardship. On the other hand, in quinoa production  areas of the Bolivian Altiplano, a total of  70,926 units of pheromones for quinoa  cutworms (ticonas) have been sold,  covering more the 20,000 ha, representing  30% of the area cultivated with organic  quinoa. In the case of lime sulfur and chili  extract, in the past three crop years, a total  of 20,684 liters have been sold, covering  approximately 8300 hectares. In the case  of Spinosad®, in the past three crop years,  a total of 117,400 grams have been sold,  covering approximately 4000 hectares. Figure 1 shows the positive trend of the  use of products in the last three years,  particularly high for the case of lime  sulfur and higher for Spinosad.   Conclusions and  recommendations   • a of and ng   activities for technicians, promoters  and farmers, the quinoa pest  management strategy developed by    PROINPA and disseminated by  BIOTOP SRL, has been accepted by  organic quinoa producers, and in  several cases has been adjusted with  the implementation of local practices  and inputs. This situation can be  evidenced through sales data recorded  by BIOTOP SRL.  • initiative PROINPA   BIOTOP SRL has been well received,  especially by producer associations  and companies dedicated to the  production of organic quinoa. The  process has resulted in agreements,  higher volumes of bio-inputs sold and  supported by training for adequate use;  being all reflected in higher income for  farmers.  •   Integrated Management of insect pests  used for organic quinoa production in  20,000 hectares, allowed producers to  reduce losses in 14.618.275.- USD.  • task is larger   dissemination of the integrated  management strategy, in order for  most producers to have access to it and  to bio-inputs for application in organic  quinoa production. For example, many  farmers still use spraying backpacks,  resulting in an inefficient product  application and control.    The implementation of community   control campaigns should also be  considered, because if one farmer  controls and others don’t, efficiency is  lost and the damages continues. This  will depend on the coordinated efforts  of producers, associations, companies,  state institutions (municipalities,  governorates, etc.), organic certifiers  and other actors.    • development an   management strategy that responds to  organic production demands is a  continuous research work that should  be directed to the development of new,  more efficient bio-inputs (plant  extracts, etc.) permitted for organic  production and which can be easily  accessed in local markets.   Suggested references   Aroni, G., Saravia R. 2008. Evaluación de la   eficiencia de ecoplaguicidas en el control  de Noctuideos (ticonas y kcona kconas)  en  Chenopodium quinoa  Willd. In:   Informe del Proyecto Desarrollo de  Ecoplaguicidas para el Control de Plagas  Insectiles del Cultivo de la Quinua.  PROINPA Foundation.   Arragan, T. 2010. Nivel de daño económico de   la polilla de la quinua (Eurysacca  quinoae) en la localidad de Jalsuri –  Altiplano Central. Bachelor degree thesis,  Faculty of Agriculture, Universidad Mayor  de San Andrés. La Paz, Bolivia.   FAO. 1994. La quinua, cultivo milenario para   contribuir a la seguridad alimentaria.  Oficina Regional para América Latina y el  Caribe.  Fundación PROINPA, Fundación AUTAPO.   2005. Module 2: Manejo Agronómico de  la Quinua Orgánica. La Paz, Bolivia. 105  p.  Saravia, R. Bonifacio, A., Aduviri, J. 2010. La   identificación de enemigos de la quinua,  una tarea esencial en el MIP. In:  Compendio de Actividades, PROINPA  Foundation, 2010. pp. 27-29.      ISSN 1998 - 9652   Area: Technology Development 66   Figure 4. Pupae harvest     Figure 5. Shipping of pupae   in plastic containers  Figure 6. Protopheromones sent  by Pherobank for field evaluations   Particular emphasis should be placed on  the isolation of Bacillus thuringiensis  found as an endophyte, because after  being sprayed it can stay protected from  ultraviolet rays inside the plant, having a  longer residual effect as entomopathogen.   The species Bacillus cereus, an  entomopathogen of Coleoptera, was also  isolated from soil samples.  This species is  important for the development of  bioinsecticides that can contribute to the  management of this group of insect pests.   Conclusions   • show there a   significant number of bacteria  associated with quinoa plants, several  of which are beneficial species that  provide environmental services.   These bacteria have great  biotechnological and agroindustrial  potential for organic and sustainable  quinoa production.  • nitrogen-fixing 72   phosphorous solubilizing bacteria and  28 IAA generating strains were  detected. The fact that some species  are repeated does not necessarily mean  that they are the same strain. There are  isolates from the genera Azotobacter,  Pseudomonas, Rhizobium and  Flavobacterium that are free-living  and nitrogen fixers, a fact that still    needs to be studied.  •  Bacillus   subtilis, B. pumilus and B.  amiloliquefasciens and other  non-identified were detected in quinoa  grains.  •   Bacillus thuringiensis, for the control  of lepidopteran, is a resource that must  be evaluated given its potential for the  development of bioinsecticides for  organic pest management.  •  Bacillus cereus, as entomopathogen is   representative of strains that can be  used for the management of  Coleopteran pests not only for quinoa  production, but for other crops in the  Altiplano region.   Cited References   Altschul, S., Gish, W., Miller, W., Myers, E.,   Lipman, D. 1990. Basic local alignment  search tool. J. Mol. Biol. 215:403-410.  Bécquer, C., Lazarovits, G., Lalin, I. 2013.   Interacción in vitro entre Trichoderma  harzianum  y bacterias rizosféricas   estimuladoras del crecimiento vegetal.  Revista Cubana de Ciencia Agrícola.  Volume 47, Number 1  CIP. 2008. Protocolos de trabajo con bacterias   PGPR. Lima Perú. pp. 47-50.  Dion, P., Magallón, P. 2009. Manual de   microbiología agrícola “Importancia de   los microorganismos promotores de  crecimiento vegetal para los pequeños  productores de Bolivia. Université Laval.  Québec, Canada. 90:31-32.  Gordon, S., Weber, R. 1950. Colorimetric   estimation of indole acetic acid. Plant  Physiol. 26:192-195.  Hall, T. 1999. BioEdit: a user-friendly biological   sequence alignment editor and analysis  program for Windows 95/98/NT. Nucleic  Acids Symp. Ser. 41:95-98.  Harrison, M. 2005. Signaling in the arbuscular   mycorrhizal symbiosis. Ann. Rev.  Microbiol. 59:19-42.  Kubicek, C., Harman, G. 2002. Trichoderma &   Gliocladium. Basic Biology, Taxonomy  and Genetics. 1:1-271.  Krüger, M., Stockinger, H., Krüger C.,   Schüßler, A. 2009. DNA-based species-  level detection of arbuscular mycorrhizal  fungi: One PCR primer set for all AMF.  New Phytologist. 183:212-223  Lane, D. 1991. 16S/23S sequencing. In:   Nucleic Acid Techniques in Bacterial    Systematics (ed. Stackebrandt, E. &  Goodfellow, M.), Chichester: John Wiley  & Sons. pp. 115-175.  Muñoz-Rojas, J., Caballero-Mellado, J. 2003.   Population Dynamics Of  Gluconacetobacter diazotrophicus In:  Sugarcane Cultivars and Its Effect on  Plant Growth. Microbial Ecol.  46(4):454-464.  Reinhold-Hurek, B., Hurek, T. 1998. Trends   Microbiol. Apr; 6(4): 139-44. Review.  Erratum in: 6(5):202  Sanger, F., Nicklen, S., Coulson, A. 1977.   DNA sequencing with chain-terminating  inhibitors. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA.  74:5463–5467.  Sturz, A., Christie, B., Nowak, J. 2000.   Bacterial Endophytes: Potential Role in  Developing Sustainable Systems of Crop  Production Critical Reviews in Plant  Sciences Prince Edward Island. Canada.  19(1):1–30.   Introduction   Helicoverpa quinoa and Copitarsia  incommoda are key pests of the quinoa  crop in the Bolivian Altiplano, where the  largest volumes of this Andean grain are  produced for both domestic and export  markets. The larvae of these species along  with others that make up the Noctuidae  complex (Helicoverpa titicacae and  Dargida acanthus) cause considerable  losses, reaching up to 30% of yield per  year and an estimate of USD 60 million  for the year 2014. The type of damage  caused by these larvae depends largely on  the species, the phenological state of the  plant and the stage of the larvae. The  newly hatched larvae feed on the quinoa  plant inflorescence during its formation,  and when the larvae are larger they  behave as defoliators. During the phenological stages of  flowering and physiological maturity,  larvae cause significant damage by eating  the forming grain or by drilling the rachis  of the panicle, causing its collapse. The greatest damage from these  Noctuidea species are caused during grain  filling at the stage of milky ripening and  starchy ripening, when larvae begin to eat  the grains. Farmers fight them using light  traps and through the application of  eco-insecticides or chemical-pesticides,  depending on the destination of  production. Five years ago, to provide farmers with  organic easy to apply control alternatives,  PROINPA posed the synthesis and  development of sex pheromones. These  sex pheromones are chemical signals  emitted by females to attract males of the    same species. The artificially synthesized  pheromones are installed in traps, which  catch male insects, preventing the next  generation, thus reducing the pest  population. Currently sex pheromones of  different species are successfully used as a  component of Integrated Pest  Management (IPM). The objective of the work delivered was  to synthesize and develop sex pheromones  for  H. quinoa and  C. incommode, key   pests of the quinoa crop in the Bolivian  Altiplano. Life cycle of H. quinoa. According to  studies performed in the Quipaquipani  Center (Viachan, La Paz), the life cycle of  H. quinoa is very singular. Of a total of  400 larvae under observation in  conditions of 25°C temperature and 65%  relative humidity, 50% reported a lifespan  of 223 ± 36 days from egg to adult  (including adult longevity), 25%  remained in the pupal stage until the next  agricultural season, and 15 % died before  reaching adulthood. Life cycle of C. incommoda. According to  Choquehuanca (2011) The life cycle of C.   incommoda  reared in laboratory at 25°C   temperature and 65% relative humidity,  has a duration of 99.91 days including  adult longevity. The incubation period is  5.5 days, the duration of the larval stage is  29.04 days, prepupal status lasts 3.03 days  and pupal 16.3 days; adults live an  average of 19.85 days. Damages and losses caused by larvae  from the Noctuidae complex. Damages  caused by larvae from the Noctuidae  complex are multiple. Young larvae mine  the inflorescence during formation, in    more advanced stages larvae defoliate  plants, drill the stem at the base causing  the collapse of the panicle and, consume  the grains. Estimated losses due to the  attack of larvae from the Noctuidae  complex and of the quinoa moth are of  approximately 30% of yield (Saravia and  Quispe, 2005). Geographical distribution of H. quinoa  and C. incommoda. Studies on the  distribution of these species in the quinoa  producing regions have shown that H.  quinoa is the dominant species in the  Southern Altiplano Bolivia, and C.  incommoda is the dominant species in the  Central and Northern Altiplano. In these  regions the species H. titicacae and  Dargida acanthus can also be found but in  lower population densities. Pheromones.  They are secretions that   cause specific reactions in individuals of  the same species that perceive them  (Ramirez, 1996). Pedigo (1996) states that  sex pheromones are chemical signals  emitted by females to attract males of the  same species. Currently sex pheromones  of different species can be synthesized  and used for Integrated Pest Management  (IPM). Types of pheromones. There are several  types of pheromones, including sexual,  aggregation, tracking and alarm  pheromones (Owen, 2013). Advantages and disadvantages of  pheromones. Like any tool used for IPM,   pheromones have advantages and  disadvantages. The main advantages  attributed to them are: they are specific  and ensure the survival of natural  enemies; they are not toxic and do not    leave chemical residue on the crops, that  is to say it is an environmentally clean  technology. They are biodegradable and  environmentally friendly; they are easy to  install and operate. For all the above  mentioned benefits, pheromones are  accepted in organic production. The  identified disadvantages include the  following: only attract males, may be  affected by weather (winds) and do not  provide information on the direct damage  to the crop (Cisneros, 1997). Pheromone traps. Pheromones should be  used in traps. There are various types of  traps designed to increase the efficiency  of capture, that are currently offered by  companies that produce pheromones.  Traps are designed taking into account the  flight behavior of different species of  pests. To capture H. quinoa, the traps  tested were: drum type, basin type, cone  and several variants of the funnel, which  can operate with or without water. Of  these traps, the most widespread type in  quinoa producing areas of the Altiplano is  the dry funnel because it does not require  water to catch insects.   Materials and methods   Noctuidae rearing for pheromone  synthesis.  The synthesis of the sex   pheromone of H. quinoa and C.  incommoda, began in 2007 with the mass  rearing of these species and several  deliveries of pupae to the Pherobank  Company of the Netherlands. Noctuidae  rearing was implemented through a  protocol developed at PROINPA’s  Entomology Laboratory from March to  December 2007.  The protocol includes  the steps listed below:   Collection of larvae. Larvae of Noctuidae  were collected in quinoa plots, at different  times and in different locations of the  Southern and Central Altiplano. Larvae adaptation to laboratory  conditions. Larvae were separated  individually in medium size plastic  containers in order to prevent  cannibalism. These larvae were fed with  quinoa leaves until they pupated (Figure  1). Once they reached the pupal stage they  were disinfected and separated into  groups of ten, and placed in larger plastic  containers until eclosion.  Reproduction. The eclosioned adults were   installed in groups of 10-16 individuals, in  plastic bottles of 3800 cc volume, as  recommended by Quispe (2000). These  vials were used as reproduction cameras  and to obtain eggs (Figure 2). To facilitate  the laying of eggs, blotter strips were hung  on the side walls of the bottles.  Oviposition was verified, collection took  place through cutting lots of blotting  paper containing the eggs. These lots of  paper were later placed in medium size  containers for maturation, eclosion and  breeding of a new generation of larvae.   Rearing of the next generation. The new  generation of larvae was reared on an  artificial diet developed and adjusted in  the Entomology Laboratory of PROINPA,  through placing 30 neonate larvae per  container with diet (Figure 3).  After 10 days larvae were separated in  containers with diet, where they  concluded their larval stage and reached    the pupal stage. Subsequently pupae  were-harvested (Figure 4), disinfected  with a 10% concentration of sodium  hypochlorite, separated into groups of ten  individuals and placed in medium plastic  jars until adult emergence.  Pheromone synthesis. For the synthesis  of pheromones pupae of the species H.  quinoa and C. incommoda where sent to   Pherobank in the Netherlands where the  pheromone components of these species  were identified using the combined  method of Gas Chromatography (GC)  linked to Mass Spectrometry (MS) and  Electroantennography (EAG). Once protopheromones were developed  by Pherobank, they were sent back to  Bolivia for field trials and adjustments in  the formulation of the pheromone. These evaluations were performed in the  community of Chacala, municipality of  Uyuni, and in the Quipaquipani Center,  located in the department of La Paz.   Results and discussion    Pupae shipments for identification  and synthesis of specific pheromones   Several shipments of pupae to Pherobank  were performed. Pupae came from the  mass rearing of these species in the  Entomology Laboratory of PROINPA.  The samples were enclosed in plastic  containers, in batches of 20 to 40 properly  sexed pupae (Figure 5).   Synthesis of pheromones    In late April 2008, as a result of laboratory  work delivered by Pherobank in the  Netherlands, 17 protopheromones for the  Noctuidae complex were formulated  (Figure 6).   Based on the information generated in  field trials carried out by PROINPA’s  technical staff in the Bolivian Altiplano,  until June 2009 a pheromone for the  species H. quinoa was synthesized; and in  June 2013 another pheromone was  synthesized for C. incommoda.   Conclusions   •   H. quinoa and C. incommoda.  • are pheromones  H.   quinoa, key pest of the quinoa crop in  the Southern Altiplano; C.  incommoda, key pest of the quinoa  crop in the Central and Northern  Altiplano; and Agrotis peruviana,  considered a potential pest of the  quinoa crop in Bolivia.   Cited references   Cisneros, A. 1997. Lactonas en síntesis de   feromonas. Thesis for the degree of  Master of Science. Universidad    Autónoma de Nuevo León, Faculty of  Chemical Sciences. 106 p.  Choquehuanca M. 2011. Ciclo biológico de   Copitarsia incommoda Walker plaga del  cultivo de la quinua en condiciones de  laboratorio. Thesis for the degree of  Agricultural Engeneer, UMSA, Faculty of  Agronomy. La Paz, Bolivia.  Owen, J. 2013. Feromonas: Una herramienta   básica en IPM. IN: III Jornadas  internacionales sobre feromonas,  atrayentes, trampas y control biológico.  Murcia, España.  Pedigo, L. 1996. Entomology and Pest   Management. Second Edition. 1996.  Prentice-Hall Pub., Englewood Cliffs, NJ.  679 p.  Ramírez P. 1996. Las feromonas de insectos y   su aplicación en la agricultura. PALMAS,  Volume 17, No. 3.  Saravia R., Quispe, R. 2005. Manejo integrado   de las plagas insectiles del cultivo de la  quinua. In: Module 2: Manejo Agronómico  de la quinua orgánica. PROINPA  Foundation. pp. 53-86.   Problem description and  Project actions   Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) Is  one of the most important crops in  Bolivia, acreage extends up to 131,190  hectares and production reached 61,659  tons in 2013 The families involved in its  cultivation are around 45,000, from the  North, South and Central Altiplano  (PROINPA Foundation and AUTAPO  Foundation, 2005).| One of the factors that adversely affects  crop productivity is the incidence of a  variety of insect pests, such as the socalled  ticona (cutworm) complex composed of  several species of moths,  Copitarsia   incommoda, Helicoverpa quinoa, Agrotis  andina and the quinoa moth Eurysacca  quinoae  (PROINPA, 2010). These pests   in their larval state produce damage to the  crop, affecting grain quality and causing  production losses of up to 30%, which for  2013 correspond to 147.520.893.- USD  per annum (based on the price of 1,800 BS  / qq, prevailing at the Challapata market in  June 2014). To control these pests in organic  production systems, products registered  and accepted in organic regulations must  be used. However, there is limited supply  of these products to be able to use them in  an extensive scale. For that reason  PROINPA has developed a strategy for  the efficient management of pest control,  based on bio-registered products  approved for organic production. With the  purpose of expanding and disseminating  the strategy, PROINPA has partnered  with BIOTOP SRL, who coordinated  outreach activities with independent    producers, organic quinoa associations  and companies.   Methodology   The strategy proposed by PROINPA, for  integrated pest management (IPM) in  organic production has been implemented  quite successfully in over 20,000 hectares  in 2013. This strategy is based on  monitoring of adults and larvae,  preventive treatments, alternation of  products (active ingredients and modes of  action), timely applications and use of  adjuvant products. The integrated  management components are: a  Installation of pheromone traps (for   noctuidae): The installation of four traps  per hectare within the plot (with a distance  of at least 25 m between traps), helps  identify the first presence of adult insects  and the beginning of the oviposition  period. In areas where the population of  noctuidae is still low, the use of the four  traps/ha keeps larval populations at levels  that do not cause significant damage (≤5%  damage). a  Field Inspection: Regular inspection   visits should be made in at least four  stages of crop development: six true  leaves, beginning of panicle formation,  grain formation and milky grain. At each  inspection at least 10 plants per hectare  should be sampled at random. If the  presence of eggs and / or early stages of  larvae are observed in 20% of the  evaluated plants, preventive applications  are recommended. When larvae of more  advanced stages are observed or in case of  increased incidence, the application of  control treatments is recommended.   a  Application of preventive treatments:   the application of lime sulfur plus chili is  recommended because of its contact mode  of action which affects the central nervous  system of the insect, allowing good  control of eggs and of larvae in early  stages. Additionally, this product has a  repellent effect for adult insects,  protecting the crop for at least 15 days  from new pest oviposition phases. a Application of control treatments: a  control treatment at the beginning of  panicle formation is recommended.  During this phenological period  protection against these pests is very  important. Control treatments can be  made when insect monitoring detects  populations that justify applications.  Damage to the crop causes proliferation of  side branches resulting in handling  difficulties and lower performance. When  the presence of at least one larva per plant  is observed, the application of Spinosad ®  is recommended. Another moment of care is the growth  stage of milky grain, because it is the time  when the larvae begin to feed on the grain  in formation, and can cause significant  economic damage. At this point it is  important to perform field inspections.   For ticonas (cutworms), if five larvae per  panicle are observed in ten plants, and in  the case of moths, if five larvae are  observed per panicle; the application of  Spinosad ® is recommended.  Spinosad ®  is a natural high efficiency insecticide (>  93%) accepted in organic production,  whose mode of action is through contact  and ingestion, allowing an efficient larval  control and minimal effect on existing  beneficial insect fauna.   a Alternation of treatments: Following  IPM principles and in order to avoid the  emergence of resistant populations,  alternation of treatments is recommended;  ie alternating the application of natural  insecticides considering their active  ingredients and different modes of action,  avoiding more than two continuous  applications of the same product per crop  cycle. For example, lime sulfur and chili  extract can be alternated with Spinosad ®. a Using adjuvants: Because of the   presence of large amounts of oxalates in  the surfaces of leaves, stems and panicles  of quinoa, bio-adhesion is difficult.   Therefore, it is very important to apply a  bonding agent such as Agricultural  Vegetable Oil, which acts as a dispersing  agent, improves application coverage and  prevents the formation of large droplets.  Application of Agricultural Oil ensures  the efficiency of products.   Achievements   During the 2013-2014 crop year, the  alliance PROINPA and BIOTOP SRL,  has worked in partnership with various  producer associations and companies: In CADEQUIR, ANAPQUI,  CADEPQUIOR, SINDAN, Jacha Inti,  APQUISA, APQO Villa Florida,  APQO-Toledo, APQO-Keluyo, FDTA  Valles, IDEPRO, APROACH,  APROCAL, Andean Valley,  APROQUIROT, APROCOVES,  APROACAY,  APROQUIOS, and APRACCUK,  knowledge, attitudes and practices of  approximately 2,800 associates (men and  women) were strengthened. These   farmers were reached through capacity  building events delivered by technicians  and promoters, who personally spread the  Integrated Pest Management strategy for  organic quinoa production, reaching about  20,000 acres with this technology. The implementation of the strategy  reduced losses from 30% to 10% in the  20,000 acres that used Integrated Pest  Management. In economic terms, with  values of 1.800 Bs/qq (market price in  June 2014), this means, 14,618,275 USD  that producers have stopped losing, and  represent a benefit to the country through  improvement of crop productivity,  enhanced yield, better product quality and  environmental stewardship. On the other hand, in quinoa production  areas of the Bolivian Altiplano, a total of  70,926 units of pheromones for quinoa  cutworms (ticonas) have been sold,  covering more the 20,000 ha, representing  30% of the area cultivated with organic  quinoa. In the case of lime sulfur and chili  extract, in the past three crop years, a total  of 20,684 liters have been sold, covering  approximately 8300 hectares. In the case  of Spinosad®, in the past three crop years,  a total of 117,400 grams have been sold,  covering approximately 4000 hectares. Figure 1 shows the positive trend of the  use of products in the last three years,  particularly high for the case of lime  sulfur and higher for Spinosad.   Conclusions and  recommendations   • a of and ng   activities for technicians, promoters  and farmers, the quinoa pest  management strategy developed by    PROINPA and disseminated by  BIOTOP SRL, has been accepted by  organic quinoa producers, and in  several cases has been adjusted with  the implementation of local practices  and inputs. This situation can be  evidenced through sales data recorded  by BIOTOP SRL.  • initiative PROINPA   BIOTOP SRL has been well received,  especially by producer associations  and companies dedicated to the  production of organic quinoa. The  process has resulted in agreements,  higher volumes of bio-inputs sold and  supported by training for adequate use;  being all reflected in higher income for  farmers.  •   Integrated Management of insect pests  used for organic quinoa production in  20,000 hectares, allowed producers to  reduce losses in 14.618.275.- USD.  • task is larger   dissemination of the integrated  management strategy, in order for  most producers to have access to it and  to bio-inputs for application in organic  quinoa production. For example, many  farmers still use spraying backpacks,  resulting in an inefficient product  application and control.    The implementation of community   control campaigns should also be  considered, because if one farmer  controls and others don’t, efficiency is  lost and the damages continues. This  will depend on the coordinated efforts  of producers, associations, companies,  state institutions (municipalities,  governorates, etc.), organic certifiers  and other actors.    • development an   management strategy that responds to  organic production demands is a  continuous research work that should  be directed to the development of new,  more efficient bio-inputs (plant  extracts, etc.) permitted for organic  production and which can be easily  accessed in local markets.   Suggested references   Aroni, G., Saravia R. 2008. Evaluación de la   eficiencia de ecoplaguicidas en el control  de Noctuideos (ticonas y kcona kconas)  en  Chenopodium quinoa  Willd. In:   Informe del Proyecto Desarrollo de  Ecoplaguicidas para el Control de Plagas  Insectiles del Cultivo de la Quinua.  PROINPA Foundation.   Arragan, T. 2010. Nivel de daño económico de   la polilla de la quinua (Eurysacca  quinoae) en la localidad de Jalsuri –  Altiplano Central. Bachelor degree thesis,  Faculty of Agriculture, Universidad Mayor  de San Andrés. La Paz, Bolivia.  FAO. 1994. La quinua, cultivo milenario para   contribuir a la seguridad alimentaria.  Oficina Regional para América Latina y el  Caribe.  Fundación PROINPA, Fundación AUTAPO.   2005. Module 2: Manejo Agronómico de  la Quinua Orgánica. La Paz, Bolivia. 105  p.  Saravia, R. Bonifacio, A., Aduviri, J. 2010. La   identificación de enemigos de la quinua,  una tarea esencial en el MIP. In:  Compendio de Actividades, PROINPA  Foundation, 2010. pp. 27-29.      Revista de Agricultura, Nro. 54 - Julio de 2014   Area: Technology Development 67   Article received on June 11 2014 – Article accepted on June 18, 2014   Particular emphasis should be placed on  the isolation of Bacillus thuringiensis  found as an endophyte, because after  being sprayed it can stay protected from  ultraviolet rays inside the plant, having a  longer residual effect as entomopathogen.   The species Bacillus cereus, an  entomopathogen of Coleoptera, was also  isolated from soil samples.  This species is  important for the development of  bioinsecticides that can contribute to the  management of this group of insect pests.   Conclusions   • show there a   significant number of bacteria  associated with quinoa plants, several  of which are beneficial species that  provide environmental services.   These bacteria have great  biotechnological and agroindustrial  potential for organic and sustainable  quinoa production.  • nitrogen-fixing 72   phosphorous solubilizing bacteria and  28 IAA generating strains were  detected. The fact that some species  are repeated does not necessarily mean  that they are the same strain. There are  isolates from the genera Azotobacter,  Pseudomonas, Rhizobium and  Flavobacterium that are free-living  and nitrogen fixers, a fact that still    needs to be studied.  •  Bacillus   subtilis, B. pumilus and B.  amiloliquefasciens and other  non-identified were detected in quinoa  grains.  •   Bacillus thuringiensis, for the control  of lepidopteran, is a resource that must  be evaluated given its potential for the  development of bioinsecticides for  organic pest management.  •  Bacillus cereus, as entomopathogen is   representative of strains that can be  used for the management of  Coleopteran pests not only for quinoa  production, but for other crops in the  Altiplano region.   Cited References   Altschul, S., Gish, W., Miller, W., Myers, E.,   Lipman, D. 1990. Basic local alignment  search tool. J. Mol. Biol. 215:403-410.  Bécquer, C., Lazarovits, G., Lalin, I. 2013.   Interacción in vitro entre Trichoderma  harzianum  y bacterias rizosféricas   estimuladoras del crecimiento vegetal.  Revista Cubana de Ciencia Agrícola.  Volume 47, Number 1  CIP. 2008. Protocolos de trabajo con bacterias   PGPR. Lima Perú. pp. 47-50.  Dion, P., Magallón, P. 2009. Manual de   microbiología agrícola “Importancia de   los microorganismos promotores de  crecimiento vegetal para los pequeños  productores de Bolivia. Université Laval.  Québec, Canada. 90:31-32.  Gordon, S., Weber, R. 1950. Colorimetric   estimation of indole acetic acid. Plant  Physiol. 26:192-195.  Hall, T. 1999. BioEdit: a user-friendly biological   sequence alignment editor and analysis  program for Windows 95/98/NT. Nucleic  Acids Symp. Ser. 41:95-98.  Harrison, M. 2005. Signaling in the arbuscular   mycorrhizal symbiosis. Ann. Rev.  Microbiol. 59:19-42.  Kubicek, C., Harman, G. 2002. Trichoderma &   Gliocladium. Basic Biology, Taxonomy  and Genetics. 1:1-271.  Krüger, M., Stockinger, H., Krüger C.,   Schüßler, A. 2009. DNA-based species-  level detection of arbuscular mycorrhizal  fungi: One PCR primer set for all AMF.  New Phytologist. 183:212-223  Lane, D. 1991. 16S/23S sequencing. In:   Nucleic Acid Techniques in Bacterial    Systematics (ed. Stackebrandt, E. &  Goodfellow, M.), Chichester: John Wiley  & Sons. pp. 115-175.  Muñoz-Rojas, J., Caballero-Mellado, J. 2003.   Population Dynamics Of  Gluconacetobacter diazotrophicus In:  Sugarcane Cultivars and Its Effect on  Plant Growth. Microbial Ecol.  46(4):454-464.  Reinhold-Hurek, B., Hurek, T. 1998. Trends   Microbiol. Apr; 6(4): 139-44. Review.  Erratum in: 6(5):202  Sanger, F., Nicklen, S., Coulson, A. 1977.   DNA sequencing with chain-terminating  inhibitors. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA.  74:5463–5467.  Sturz, A., Christie, B., Nowak, J. 2000.   Bacterial Endophytes: Potential Role in  Developing Sustainable Systems of Crop  Production Critical Reviews in Plant  Sciences Prince Edward Island. Canada.  19(1):1–30.   Introduction   Helicoverpa quinoa and Copitarsia  incommoda are key pests of the quinoa  crop in the Bolivian Altiplano, where the  largest volumes of this Andean grain are  produced for both domestic and export  markets. The larvae of these species along  with others that make up the Noctuidae  complex (Helicoverpa titicacae and  Dargida acanthus) cause considerable  losses, reaching up to 30% of yield per  year and an estimate of USD 60 million  for the year 2014. The type of damage  caused by these larvae depends largely on  the species, the phenological state of the  plant and the stage of the larvae. The  newly hatched larvae feed on the quinoa  plant inflorescence during its formation,  and when the larvae are larger they  behave as defoliators. During the phenological stages of  flowering and physiological maturity,  larvae cause significant damage by eating  the forming grain or by drilling the rachis  of the panicle, causing its collapse. The greatest damage from these  Noctuidea species are caused during grain  filling at the stage of milky ripening and  starchy ripening, when larvae begin to eat  the grains. Farmers fight them using light  traps and through the application of  eco-insecticides or chemical-pesticides,  depending on the destination of  production. Five years ago, to provide farmers with  organic easy to apply control alternatives,  PROINPA posed the synthesis and  development of sex pheromones. These  sex pheromones are chemical signals  emitted by females to attract males of the    same species. The artificially synthesized  pheromones are installed in traps, which  catch male insects, preventing the next  generation, thus reducing the pest  population. Currently sex pheromones of  different species are successfully used as a  component of Integrated Pest  Management (IPM). The objective of the work delivered was  to synthesize and develop sex pheromones  for  H. quinoa and  C. incommode, key   pests of the quinoa crop in the Bolivian  Altiplano. Life cycle of H. quinoa. According to  studies performed in the Quipaquipani  Center (Viachan, La Paz), the life cycle of  H. quinoa is very singular. Of a total of  400 larvae under observation in  conditions of 25°C temperature and 65%  relative humidity, 50% reported a lifespan  of 223 ± 36 days from egg to adult  (including adult longevity), 25%  remained in the pupal stage until the next  agricultural season, and 15 % died before  reaching adulthood. Life cycle of C. incommoda. According to  Choquehuanca (2011) The life cycle of C.   incommoda  reared in laboratory at 25°C   temperature and 65% relative humidity,  has a duration of 99.91 days including  adult longevity. The incubation period is  5.5 days, the duration of the larval stage is  29.04 days, prepupal status lasts 3.03 days  and pupal 16.3 days; adults live an  average of 19.85 days. Damages and losses caused by larvae  from the Noctuidae complex. Damages  caused by larvae from the Noctuidae  complex are multiple. Young larvae mine  the inflorescence during formation, in    more advanced stages larvae defoliate  plants, drill the stem at the base causing  the collapse of the panicle and, consume  the grains. Estimated losses due to the  attack of larvae from the Noctuidae  complex and of the quinoa moth are of  approximately 30% of yield (Saravia and  Quispe, 2005). Geographical distribution of H. quinoa  and C. incommoda. Studies on the  distribution of these species in the quinoa  producing regions have shown that H.  quinoa is the dominant species in the  Southern Altiplano Bolivia, and C.  incommoda is the dominant species in the  Central and Northern Altiplano. In these  regions the species H. titicacae and  Dargida acanthus can also be found but in  lower population densities. Pheromones.  They are secretions that   cause specific reactions in individuals of  the same species that perceive them  (Ramirez, 1996). Pedigo (1996) states that  sex pheromones are chemical signals  emitted by females to attract males of the  same species. Currently sex pheromones  of different species can be synthesized  and used for Integrated Pest Management  (IPM). Types of pheromones. There are several  types of pheromones, including sexual,  aggregation, tracking and alarm  pheromones (Owen, 2013). Advantages and disadvantages of  pheromones. Like any tool used for IPM,   pheromones have advantages and  disadvantages. The main advantages  attributed to them are: they are specific  and ensure the survival of natural  enemies; they are not toxic and do not    leave chemical residue on the crops, that  is to say it is an environmentally clean  technology. They are biodegradable and  environmentally friendly; they are easy to  install and operate. For all the above  mentioned benefits, pheromones are  accepted in organic production. The  identified disadvantages include the  following: only attract males, may be  affected by weather (winds) and do not  provide information on the direct damage  to the crop (Cisneros, 1997). Pheromone traps. Pheromones should be  used in traps. There are various types of  traps designed to increase the efficiency  of capture, that are currently offered by  companies that produce pheromones.  Traps are designed taking into account the  flight behavior of different species of  pests. To capture H. quinoa, the traps  tested were: drum type, basin type, cone  and several variants of the funnel, which  can operate with or without water. Of  these traps, the most widespread type in  quinoa producing areas of the Altiplano is  the dry funnel because it does not require  water to catch insects.   Materials and methods   Noctuidae rearing for pheromone  synthesis.  The synthesis of the sex   pheromone of H. quinoa and C.  incommoda, began in 2007 with the mass  rearing of these species and several  deliveries of pupae to the Pherobank  Company of the Netherlands. Noctuidae  rearing was implemented through a  protocol developed at PROINPA’s  Entomology Laboratory from March to  December 2007.  The protocol includes  the steps listed below:   Collection of larvae. Larvae of Noctuidae  were collected in quinoa plots, at different  times and in different locations of the  Southern and Central Altiplano. Larvae adaptation to laboratory  conditions. Larvae were separated  individually in medium size plastic  containers in order to prevent  cannibalism. These larvae were fed with  quinoa leaves until they pupated (Figure  1). Once they reached the pupal stage they  were disinfected and separated into  groups of ten, and placed in larger plastic  containers until eclosion.  Reproduction. The eclosioned adults were   installed in groups of 10-16 individuals, in  plastic bottles of 3800 cc volume, as  recommended by Quispe (2000). These  vials were used as reproduction cameras  and to obtain eggs (Figure 2). To facilitate  the laying of eggs, blotter strips were hung  on the side walls of the bottles.  Oviposition was verified, collection took  place through cutting lots of blotting  paper containing the eggs. These lots of  paper were later placed in medium size  containers for maturation, eclosion and  breeding of a new generation of larvae.   Rearing of the next generation. The new  generation of larvae was reared on an  artificial diet developed and adjusted in  the Entomology Laboratory of PROINPA,  through placing 30 neonate larvae per  container with diet (Figure 3).  After 10 days larvae were separated in  containers with diet, where they  concluded their larval stage and reached    the pupal stage. Subsequently pupae  were-harvested (Figure 4), disinfected  with a 10% concentration of sodium  hypochlorite, separated into groups of ten  individuals and placed in medium plastic  jars until adult emergence.  Pheromone synthesis. For the synthesis  of pheromones pupae of the species H.  quinoa and C. incommoda where sent to   Pherobank in the Netherlands where the  pheromone components of these species  were identified using the combined  method of Gas Chromatography (GC)  linked to Mass Spectrometry (MS) and  Electroantennography (EAG). Once protopheromones were developed  by Pherobank, they were sent back to  Bolivia for field trials and adjustments in  the formulation of the pheromone. These evaluations were performed in the  community of Chacala, municipality of  Uyuni, and in the Quipaquipani Center,  located in the department of La Paz.   Results and discussion    Pupae shipments for identification  and synthesis of specific pheromones   Several shipments of pupae to Pherobank  were performed. Pupae came from the  mass rearing of these species in the  Entomology Laboratory of PROINPA.  The samples were enclosed in plastic  containers, in batches of 20 to 40 properly  sexed pupae (Figure 5).   Synthesis of pheromones    In late April 2008, as a result of laboratory  work delivered by Pherobank in the  Netherlands, 17 protopheromones for the  Noctuidae complex were formulated  (Figure 6).   Based on the information generated in  field trials carried out by PROINPA’s  technical staff in the Bolivian Altiplano,  until June 2009 a pheromone for the  species H. quinoa was synthesized; and in  June 2013 another pheromone was  synthesized for C. incommoda.   Conclusions   •   H. quinoa and C. incommoda.  • are pheromones  H.   quinoa, key pest of the quinoa crop in  the Southern Altiplano; C.  incommoda, key pest of the quinoa  crop in the Central and Northern  Altiplano; and Agrotis peruviana,  considered a potential pest of the  quinoa crop in Bolivia.   Cited references   Cisneros, A. 1997. Lactonas en síntesis de   feromonas. Thesis for the degree of  Master of Science. Universidad    Autónoma de Nuevo León, Faculty of  Chemical Sciences. 106 p.  Choquehuanca M. 2011. Ciclo biológico de   Copitarsia incommoda Walker plaga del  cultivo de la quinua en condiciones de  laboratorio. Thesis for the degree of  Agricultural Engeneer, UMSA, Faculty of  Agronomy. La Paz, Bolivia.  Owen, J. 2013. Feromonas: Una herramienta   básica en IPM. IN: III Jornadas  internacionales sobre feromonas,  atrayentes, trampas y control biológico.  Murcia, España.  Pedigo, L. 1996. Entomology and Pest   Management. Second Edition. 1996.  Prentice-Hall Pub., Englewood Cliffs, NJ.  679 p.  Ramírez P. 1996. Las feromonas de insectos y   su aplicación en la agricultura. PALMAS,  Volume 17, No. 3.  Saravia R., Quispe, R. 2005. Manejo integrado   de las plagas insectiles del cultivo de la  quinua. In: Module 2: Manejo Agronómico  de la quinua orgánica. PROINPA  Foundation. pp. 53-86.   Problem description and  Project actions   Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) Is  one of the most important crops in  Bolivia, acreage extends up to 131,190  hectares and production reached 61,659  tons in 2013 The families involved in its  cultivation are around 45,000, from the  North, South and Central Altiplano  (PROINPA Foundation and AUTAPO  Foundation, 2005).| One of the factors that adversely affects  crop productivity is the incidence of a  variety of insect pests, such as the socalled  ticona (cutworm) complex composed of  several species of moths,  Copitarsia   incommoda, Helicoverpa quinoa, Agrotis  andina and the quinoa moth Eurysacca  quinoae  (PROINPA, 2010). These pests   in their larval state produce damage to the  crop, affecting grain quality and causing  production losses of up to 30%, which for  2013 correspond to 147.520.893.- USD  per annum (based on the price of 1,800 BS  / qq, prevailing at the Challapata market in  June 2014). To control these pests in organic  production systems, products registered  and accepted in organic regulations must  be used. However, there is limited supply  of these products to be able to use them in  an extensive scale. For that reason  PROINPA has developed a strategy for  the efficient management of pest control,  based on bio-registered products  approved for organic production. With the  purpose of expanding and disseminating  the strategy, PROINPA has partnered  with BIOTOP SRL, who coordinated  outreach activities with independent    producers, organic quinoa associations  and companies.   Methodology   The strategy proposed by PROINPA, for  integrated pest management (IPM) in  organic production has been implemented  quite successfully in over 20,000 hectares  in 2013. This strategy is based on  monitoring of adults and larvae,  preventive treatments, alternation of  products (active ingredients and modes of  action), timely applications and use of  adjuvant products. The integrated  management components are: a  Installation of pheromone traps (for   noctuidae): The installation of four traps  per hectare within the plot (with a distance  of at least 25 m between traps), helps  identify the first presence of adult insects  and the beginning of the oviposition  period. In areas where the population of  noctuidae is still low, the use of the four  traps/ha keeps larval populations at levels  that do not cause significant damage (≤5%  damage). a  Field Inspection: Regular inspection   visits should be made in at least four  stages of crop development: six true  leaves, beginning of panicle formation,  grain formation and milky grain. At each  inspection at least 10 plants per hectare  should be sampled at random. If the  presence of eggs and / or early stages of  larvae are observed in 20% of the  evaluated plants, preventive applications  are recommended. When larvae of more  advanced stages are observed or in case of  increased incidence, the application of  control treatments is recommended.   a  Application of preventive treatments:   the application of lime sulfur plus chili is  recommended because of its contact mode  of action which affects the central nervous  system of the insect, allowing good  control of eggs and of larvae in early  stages. Additionally, this product has a  repellent effect for adult insects,  protecting the crop for at least 15 days  from new pest oviposition phases. a Application of control treatments: a  control treatment at the beginning of  panicle formation is recommended.  During this phenological period  protection against these pests is very  important. Control treatments can be  made when insect monitoring detects  populations that justify applications.  Damage to the crop causes proliferation of  side branches resulting in handling  difficulties and lower performance. When  the presence of at least one larva per plant  is observed, the application of Spinosad ®  is recommended. Another moment of care is the growth  stage of milky grain, because it is the time  when the larvae begin to feed on the grain  in formation, and can cause significant  economic damage. At this point it is  important to perform field inspections.   For ticonas (cutworms), if five larvae per  panicle are observed in ten plants, and in  the case of moths, if five larvae are  observed per panicle; the application of  Spinosad ® is recommended.  Spinosad ®  is a natural high efficiency insecticide (>  93%) accepted in organic production,  whose mode of action is through contact  and ingestion, allowing an efficient larval  control and minimal effect on existing  beneficial insect fauna.   a Alternation of treatments: Following  IPM principles and in order to avoid the  emergence of resistant populations,  alternation of treatments is recommended;  ie alternating the application of natural  insecticides considering their active  ingredients and different modes of action,  avoiding more than two continuous  applications of the same product per crop  cycle. For example, lime sulfur and chili  extract can be alternated with Spinosad ®. a Using adjuvants: Because of the   presence of large amounts of oxalates in  the surfaces of leaves, stems and panicles  of quinoa, bio-adhesion is difficult.   Therefore, it is very important to apply a  bonding agent such as Agricultural  Vegetable Oil, which acts as a dispersing  agent, improves application coverage and  prevents the formation of large droplets.  Application of Agricultural Oil ensures  the efficiency of products.   Achievements   During the 2013-2014 crop year, the  alliance PROINPA and BIOTOP SRL,  has worked in partnership with various  producer associations and companies: In CADEQUIR, ANAPQUI,  CADEPQUIOR, SINDAN, Jacha Inti,  APQUISA, APQO Villa Florida,  APQO-Toledo, APQO-Keluyo, FDTA  Valles, IDEPRO, APROACH,  APROCAL, Andean Valley,  APROQUIROT, APROCOVES,  APROACAY,  APROQUIOS, and APRACCUK,  knowledge, attitudes and practices of  approximately 2,800 associates (men and  women) were strengthened. These   farmers were reached through capacity  building events delivered by technicians  and promoters, who personally spread the  Integrated Pest Management strategy for  organic quinoa production, reaching about  20,000 acres with this technology. The implementation of the strategy  reduced losses from 30% to 10% in the  20,000 acres that used Integrated Pest  Management. In economic terms, with  values of 1.800 Bs/qq (market price in  June 2014), this means, 14,618,275 USD  that producers have stopped losing, and  represent a benefit to the country through  improvement of crop productivity,  enhanced yield, better product quality and  environmental stewardship. On the other hand, in quinoa production  areas of the Bolivian Altiplano, a total of  70,926 units of pheromones for quinoa  cutworms (ticonas) have been sold,  covering more the 20,000 ha, representing  30% of the area cultivated with organic  quinoa. In the case of lime sulfur and chili  extract, in the past three crop years, a total  of 20,684 liters have been sold, covering  approximately 8300 hectares. In the case  of Spinosad®, in the past three crop years,  a total of 117,400 grams have been sold,  covering approximately 4000 hectares. Figure 1 shows the positive trend of the  use of products in the last three years,  particularly high for the case of lime  sulfur and higher for Spinosad.   Conclusions and  recommendations   • a of and ng   activities for technicians, promoters  and farmers, the quinoa pest  management strategy developed by    PROINPA and disseminated by  BIOTOP SRL, has been accepted by  organic quinoa producers, and in  several cases has been adjusted with  the implementation of local practices  and inputs. This situation can be  evidenced through sales data recorded  by BIOTOP SRL.  • initiative PROINPA   BIOTOP SRL has been well received,  especially by producer associations  and companies dedicated to the  production of organic quinoa. The  process has resulted in agreements,  higher volumes of bio-inputs sold and  supported by training for adequate use;  being all reflected in higher income for  farmers.  •   Integrated Management of insect pests  used for organic quinoa production in  20,000 hectares, allowed producers to  reduce losses in 14.618.275.- USD.  • task is larger   dissemination of the integrated  management strategy, in order for  most producers to have access to it and  to bio-inputs for application in organic  quinoa production. For example, many  farmers still use spraying backpacks,  resulting in an inefficient product  application and control.    The implementation of community   control campaigns should also be  considered, because if one farmer  controls and others don’t, efficiency is  lost and the damages continues. This  will depend on the coordinated efforts  of producers, associations, companies,  state institutions (municipalities,  governorates, etc.), organic certifiers  and other actors.    • development an   management strategy that responds to  organic production demands is a  continuous research work that should  be directed to the development of new,  more efficient bio-inputs (plant  extracts, etc.) permitted for organic  production and which can be easily  accessed in local markets.   Suggested references   Aroni, G., Saravia R. 2008. Evaluación de la   eficiencia de ecoplaguicidas en el control  de Noctuideos (ticonas y kcona kconas)  en  Chenopodium quinoa  Willd. In:   Informe del Proyecto Desarrollo de  Ecoplaguicidas para el Control de Plagas  Insectiles del Cultivo de la Quinua.  PROINPA Foundation.   Arragan, T. 2010. Nivel de daño económico de   la polilla de la quinua (Eurysacca  quinoae) en la localidad de Jalsuri –  Altiplano Central. Bachelor degree thesis,  Faculty of Agriculture, Universidad Mayor  de San Andrés. La Paz, Bolivia.  FAO. 1994. La quinua, cultivo milenario para   contribuir a la seguridad alimentaria.  Oficina Regional para América Latina y el  Caribe.  Fundación PROINPA, Fundación AUTAPO.   2005. Module 2: Manejo Agronómico de  la Quinua Orgánica. La Paz, Bolivia. 105  p.  Saravia, R. Bonifacio, A., Aduviri, J. 2010. La   identificación de enemigos de la quinua,  una tarea esencial en el MIP. In:  Compendio de Actividades, PROINPA  Foundation, 2010. pp. 27-29.      ISSN 1998 - 9652   Area: Technology Development 68   Mass dissemination of the Integrated Pest   Management (IPM) strategy for quinoa   Vladimir Lino; José Olivera; Raúl Saravia;   Reinaldo Quispe; Edson Gandarillas; Luis Crespo    Work funded by: B2B Denmark; PROINPA Foundation; BIOTOP  E mail: v.lino@proinpa.org    Particular emphasis should be placed on  the isolation of Bacillus thuringiensis  found as an endophyte, because after  being sprayed it can stay protected from  ultraviolet rays inside the plant, having a  longer residual effect as entomopathogen.   The species Bacillus cereus, an  entomopathogen of Coleoptera, was also  isolated from soil samples.  This species is  important for the development of  bioinsecticides that can contribute to the  management of this group of insect pests.   Conclusions   • show there a   significant number of bacteria  associated with quinoa plants, several  of which are beneficial species that  provide environmental services.   These bacteria have great  biotechnological and agroindustrial  potential for organic and sustainable  quinoa production.  • nitrogen-fixing 72   phosphorous solubilizing bacteria and  28 IAA generating strains were  detected. The fact that some species  are repeated does not necessarily mean  that they are the same strain. There are  isolates from the genera Azotobacter,  Pseudomonas, Rhizobium and  Flavobacterium that are free-living  and nitrogen fixers, a fact that still    needs to be studied.  •  Bacillus   subtilis, B. pumilus and B.  amiloliquefasciens and other  non-identified were detected in quinoa  grains.  •   Bacillus thuringiensis, for the control  of lepidopteran, is a resource that must  be evaluated given its potential for the  development of bioinsecticides for  organic pest management.  •  Bacillus cereus, as entomopathogen is   representative of strains that can be  used for the management of  Coleopteran pests not only for quinoa  production, but for other crops in the  Altiplano region.   Cited References   Altschul, S., Gish, W., Miller, W., Myers, E.,   Lipman, D. 1990. Basic local alignment  search tool. J. Mol. Biol. 215:403-410.  Bécquer, C., Lazarovits, G., Lalin, I. 2013.   Interacción in vitro entre Trichoderma  harzianum  y bacterias rizosféricas   estimuladoras del crecimiento vegetal.  Revista Cubana de Ciencia Agrícola.  Volume 47, Number 1  CIP. 2008. Protocolos de trabajo con bacterias   PGPR. Lima Perú. pp. 47-50.  Dion, P., Magallón, P. 2009. Manual de   microbiología agrícola “Importancia de   los microorganismos promotores de  crecimiento vegetal para los pequeños  productores de Bolivia. Université Laval.  Québec, Canada. 90:31-32.  Gordon, S., Weber, R. 1950. Colorimetric   estimation of indole acetic acid. Plant  Physiol. 26:192-195.  Hall, T. 1999. BioEdit: a user-friendly biological   sequence alignment editor and analysis  program for Windows 95/98/NT. Nucleic  Acids Symp. Ser. 41:95-98.  Harrison, M. 2005. Signaling in the arbuscular   mycorrhizal symbiosis. Ann. Rev.  Microbiol. 59:19-42.  Kubicek, C., Harman, G. 2002. Trichoderma &   Gliocladium. Basic Biology, Taxonomy  and Genetics. 1:1-271.  Krüger, M., Stockinger, H., Krüger C.,   Schüßler, A. 2009. DNA-based species-  level detection of arbuscular mycorrhizal  fungi: One PCR primer set for all AMF.  New Phytologist. 183:212-223  Lane, D. 1991. 16S/23S sequencing. In:   Nucleic Acid Techniques in Bacterial    Systematics (ed. Stackebrandt, E. &  Goodfellow, M.), Chichester: John Wiley  & Sons. pp. 115-175.  Muñoz-Rojas, J., Caballero-Mellado, J. 2003.   Population Dynamics Of  Gluconacetobacter diazotrophicus In:  Sugarcane Cultivars and Its Effect on  Plant Growth. Microbial Ecol.  46(4):454-464.  Reinhold-Hurek, B., Hurek, T. 1998. Trends   Microbiol. Apr; 6(4): 139-44. Review.  Erratum in: 6(5):202  Sanger, F., Nicklen, S., Coulson, A. 1977.   DNA sequencing with chain-terminating  inhibitors. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA.  74:5463–5467.  Sturz, A., Christie, B., Nowak, J. 2000.   Bacterial Endophytes: Potential Role in  Developing Sustainable Systems of Crop  Production Critical Reviews in Plant  Sciences Prince Edward Island. Canada.  19(1):1–30.   Summary. Quinoa is one of the most important crops in Bolivia. 131,190 hectares are   cultivated by 45,000 families producing 61,659 tons of grain for marketing. One of the  limiting factors for quinoa production is the incidence of insect pests such as the  cut-worms: Helicoverpa, Copitarsia and Agrotis; and the quinoa moth (Eurysacca), that   altogether cause 30% of damage to the crop. The economic losses as a result of these  pests are significant, particularly taking into account that the value of quinoa by 2013,  reached US$147,520,893. PROINPA Foundation developed an efficient management  strategy to control quinoa pests, with emphasis on the use of pheromones and natural  insecticides, commercialized in the Bolivian Altiplano through an alliance with BIOTOP  SRL, ANAPQUI, CADEQUIR and enterprises associated to CABOLQUI.  Elements of  the strategy have managed to reach a total of 20,000 hectares and have reduced losses  in US$14,618,275, for the benefit of farming families and the country. Keywords: Phytopathology; Pheromones; Natural Insecticides    Difusión  masiva de la estrategia de Manejo  Integrado de Plagas (MIP)     La  quinua  es  uno  de  los  cultivos  más  importantes  en  Bolivia,  131.190   659 toneladas de grano    ticonas: Helicoverpa, Copitarsia y Agrotis y   Eurysacca), que juntas ocasionan un 30% de daño al cultivo.    do en cuenta que el valor de comercialización de quinua al año 2013 alcanzó los     manejo    urales,  comercializados  en  el  Altiplano  Boliviano,  en  alianza  con    Resumen. Difusión masiva de la estrategia de Manejo Integrado de Plagas (MIP)  en quinua. La quinua es uno de los cultivos más importantes en Bolivia, 131.190  hectáreas son cultivadas por 45.000 familias que producen 61.659 toneladas de grano  para su comercialización. Uno de los factores limitantes en la producción de la quinua  es la incidencia de insectos plaga como las ticonas: Helicoverpa, Copitarsia y  Agrotis y   la polilla de la quinua (Eurysacca), que juntas ocasionan un 30% de daño al cultivo. Las  pérdidas económicas, a consecuencia de estas plagas, son significativas, tomando en  cuenta que el valor de comercialización de quinua al año 2013 alcanzó los 147.520.893  USD. La Fundación PROINPA desarrolló una estrategia de manejo eficiente en el  control de plagas de la quinua, con énfasis en el uso de feromonas e insecticidas  naturales, comercializados en el Altiplano Boliviano, en alianza con BIOTOP SRL,  ANAPQUI, CADEQUIR y empresas asociadas a CABOLQUI. Elementos de la estrategia  han logrado cubrir un total de 20.000 hectáreas y reducir las pérdidas en 14.618.275  USD, en beneficio de las familias de productores y del país. Palabras clave: Fitopatología; Feromonas; Insecticidas Naturales    Problem description and  Project actions   Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) Is  one of the most important crops in  Bolivia, acreage extends up to 131,190  hectares and production reached 61,659  tons in 2013 The families involved in its  cultivation are around 45,000, from the  North, South and Central Altiplano  (PROINPA Foundation and AUTAPO  Foundation, 2005).| One of the factors that adversely affects  crop productivity is the incidence of a  variety of insect pests, such as the socalled  ticona (cutworm) complex composed of  several species of moths,  Copitarsia   incommoda, Helicoverpa quinoa, Agrotis  andina and the quinoa moth Eurysacca  quinoae  (PROINPA, 2010). These pests   in their larval state produce damage to the  crop, affecting grain quality and causing  production losses of up to 30%, which for  2013 correspond to 147.520.893.- USD  per annum (based on the price of 1,800 BS  / qq, prevailing at the Challapata market in  June 2014). To control these pests in organic  production systems, products registered  and accepted in organic regulations must  be used. However, there is limited supply  of these products to be able to use them in  an extensive scale. For that reason  PROINPA has developed a strategy for  the efficient management of pest control,  based on bio-registered products  approved for organic production. With the  purpose of expanding and disseminating  the strategy, PROINPA has partnered  with BIOTOP SRL, who coordinated  outreach activities with independent    producers, organic quinoa associations  and companies.   Methodology   The strategy proposed by PROINPA, for  integrated pest management (IPM) in  organic production has been implemented  quite successfully in over 20,000 hectares  in 2013. This strategy is based on  monitoring of adults and larvae,  preventive treatments, alternation of  products (active ingredients and modes of  action), timely applications and use of  adjuvant products. The integrated  management components are: a  Installation of pheromone traps (for   noctuidae): The installation of four traps  per hectare within the plot (with a distance  of at least 25 m between traps), helps  identify the first presence of adult insects  and the beginning of the oviposition  period. In areas where the population of  noctuidae is still low, the use of the four  traps/ha keeps larval populations at levels  that do not cause significant damage (≤5%  damage). a  Field Inspection: Regular inspection   visits should be made in at least four  stages of crop development: six true  leaves, beginning of panicle formation,  grain formation and milky grain. At each  inspection at least 10 plants per hectare  should be sampled at random. If the  presence of eggs and / or early stages of  larvae are observed in 20% of the  evaluated plants, preventive applications  are recommended. When larvae of more  advanced stages are observed or in case of  increased incidence, the application of  control treatments is recommended.   a  Application of preventive treatments:   the application of lime sulfur plus chili is  recommended because of its contact mode  of action which affects the central nervous  system of the insect, allowing good  control of eggs and of larvae in early  stages. Additionally, this product has a  repellent effect for adult insects,  protecting the crop for at least 15 days  from new pest oviposition phases. a Application of control treatments: a  control treatment at the beginning of  panicle formation is recommended.  During this phenological period  protection against these pests is very  important. Control treatments can be  made when insect monitoring detects  populations that justify applications.  Damage to the crop causes proliferation of  side branches resulting in handling  difficulties and lower performance. When  the presence of at least one larva per plant  is observed, the application of Spinosad ®  is recommended. Another moment of care is the growth  stage of milky grain, because it is the time  when the larvae begin to feed on the grain  in formation, and can cause significant  economic damage. At this point it is  important to perform field inspections.   For ticonas (cutworms), if five larvae per  panicle are observed in ten plants, and in  the case of moths, if five larvae are  observed per panicle; the application of  Spinosad ® is recommended.  Spinosad ®  is a natural high efficiency insecticide (>  93%) accepted in organic production,  whose mode of action is through contact  and ingestion, allowing an efficient larval  control and minimal effect on existing  beneficial insect fauna.   a Alternation of treatments: Following  IPM principles and in order to avoid the  emergence of resistant populations,  alternation of treatments is recommended;  ie alternating the application of natural  insecticides considering their active  ingredients and different modes of action,  avoiding more than two continuous  applications of the same product per crop  cycle. For example, lime sulfur and chili  extract can be alternated with Spinosad ®. a Using adjuvants: Because of the   presence of large amounts of oxalates in  the surfaces of leaves, stems and panicles  of quinoa, bio-adhesion is difficult.   Therefore, it is very important to apply a  bonding agent such as Agricultural  Vegetable Oil, which acts as a dispersing  agent, improves application coverage and  prevents the formation of large droplets.  Application of Agricultural Oil ensures  the efficiency of products.   Achievements   During the 2013-2014 crop year, the  alliance PROINPA and BIOTOP SRL,  has worked in partnership with various  producer associations and companies: In CADEQUIR, ANAPQUI,  CADEPQUIOR, SINDAN, Jacha Inti,  APQUISA, APQO Villa Florida,  APQO-Toledo, APQO-Keluyo, FDTA  Valles, IDEPRO, APROACH,  APROCAL, Andean Valley,  APROQUIROT, APROCOVES,  APROACAY,  APROQUIOS, and APRACCUK,  knowledge, attitudes and practices of  approximately 2,800 associates (men and  women) were strengthened. These   farmers were reached through capacity  building events delivered by technicians  and promoters, who personally spread the  Integrated Pest Management strategy for  organic quinoa production, reaching about  20,000 acres with this technology. The implementation of the strategy  reduced losses from 30% to 10% in the  20,000 acres that used Integrated Pest  Management. In economic terms, with  values of 1.800 Bs/qq (market price in  June 2014), this means, 14,618,275 USD  that producers have stopped losing, and  represent a benefit to the country through  improvement of crop productivity,  enhanced yield, better product quality and  environmental stewardship. On the other hand, in quinoa production  areas of the Bolivian Altiplano, a total of  70,926 units of pheromones for quinoa  cutworms (ticonas) have been sold,  covering more the 20,000 ha, representing  30% of the area cultivated with organic  quinoa. In the case of lime sulfur and chili  extract, in the past three crop years, a total  of 20,684 liters have been sold, covering  approximately 8300 hectares. In the case  of Spinosad®, in the past three crop years,  a total of 117,400 grams have been sold,  covering approximately 4000 hectares. Figure 1 shows the positive trend of the  use of products in the last three years,  particularly high for the case of lime  sulfur and higher for Spinosad.   Conclusions and  recommendations   • a of and ng   activities for technicians, promoters  and farmers, the quinoa pest  management strategy developed by    PROINPA and disseminated by  BIOTOP SRL, has been accepted by  organic quinoa producers, and in  several cases has been adjusted with  the implementation of local practices  and inputs. This situation can be  evidenced through sales data recorded  by BIOTOP SRL.  • initiative PROINPA   BIOTOP SRL has been well received,  especially by producer associations  and companies dedicated to the  production of organic quinoa. The  process has resulted in agreements,  higher volumes of bio-inputs sold and  supported by training for adequate use;  being all reflected in higher income for  farmers.  •   Integrated Management of insect pests  used for organic quinoa production in  20,000 hectares, allowed producers to  reduce losses in 14.618.275.- USD.  • task is larger   dissemination of the integrated  management strategy, in order for  most producers to have access to it and  to bio-inputs for application in organic  quinoa production. For example, many  farmers still use spraying backpacks,  resulting in an inefficient product  application and control.    The implementation of community   control campaigns should also be  considered, because if one farmer  controls and others don’t, efficiency is  lost and the damages continues. This  will depend on the coordinated efforts  of producers, associations, companies,  state institutions (municipalities,  governorates, etc.), organic certifiers  and other actors.    • development an   management strategy that responds to  organic production demands is a  continuous research work that should  be directed to the development of new,  more efficient bio-inputs (plant  extracts, etc.) permitted for organic  production and which can be easily  accessed in local markets.   Suggested references   Aroni, G., Saravia R. 2008. Evaluación de la   eficiencia de ecoplaguicidas en el control  de Noctuideos (ticonas y kcona kconas)  en  Chenopodium quinoa  Willd. In:   Informe del Proyecto Desarrollo de  Ecoplaguicidas para el Control de Plagas  Insectiles del Cultivo de la Quinua.  PROINPA Foundation.   Arragan, T. 2010. Nivel de daño económico de   la polilla de la quinua (Eurysacca  quinoae) en la localidad de Jalsuri –  Altiplano Central. Bachelor degree thesis,  Faculty of Agriculture, Universidad Mayor  de San Andrés. La Paz, Bolivia.  FAO. 1994. La quinua, cultivo milenario para   contribuir a la seguridad alimentaria.  Oficina Regional para América Latina y el  Caribe.  Fundación PROINPA, Fundación AUTAPO.   2005. Module 2: Manejo Agronómico de  la Quinua Orgánica. La Paz, Bolivia. 105  p.  Saravia, R. Bonifacio, A., Aduviri, J. 2010. La   identificación de enemigos de la quinua,  una tarea esencial en el MIP. In:  Compendio de Actividades, PROINPA  Foundation, 2010. pp. 27-29.      Revista de Agricultura, Nro. 54 - Julio de 2014   Area: Technology Development 69   Particular emphasis should be placed on  the isolation of Bacillus thuringiensis  found as an endophyte, because after  being sprayed it can stay protected from  ultraviolet rays inside the plant, having a  longer residual effect as entomopathogen.   The species Bacillus cereus, an  entomopathogen of Coleoptera, was also  isolated from soil samples.  This species is  important for the development of  bioinsecticides that can contribute to the  management of this group of insect pests.   Conclusions   • show there a   significant number of bacteria  associated with quinoa plants, several  of which are beneficial species that  provide environmental services.   These bacteria have great  biotechnological and agroindustrial  potential for organic and sustainable  quinoa production.  • nitrogen-fixing 72   phosphorous solubilizing bacteria and  28 IAA generating strains were  detected. The fact that some species  are repeated does not necessarily mean  that they are the same strain. There are  isolates from the genera Azotobacter,  Pseudomonas, Rhizobium and  Flavobacterium that are free-living  and nitrogen fixers, a fact that still    needs to be studied.  •  Bacillus   subtilis, B. pumilus and B.  amiloliquefasciens and other  non-identified were detected in quinoa  grains.  •   Bacillus thuringiensis, for the control  of lepidopteran, is a resource that must  be evaluated given its potential for the  development of bioinsecticides for  organic pest management.  •  Bacillus cereus, as entomopathogen is   representative of strains that can be  used for the management of  Coleopteran pests not only for quinoa  production, but for other crops in the  Altiplano region.   Cited References   Altschul, S., Gish, W., Miller, W., Myers, E.,   Lipman, D. 1990. Basic local alignment  search tool. J. Mol. Biol. 215:403-410.  Bécquer, C., Lazarovits, G., Lalin, I. 2013.   Interacción in vitro entre Trichoderma  harzianum  y bacterias rizosféricas   estimuladoras del crecimiento vegetal.  Revista Cubana de Ciencia Agrícola.  Volume 47, Number 1  CIP. 2008. Protocolos de trabajo con bacterias   PGPR. Lima Perú. pp. 47-50.  Dion, P., Magallón, P. 2009. Manual de   microbiología agrícola “Importancia de   los microorganismos promotores de  crecimiento vegetal para los pequeños  productores de Bolivia. Université Laval.  Québec, Canada. 90:31-32.  Gordon, S., Weber, R. 1950. Colorimetric   estimation of indole acetic acid. Plant  Physiol. 26:192-195.  Hall, T. 1999. BioEdit: a user-friendly biological   sequence alignment editor and analysis  program for Windows 95/98/NT. Nucleic  Acids Symp. Ser. 41:95-98.  Harrison, M. 2005. Signaling in the arbuscular   mycorrhizal symbiosis. Ann. Rev.  Microbiol. 59:19-42.  Kubicek, C., Harman, G. 2002. Trichoderma &   Gliocladium. Basic Biology, Taxonomy  and Genetics. 1:1-271.  Krüger, M., Stockinger, H., Krüger C.,   Schüßler, A. 2009. DNA-based species-  level detection of arbuscular mycorrhizal  fungi: One PCR primer set for all AMF.  New Phytologist. 183:212-223  Lane, D. 1991. 16S/23S sequencing. In:   Nucleic Acid Techniques in Bacterial    Systematics (ed. Stackebrandt, E. &  Goodfellow, M.), Chichester: John Wiley  & Sons. pp. 115-175.  Muñoz-Rojas, J., Caballero-Mellado, J. 2003.   Population Dynamics Of  Gluconacetobacter diazotrophicus In:  Sugarcane Cultivars and Its Effect on  Plant Growth. Microbial Ecol.  46(4):454-464.  Reinhold-Hurek, B., Hurek, T. 1998. Trends   Microbiol. Apr; 6(4): 139-44. Review.  Erratum in: 6(5):202  Sanger, F., Nicklen, S., Coulson, A. 1977.   DNA sequencing with chain-terminating  inhibitors. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA.  74:5463–5467.  Sturz, A., Christie, B., Nowak, J. 2000.   Bacterial Endophytes: Potential Role in  Developing Sustainable Systems of Crop  Production Critical Reviews in Plant  Sciences Prince Edward Island. Canada.  19(1):1–30.   Problem description and  Project actions   Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) Is  one of the most important crops in  Bolivia, acreage extends up to 131,190  hectares and production reached 61,659  tons in 2013 The families involved in its  cultivation are around 45,000, from the  North, South and Central Altiplano  (PROINPA Foundation and AUTAPO  Foundation, 2005).| One of the factors that adversely affects  crop productivity is the incidence of a  variety of insect pests, such as the socalled  ticona (cutworm) complex composed of  several species of moths,  Copitarsia   incommoda, Helicoverpa quinoa, Agrotis  andina and the quinoa moth Eurysacca  quinoae  (PROINPA, 2010). These pests   in their larval state produce damage to the  crop, affecting grain quality and causing  production losses of up to 30%, which for  2013 correspond to 147.520.893.- USD  per annum (based on the price of 1,800 BS  / qq, prevailing at the Challapata market in  June 2014). To control these pests in organic  production systems, products registered  and accepted in organic regulations must  be used. However, there is limited supply  of these products to be able to use them in  an extensive scale. For that reason  PROINPA has developed a strategy for  the efficient management of pest control,  based on bio-registered products  approved for organic production. With the  purpose of expanding and disseminating  the strategy, PROINPA has partnered  with BIOTOP SRL, who coordinated  outreach activities with independent    producers, organic quinoa associations  and companies.   Methodology   The strategy proposed by PROINPA, for  integrated pest management (IPM) in  organic production has been implemented  quite successfully in over 20,000 hectares  in 2013. This strategy is based on  monitoring of adults and larvae,  preventive treatments, alternation of  products (active ingredients and modes of  action), timely applications and use of  adjuvant products. The integrated  management components are: a  Installation of pheromone traps (for   noctuidae): The installation of four traps  per hectare within the plot (with a distance  of at least 25 m between traps), helps  identify the first presence of adult insects  and the beginning of the oviposition  period. In areas where the population of  noctuidae is still low, the use of the four  traps/ha keeps larval populations at levels  that do not cause significant damage (≤5%  damage). a  Field Inspection: Regular inspection   visits should be made in at least four  stages of crop development: six true  leaves, beginning of panicle formation,  grain formation and milky grain. At each  inspection at least 10 plants per hectare  should be sampled at random. If the  presence of eggs and / or early stages of  larvae are observed in 20% of the  evaluated plants, preventive applications  are recommended. When larvae of more  advanced stages are observed or in case of  increased incidence, the application of  control treatments is recommended.   a  Application of preventive treatments:   the application of lime sulfur plus chili is  recommended because of its contact mode  of action which affects the central nervous  system of the insect, allowing good  control of eggs and of larvae in early  stages. Additionally, this product has a  repellent effect for adult insects,  protecting the crop for at least 15 days  from new pest oviposition phases. a Application of control treatments: a  control treatment at the beginning of  panicle formation is recommended.  During this phenological period  protection against these pests is very  important. Control treatments can be  made when insect monitoring detects  populations that justify applications.  Damage to the crop causes proliferation of  side branches resulting in handling  difficulties and lower performance. When  the presence of at least one larva per plant  is observed, the application of Spinosad ®  is recommended. Another moment of care is the growth  stage of milky grain, because it is the time  when the larvae begin to feed on the grain  in formation, and can cause significant  economic damage. At this point it is  important to perform field inspections.   For ticonas (cutworms), if five larvae per  panicle are observed in ten plants, and in  the case of moths, if five larvae are  observed per panicle; the application of  Spinosad ® is recommended.  Spinosad ®  is a natural high efficiency insecticide (>  93%) accepted in organic production,  whose mode of action is through contact  and ingestion, allowing an efficient larval  control and minimal effect on existing  beneficial insect fauna.   a Alternation of treatments: Following  IPM principles and in order to avoid the  emergence of resistant populations,  alternation of treatments is recommended;  ie alternating the application of natural  insecticides considering their active  ingredients and different modes of action,  avoiding more than two continuous  applications of the same product per crop  cycle. For example, lime sulfur and chili  extract can be alternated with Spinosad ®. a Using adjuvants: Because of the   presence of large amounts of oxalates in  the surfaces of leaves, stems and panicles  of quinoa, bio-adhesion is difficult.   Therefore, it is very important to apply a  bonding agent such as Agricultural  Vegetable Oil, which acts as a dispersing  agent, improves application coverage and  prevents the formation of large droplets.  Application of Agricultural Oil ensures  the efficiency of products.   Achievements   During the 2013-2014 crop year, the  alliance PROINPA and BIOTOP SRL,  has worked in partnership with various  producer associations and companies: In CADEQUIR, ANAPQUI,  CADEPQUIOR, SINDAN, Jacha Inti,  APQUISA, APQO Villa Florida,  APQO-Toledo, APQO-Keluyo, FDTA  Valles, IDEPRO, APROACH,  APROCAL, Andean Valley,  APROQUIROT, APROCOVES,  APROACAY,  APROQUIOS, and APRACCUK,  knowledge, attitudes and practices of  approximately 2,800 associates (men and  women) were strengthened. These   farmers were reached through capacity  building events delivered by technicians  and promoters, who personally spread the  Integrated Pest Management strategy for  organic quinoa production, reaching about  20,000 acres with this technology. The implementation of the strategy  reduced losses from 30% to 10% in the  20,000 acres that used Integrated Pest  Management. In economic terms, with  values of 1.800 Bs/qq (market price in  June 2014), this means, 14,618,275 USD  that producers have stopped losing, and  represent a benefit to the country through  improvement of crop productivity,  enhanced yield, better product quality and  environmental stewardship. On the other hand, in quinoa production  areas of the Bolivian Altiplano, a total of  70,926 units of pheromones for quinoa  cutworms (ticonas) have been sold,  covering more the 20,000 ha, representing  30% of the area cultivated with organic  quinoa. In the case of lime sulfur and chili  extract, in the past three crop years, a total  of 20,684 liters have been sold, covering  approximately 8300 hectares. In the case  of Spinosad®, in the past three crop years,  a total of 117,400 grams have been sold,  covering approximately 4000 hectares. Figure 1 shows the positive trend of the  use of products in the last three years,  particularly high for the case of lime  sulfur and higher for Spinosad.   Conclusions and  recommendations   • a of and ng   activities for technicians, promoters  and farmers, the quinoa pest  management strategy developed by    PROINPA and disseminated by  BIOTOP SRL, has been accepted by  organic quinoa producers, and in  several cases has been adjusted with  the implementation of local practices  and inputs. This situation can be  evidenced through sales data recorded  by BIOTOP SRL.  • initiative PROINPA   BIOTOP SRL has been well received,  especially by producer associations  and companies dedicated to the  production of organic quinoa. The  process has resulted in agreements,  higher volumes of bio-inputs sold and  supported by training for adequate use;  being all reflected in higher income for  farmers.  •   Integrated Management of insect pests  used for organic quinoa production in  20,000 hectares, allowed producers to  reduce losses in 14.618.275.- USD.  • task is larger   dissemination of the integrated  management strategy, in order for  most producers to have access to it and  to bio-inputs for application in organic  quinoa production. For example, many  farmers still use spraying backpacks,  resulting in an inefficient product  application and control.    The implementation of community   control campaigns should also be  considered, because if one farmer  controls and others don’t, efficiency is  lost and the damages continues. This  will depend on the coordinated efforts  of producers, associations, companies,  state institutions (municipalities,  governorates, etc.), organic certifiers  and other actors.    • development an   management strategy that responds to  organic production demands is a  continuous research work that should  be directed to the development of new,  more efficient bio-inputs (plant  extracts, etc.) permitted for organic  production and which can be easily  accessed in local markets.   Suggested references   Aroni, G., Saravia R. 2008. Evaluación de la   eficiencia de ecoplaguicidas en el control  de Noctuideos (ticonas y kcona kconas)  en  Chenopodium quinoa  Willd. In:   Informe del Proyecto Desarrollo de  Ecoplaguicidas para el Control de Plagas  Insectiles del Cultivo de la Quinua.  PROINPA Foundation.   Arragan, T. 2010. Nivel de daño económico de   la polilla de la quinua (Eurysacca  quinoae) en la localidad de Jalsuri –  Altiplano Central. Bachelor degree thesis,  Faculty of Agriculture, Universidad Mayor  de San Andrés. La Paz, Bolivia.  FAO. 1994. La quinua, cultivo milenario para   contribuir a la seguridad alimentaria.  Oficina Regional para América Latina y el  Caribe.  Fundación PROINPA, Fundación AUTAPO.   2005. Module 2: Manejo Agronómico de  la Quinua Orgánica. La Paz, Bolivia. 105  p.  Saravia, R. Bonifacio, A., Aduviri, J. 2010. La   identificación de enemigos de la quinua,  una tarea esencial en el MIP. In:  Compendio de Actividades, PROINPA  Foundation, 2010. pp. 27-29.      ISSN 1998 - 9652   Area: Technology Development 70   Particular emphasis should be placed on  the isolation of Bacillus thuringiensis  found as an endophyte, because after  being sprayed it can stay protected from  ultraviolet rays inside the plant, having a  longer residual effect as entomopathogen.   The species Bacillus cereus, an  entomopathogen of Coleoptera, was also  isolated from soil samples.  This species is  important for the development of  bioinsecticides that can contribute to the  management of this group of insect pests.   Conclusions   • show there a   significant number of bacteria  associated with quinoa plants, several  of which are beneficial species that  provide environmental services.   These bacteria have great  biotechnological and agroindustrial  potential for organic and sustainable  quinoa production.  • nitrogen-fixing 72   phosphorous solubilizing bacteria and  28 IAA generating strains were  detected. The fact that some species  are repeated does not necessarily mean  that they are the same strain. There are  isolates from the genera Azotobacter,  Pseudomonas, Rhizobium and  Flavobacterium that are free-living  and nitrogen fixers, a fact that still    needs to be studied.  •  Bacillus   subtilis, B. pumilus and B.  amiloliquefasciens and other  non-identified were detected in quinoa  grains.  •   Bacillus thuringiensis, for the control  of lepidopteran, is a resource that must  be evaluated given its potential for the  development of bioinsecticides for  organic pest management.  •  Bacillus cereus, as entomopathogen is   representative of strains that can be  used for the management of  Coleopteran pests not only for quinoa  production, but for other crops in the  Altiplano region.   Cited References   Altschul, S., Gish, W., Miller, W., Myers, E.,   Lipman, D. 1990. Basic local alignment  search tool. J. Mol. Biol. 215:403-410.  Bécquer, C., Lazarovits, G., Lalin, I. 2013.   Interacción in vitro entre Trichoderma  harzianum  y bacterias rizosféricas   estimuladoras del crecimiento vegetal.  Revista Cubana de Ciencia Agrícola.  Volume 47, Number 1  CIP. 2008. Protocolos de trabajo con bacterias   PGPR. Lima Perú. pp. 47-50.  Dion, P., Magallón, P. 2009. Manual de   microbiología agrícola “Importancia de   los microorganismos promotores de  crecimiento vegetal para los pequeños  productores de Bolivia. Université Laval.  Québec, Canada. 90:31-32.  Gordon, S., Weber, R. 1950. Colorimetric   estimation of indole acetic acid. Plant  Physiol. 26:192-195.  Hall, T. 1999. BioEdit: a user-friendly biological   sequence alignment editor and analysis  program for Windows 95/98/NT. Nucleic  Acids Symp. Ser. 41:95-98.  Harrison, M. 2005. Signaling in the arbuscular   mycorrhizal symbiosis. Ann. Rev.  Microbiol. 59:19-42.  Kubicek, C., Harman, G. 2002. Trichoderma &   Gliocladium. Basic Biology, Taxonomy  and Genetics. 1:1-271.  Krüger, M., Stockinger, H., Krüger C.,   Schüßler, A. 2009. DNA-based species-  level detection of arbuscular mycorrhizal  fungi: One PCR primer set for all AMF.  New Phytologist. 183:212-223  Lane, D. 1991. 16S/23S sequencing. In:   Nucleic Acid Techniques in Bacterial    Systematics (ed. Stackebrandt, E. &  Goodfellow, M.), Chichester: John Wiley  & Sons. pp. 115-175.  Muñoz-Rojas, J., Caballero-Mellado, J. 2003.   Population Dynamics Of  Gluconacetobacter diazotrophicus In:  Sugarcane Cultivars and Its Effect on  Plant Growth. Microbial Ecol.  46(4):454-464.  Reinhold-Hurek, B., Hurek, T. 1998. Trends   Microbiol. Apr; 6(4): 139-44. Review.  Erratum in: 6(5):202  Sanger, F., Nicklen, S., Coulson, A. 1977.   DNA sequencing with chain-terminating  inhibitors. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA.  74:5463–5467.  Sturz, A., Christie, B., Nowak, J. 2000.   Bacterial Endophytes: Potential Role in  Developing Sustainable Systems of Crop  Production Critical Reviews in Plant  Sciences Prince Edward Island. Canada.  19(1):1–30.   Problem description and  Project actions   Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) Is  one of the most important crops in  Bolivia, acreage extends up to 131,190  hectares and production reached 61,659  tons in 2013 The families involved in its  cultivation are around 45,000, from the  North, South and Central Altiplano  (PROINPA Foundation and AUTAPO  Foundation, 2005).| One of the factors that adversely affects  crop productivity is the incidence of a  variety of insect pests, such as the socalled  ticona (cutworm) complex composed of  several species of moths,  Copitarsia   incommoda, Helicoverpa quinoa, Agrotis  andina and the quinoa moth Eurysacca  quinoae  (PROINPA, 2010). These pests   in their larval state produce damage to the  crop, affecting grain quality and causing  production losses of up to 30%, which for  2013 correspond to 147.520.893.- USD  per annum (based on the price of 1,800 BS  / qq, prevailing at the Challapata market in  June 2014). To control these pests in organic  production systems, products registered  and accepted in organic regulations must  be used. However, there is limited supply  of these products to be able to use them in  an extensive scale. For that reason  PROINPA has developed a strategy for  the efficient management of pest control,  based on bio-registered products  approved for organic production. With the  purpose of expanding and disseminating  the strategy, PROINPA has partnered  with BIOTOP SRL, who coordinated  outreach activities with independent    producers, organic quinoa associations  and companies.   Methodology   The strategy proposed by PROINPA, for  integrated pest management (IPM) in  organic production has been implemented  quite successfully in over 20,000 hectares  in 2013. This strategy is based on  monitoring of adults and larvae,  preventive treatments, alternation of  products (active ingredients and modes of  action), timely applications and use of  adjuvant products. The integrated  management components are: a  Installation of pheromone traps (for   noctuidae): The installation of four traps  per hectare within the plot (with a distance  of at least 25 m between traps), helps  identify the first presence of adult insects  and the beginning of the oviposition  period. In areas where the population of  noctuidae is still low, the use of the four  traps/ha keeps larval populations at levels  that do not cause significant damage (≤5%  damage). a  Field Inspection: Regular inspection   visits should be made in at least four  stages of crop development: six true  leaves, beginning of panicle formation,  grain formation and milky grain. At each  inspection at least 10 plants per hectare  should be sampled at random. If the  presence of eggs and / or early stages of  larvae are observed in 20% of the  evaluated plants, preventive applications  are recommended. When larvae of more  advanced stages are observed or in case of  increased incidence, the application of  control treatments is recommended.   a  Application of preventive treatments:   the application of lime sulfur plus chili is  recommended because of its contact mode  of action which affects the central nervous  system of the insect, allowing good  control of eggs and of larvae in early  stages. Additionally, this product has a  repellent effect for adult insects,  protecting the crop for at least 15 days  from new pest oviposition phases. a Application of control treatments: a  control treatment at the beginning of  panicle formation is recommended.  During this phenological period  protection against these pests is very  important. Control treatments can be  made when insect monitoring detects  populations that justify applications.  Damage to the crop causes proliferation of  side branches resulting in handling  difficulties and lower performance. When  the presence of at least one larva per plant  is observed, the application of Spinosad ®  is recommended. Another moment of care is the growth  stage of milky grain, because it is the time  when the larvae begin to feed on the grain  in formation, and can cause significant  economic damage. At this point it is  important to perform field inspections.   For ticonas (cutworms), if five larvae per  panicle are observed in ten plants, and in  the case of moths, if five larvae are  observed per panicle; the application of  Spinosad ® is recommended.  Spinosad ®  is a natural high efficiency insecticide (>  93%) accepted in organic production,  whose mode of action is through contact  and ingestion, allowing an efficient larval  control and minimal effect on existing  beneficial insect fauna.   a Alternation of treatments: Following  IPM principles and in order to avoid the  emergence of resistant populations,  alternation of treatments is recommended;  ie alternating the application of natural  insecticides considering their active  ingredients and different modes of action,  avoiding more than two continuous  applications of the same product per crop  cycle. For example, lime sulfur and chili  extract can be alternated with Spinosad ®. a Using adjuvants: Because of the   presence of large amounts of oxalates in  the surfaces of leaves, stems and panicles  of quinoa, bio-adhesion is difficult.   Therefore, it is very important to apply a  bonding agent such as Agricultural  Vegetable Oil, which acts as a dispersing  agent, improves application coverage and  prevents the formation of large droplets.  Application of Agricultural Oil ensures  the efficiency of products.   Achievements   During the 2013-2014 crop year, the  alliance PROINPA and BIOTOP SRL,  has worked in partnership with various  producer associations and companies: In CADEQUIR, ANAPQUI,  CADEPQUIOR, SINDAN, Jacha Inti,  APQUISA, APQO Villa Florida,  APQO-Toledo, APQO-Keluyo, FDTA  Valles, IDEPRO, APROACH,  APROCAL, Andean Valley,  APROQUIROT, APROCOVES,  APROACAY,  APROQUIOS, and APRACCUK,  knowledge, attitudes and practices of  approximately 2,800 associates (men and  women) were strengthened. These    farmers were reached through capacity  building events delivered by technicians  and promoters, who personally spread the  Integrated Pest Management strategy for  organic quinoa production, reaching about  20,000 acres with this technology. The implementation of the strategy  reduced losses from 30% to 10% in the  20,000 acres that used Integrated Pest  Management. In economic terms, with  values of 1.800 Bs/qq (market price in  June 2014), this means, 14,618,275 USD  that producers have stopped losing, and  represent a benefit to the country through  improvement of crop productivity,  enhanced yield, better product quality and  environmental stewardship. On the other hand, in quinoa production  areas of the Bolivian Altiplano, a total of  70,926 units of pheromones for quinoa  cutworms (ticonas) have been sold,  covering more the 20,000 ha, representing  30% of the area cultivated with organic  quinoa. In the case of lime sulfur and chili  extract, in the past three crop years, a total  of 20,684 liters have been sold, covering  approximately 8300 hectares. In the case  of Spinosad®, in the past three crop years,  a total of 117,400 grams have been sold,  covering approximately 4000 hectares. Figure 1 shows the positive trend of the  use of products in the last three years,  particularly high for the case of lime  sulfur and higher for Spinosad.   Conclusions and  recommendations   • a of and ng   activities for technicians, promoters  and farmers, the quinoa pest  management strategy developed by    PROINPA and disseminated by  BIOTOP SRL, has been accepted by  organic quinoa producers, and in  several cases has been adjusted with  the implementation of local practices  and inputs. This situation can be  evidenced through sales data recorded  by BIOTOP SRL.  • initiative PROINPA   BIOTOP SRL has been well received,  especially by producer associations  and companies dedicated to the  production of organic quinoa. The  process has resulted in agreements,  higher volumes of bio-inputs sold and  supported by training for adequate use;  being all reflected in higher income for  farmers.  •   Integrated Management of insect pests  used for organic quinoa production in  20,000 hectares, allowed producers to  reduce losses in 14.618.275.- USD.  • task is larger   dissemination of the integrated  management strategy, in order for  most producers to have access to it and  to bio-inputs for application in organic  quinoa production. For example, many  farmers still use spraying backpacks,  resulting in an inefficient product  application and control.    The implementation of community   control campaigns should also be  considered, because if one farmer  controls and others don’t, efficiency is  lost and the damages continues. This  will depend on the coordinated efforts  of producers, associations, companies,  state institutions (municipalities,  governorates, etc.), organic certifiers  and other actors.    • development an   management strategy that responds to  organic production demands is a  continuous research work that should  be directed to the development of new,  more efficient bio-inputs (plant  extracts, etc.) permitted for organic  production and which can be easily  accessed in local markets.   Suggested references   Aroni, G., Saravia R. 2008. Evaluación de la   eficiencia de ecoplaguicidas en el control  de Noctuideos (ticonas y kcona kconas)  en  Chenopodium quinoa  Willd. In:   Informe del Proyecto Desarrollo de  Ecoplaguicidas para el Control de Plagas  Insectiles del Cultivo de la Quinua.  PROINPA Foundation.   Arragan, T. 2010. Nivel de daño económico de   la polilla de la quinua (Eurysacca  quinoae) en la localidad de Jalsuri –  Altiplano Central. Bachelor degree thesis,  Faculty of Agriculture, Universidad Mayor  de San Andrés. La Paz, Bolivia.  FAO. 1994. La quinua, cultivo milenario para   contribuir a la seguridad alimentaria.  Oficina Regional para América Latina y el  Caribe.  Fundación PROINPA, Fundación AUTAPO.   2005. Module 2: Manejo Agronómico de  la Quinua Orgánica. La Paz, Bolivia. 105  p.  Saravia, R. Bonifacio, A., Aduviri, J. 2010. La   identificación de enemigos de la quinua,  una tarea esencial en el MIP. In:  Compendio de Actividades, PROINPA  Foundation, 2010. pp. 27-29.      Revista de Agricultura, Nro. 54 - Julio de 2014   Area: Technology Development 71   Problem description and  Project actions   Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) Is  one of the most important crops in  Bolivia, acreage extends up to 131,190  hectares and production reached 61,659  tons in 2013 The families involved in its  cultivation are around 45,000, from the  North, South and Central Altiplano  (PROINPA Foundation and AUTAPO  Foundation, 2005).| One of the factors that adversely affects  crop productivity is the incidence of a  variety of insect pests, such as the socalled  ticona (cutworm) complex composed of  several species of moths,  Copitarsia   incommoda, Helicoverpa quinoa, Agrotis  andina and the quinoa moth Eurysacca  quinoae  (PROINPA, 2010). These pests   in their larval state produce damage to the  crop, affecting grain quality and causing  production losses of up to 30%, which for  2013 correspond to 147.520.893.- USD  per annum (based on the price of 1,800 BS  / qq, prevailing at the Challapata market in  June 2014). To control these pests in organic  production systems, products registered  and accepted in organic regulations must  be used. However, there is limited supply  of these products to be able to use them in  an extensive scale. For that reason  PROINPA has developed a strategy for  the efficient management of pest control,  based on bio-registered products  approved for organic production. With the  purpose of expanding and disseminating  the strategy, PROINPA has partnered  with BIOTOP SRL, who coordinated  outreach activities with independent    producers, organic quinoa associations  and companies.   Methodology   The strategy proposed by PROINPA, for  integrated pest management (IPM) in  organic production has been implemented  quite successfully in over 20,000 hectares  in 2013. This strategy is based on  monitoring of adults and larvae,  preventive treatments, alternation of  products (active ingredients and modes of  action), timely applications and use of  adjuvant products. The integrated  management components are: a  Installation of pheromone traps (for   noctuidae): The installation of four traps  per hectare within the plot (with a distance  of at least 25 m between traps), helps  identify the first presence of adult insects  and the beginning of the oviposition  period. In areas where the population of  noctuidae is still low, the use of the four  traps/ha keeps larval populations at levels  that do not cause significant damage (≤5%  damage). a  Field Inspection: Regular inspection   visits should be made in at least four  stages of crop development: six true  leaves, beginning of panicle formation,  grain formation and milky grain. At each  inspection at least 10 plants per hectare  should be sampled at random. If the  presence of eggs and / or early stages of  larvae are observed in 20% of the  evaluated plants, preventive applications  are recommended. When larvae of more  advanced stages are observed or in case of  increased incidence, the application of  control treatments is recommended.   a  Application of preventive treatments:   the application of lime sulfur plus chili is  recommended because of its contact mode  of action which affects the central nervous  system of the insect, allowing good  control of eggs and of larvae in early  stages. Additionally, this product has a  repellent effect for adult insects,  protecting the crop for at least 15 days  from new pest oviposition phases. a Application of control treatments: a  control treatment at the beginning of  panicle formation is recommended.  During this phenological period  protection against these pests is very  important. Control treatments can be  made when insect monitoring detects  populations that justify applications.  Damage to the crop causes proliferation of  side branches resulting in handling  difficulties and lower performance. When  the presence of at least one larva per plant  is observed, the application of Spinosad ®  is recommended. Another moment of care is the growth  stage of milky grain, because it is the time  when the larvae begin to feed on the grain  in formation, and can cause significant  economic damage. At this point it is  important to perform field inspections.   For ticonas (cutworms), if five larvae per  panicle are observed in ten plants, and in  the case of moths, if five larvae are  observed per panicle; the application of  Spinosad ® is recommended.  Spinosad ®  is a natural high efficiency insecticide (>  93%) accepted in organic production,  whose mode of action is through contact  and ingestion, allowing an efficient larval  control and minimal effect on existing  beneficial insect fauna.   a Alternation of treatments: Following  IPM principles and in order to avoid the  emergence of resistant populations,  alternation of treatments is recommended;  ie alternating the application of natural  insecticides considering their active  ingredients and different modes of action,  avoiding more than two continuous  applications of the same product per crop  cycle. For example, lime sulfur and chili  extract can be alternated with Spinosad ®. a Using adjuvants: Because of the   presence of large amounts of oxalates in  the surfaces of leaves, stems and panicles  of quinoa, bio-adhesion is difficult.   Therefore, it is very important to apply a  bonding agent such as Agricultural  Vegetable Oil, which acts as a dispersing  agent, improves application coverage and  prevents the formation of large droplets.  Application of Agricultural Oil ensures  the efficiency of products.   Achievements   During the 2013-2014 crop year, the  alliance PROINPA and BIOTOP SRL,  has worked in partnership with various  producer associations and companies: In CADEQUIR, ANAPQUI,  CADEPQUIOR, SINDAN, Jacha Inti,  APQUISA, APQO Villa Florida,  APQO-Toledo, APQO-Keluyo, FDTA  Valles, IDEPRO, APROACH,  APROCAL, Andean Valley,  APROQUIROT, APROCOVES,  APROACAY,  APROQUIOS, and APRACCUK,  knowledge, attitudes and practices of  approximately 2,800 associates (men and  women) were strengthened. These    farmers were reached through capacity  building events delivered by technicians  and promoters, who personally spread the  Integrated Pest Management strategy for  organic quinoa production, reaching about  20,000 acres with this technology. The implementation of the strategy  reduced losses from 30% to 10% in the  20,000 acres that used Integrated Pest  Management. In economic terms, with  values of 1.800 Bs/qq (market price in  June 2014), this means, 14,618,275 USD  that producers have stopped losing, and  represent a benefit to the country through  improvement of crop productivity,  enhanced yield, better product quality and  environmental stewardship. On the other hand, in quinoa production  areas of the Bolivian Altiplano, a total of  70,926 units of pheromones for quinoa  cutworms (ticonas) have been sold,  covering more the 20,000 ha, representing  30% of the area cultivated with organic  quinoa. In the case of lime sulfur and chili  extract, in the past three crop years, a total  of 20,684 liters have been sold, covering  approximately 8300 hectares. In the case  of Spinosad®, in the past three crop years,  a total of 117,400 grams have been sold,  covering approximately 4000 hectares. Figure 1 shows the positive trend of the  use of products in the last three years,  particularly high for the case of lime  sulfur and higher for Spinosad.   Conclusions and  recommendations   • a of and ng   activities for technicians, promoters  and farmers, the quinoa pest  management strategy developed by    PROINPA and disseminated by  BIOTOP SRL, has been accepted by  organic quinoa producers, and in  several cases has been adjusted with  the implementation of local practices  and inputs. This situation can be  evidenced through sales data recorded  by BIOTOP SRL.  • initiative PROINPA   BIOTOP SRL has been well received,  especially by producer associations  and companies dedicated to the  production of organic quinoa. The  process has resulted in agreements,  higher volumes of bio-inputs sold and  supported by training for adequate use;  being all reflected in higher income for  farmers.  •   Integrated Management of insect pests  used for organic quinoa production in  20,000 hectares, allowed producers to  reduce losses in 14.618.275.- USD.  • task is larger   dissemination of the integrated  management strategy, in order for  most producers to have access to it and  to bio-inputs for application in organic  quinoa production. For example, many  farmers still use spraying backpacks,  resulting in an inefficient product  application and control.    The implementation of community   control campaigns should also be  considered, because if one farmer  controls and others don’t, efficiency is  lost and the damages continues. This  will depend on the coordinated efforts  of producers, associations, companies,  state institutions (municipalities,  governorates, etc.), organic certifiers  and other actors.    • development an   management strategy that responds to  organic production demands is a  continuous research work that should  be directed to the development of new,  more efficient bio-inputs (plant  extracts, etc.) permitted for organic  production and which can be easily  accessed in local markets.   Suggested references   Aroni, G., Saravia R. 2008. Evaluación de la   eficiencia de ecoplaguicidas en el control  de Noctuideos (ticonas y kcona kconas)  en  Chenopodium quinoa  Willd. In:   Informe del Proyecto Desarrollo de  Ecoplaguicidas para el Control de Plagas  Insectiles del Cultivo de la Quinua.  PROINPA Foundation.   Arragan, T. 2010. Nivel de daño económico de   la polilla de la quinua (Eurysacca  quinoae) en la localidad de Jalsuri –  Altiplano Central. Bachelor degree thesis,  Faculty of Agriculture, Universidad Mayor  de San Andrés. La Paz, Bolivia.  FAO. 1994. La quinua, cultivo milenario para   contribuir a la seguridad alimentaria.  Oficina Regional para América Latina y el  Caribe.  Fundación PROINPA, Fundación AUTAPO.   2005. Module 2: Manejo Agronómico de  la Quinua Orgánica. La Paz, Bolivia. 105  p.  Saravia, R. Bonifacio, A., Aduviri, J. 2010. La   identificación de enemigos de la quinua,  una tarea esencial en el MIP. In:  Compendio de Actividades, PROINPA  Foundation, 2010. pp. 27-29.      ISSN 1998 - 9652   Area: Technology Development 72   4638 10.821 5225   61.000  51.000  5400   21.904 24.226 24.796  2011 2012 2013  Crop year   Sales  (products units)   Lime sulfur + chili (l) Spinosad ® (g) Pheromones (unit)     Figure 1. Units of Lime sulfur plus chilli extract, Spinosad ®  and pheromones comercialized by BIOTOP SRL and used  for quinoa production during the 2011 – 2013 crop years.       Article received on June 14, 2014 – Article accepted on July 1st, 2014       Problem description and  Project actions   Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) Is  one of the most important crops in  Bolivia, acreage extends up to 131,190  hectares and production reached 61,659  tons in 2013 The families involved in its  cultivation are around 45,000, from the  North, South and Central Altiplano  (PROINPA Foundation and AUTAPO  Foundation, 2005).| One of the factors that adversely affects  crop productivity is the incidence of a  variety of insect pests, such as the socalled  ticona (cutworm) complex composed of  several species of moths,  Copitarsia   incommoda, Helicoverpa quinoa, Agrotis  andina and the quinoa moth Eurysacca  quinoae  (PROINPA, 2010). These pests   in their larval state produce damage to the  crop, affecting grain quality and causing  production losses of up to 30%, which for  2013 correspond to 147.520.893.- USD  per annum (based on the price of 1,800 BS  / qq, prevailing at the Challapata market in  June 2014). To control these pests in organic  production systems, products registered  and accepted in organic regulations must  be used. However, there is limited supply  of these products to be able to use them in  an extensive scale. For that reason  PROINPA has developed a strategy for  the efficient management of pest control,  based on bio-registered products  approved for organic production. With the  purpose of expanding and disseminating  the strategy, PROINPA has partnered  with BIOTOP SRL, who coordinated  outreach activities with independent    producers, organic quinoa associations  and companies.   Methodology   The strategy proposed by PROINPA, for  integrated pest management (IPM) in  organic production has been implemented  quite successfully in over 20,000 hectares  in 2013. This strategy is based on  monitoring of adults and larvae,  preventive treatments, alternation of  products (active ingredients and modes of  action), timely applications and use of  adjuvant products. The integrated  management components are: a  Installation of pheromone traps (for   noctuidae): The installation of four traps  per hectare within the plot (with a distance  of at least 25 m between traps), helps  identify the first presence of adult insects  and the beginning of the oviposition  period. In areas where the population of  noctuidae is still low, the use of the four  traps/ha keeps larval populations at levels  that do not cause significant damage (≤5%  damage). a  Field Inspection: Regular inspection   visits should be made in at least four  stages of crop development: six true  leaves, beginning of panicle formation,  grain formation and milky grain. At each  inspection at least 10 plants per hectare  should be sampled at random. If the  presence of eggs and / or early stages of  larvae are observed in 20% of the  evaluated plants, preventive applications  are recommended. When larvae of more  advanced stages are observed or in case of  increased incidence, the application of  control treatments is recommended.   a  Application of preventive treatments:   the application of lime sulfur plus chili is  recommended because of its contact mode  of action which affects the central nervous  system of the insect, allowing good  control of eggs and of larvae in early  stages. Additionally, this product has a  repellent effect for adult insects,  protecting the crop for at least 15 days  from new pest oviposition phases. a Application of control treatments: a  control treatment at the beginning of  panicle formation is recommended.  During this phenological period  protection against these pests is very  important. Control treatments can be  made when insect monitoring detects  populations that justify applications.  Damage to the crop causes proliferation of  side branches resulting in handling  difficulties and lower performance. When  the presence of at least one larva per plant  is observed, the application of Spinosad ®  is recommended. Another moment of care is the growth  stage of milky grain, because it is the time  when the larvae begin to feed on the grain  in formation, and can cause significant  economic damage. At this point it is  important to perform field inspections.   For ticonas (cutworms), if five larvae per  panicle are observed in ten plants, and in  the case of moths, if five larvae are  observed per panicle; the application of  Spinosad ® is recommended.  Spinosad ®  is a natural high efficiency insecticide (>  93%) accepted in organic production,  whose mode of action is through contact  and ingestion, allowing an efficient larval  control and minimal effect on existing  beneficial insect fauna.   a Alternation of treatments: Following  IPM principles and in order to avoid the  emergence of resistant populations,  alternation of treatments is recommended;  ie alternating the application of natural  insecticides considering their active  ingredients and different modes of action,  avoiding more than two continuous  applications of the same product per crop  cycle. For example, lime sulfur and chili  extract can be alternated with Spinosad ®. a Using adjuvants: Because of the   presence of large amounts of oxalates in  the surfaces of leaves, stems and panicles  of quinoa, bio-adhesion is difficult.   Therefore, it is very important to apply a  bonding agent such as Agricultural  Vegetable Oil, which acts as a dispersing  agent, improves application coverage and  prevents the formation of large droplets.  Application of Agricultural Oil ensures  the efficiency of products.   Achievements   During the 2013-2014 crop year, the  alliance PROINPA and BIOTOP SRL,  has worked in partnership with various  producer associations and companies: In CADEQUIR, ANAPQUI,  CADEPQUIOR, SINDAN, Jacha Inti,  APQUISA, APQO Villa Florida,  APQO-Toledo, APQO-Keluyo, FDTA  Valles, IDEPRO, APROACH,  APROCAL, Andean Valley,  APROQUIROT, APROCOVES,  APROACAY,  APROQUIOS, and APRACCUK,  knowledge, attitudes and practices of  approximately 2,800 associates (men and  women) were strengthened. These   farmers were reached through capacity  building events delivered by technicians  and promoters, who personally spread the  Integrated Pest Management strategy for  organic quinoa production, reaching about  20,000 acres with this technology. The implementation of the strategy  reduced losses from 30% to 10% in the  20,000 acres that used Integrated Pest  Management. In economic terms, with  values of 1.800 Bs/qq (market price in  June 2014), this means, 14,618,275 USD  that producers have stopped losing, and  represent a benefit to the country through  improvement of crop productivity,  enhanced yield, better product quality and  environmental stewardship. On the other hand, in quinoa production  areas of the Bolivian Altiplano, a total of  70,926 units of pheromones for quinoa  cutworms (ticonas) have been sold,  covering more the 20,000 ha, representing  30% of the area cultivated with organic  quinoa. In the case of lime sulfur and chili  extract, in the past three crop years, a total  of 20,684 liters have been sold, covering  approximately 8300 hectares. In the case  of Spinosad®, in the past three crop years,  a total of 117,400 grams have been sold,  covering approximately 4000 hectares. Figure 1 shows the positive trend of the  use of products in the last three years,  particularly high for the case of lime  sulfur and higher for Spinosad.   Conclusions and  recommendations   • a of and ng   activities for technicians, promoters  and farmers, the quinoa pest  management strategy developed by    PROINPA and disseminated by  BIOTOP SRL, has been accepted by  organic quinoa producers, and in  several cases has been adjusted with  the implementation of local practices  and inputs. This situation can be  evidenced through sales data recorded  by BIOTOP SRL.  • initiative PROINPA   BIOTOP SRL has been well received,  especially by producer associations  and companies dedicated to the  production of organic quinoa. The  process has resulted in agreements,  higher volumes of bio-inputs sold and  supported by training for adequate use;  being all reflected in higher income for  farmers.  •   Integrated Management of insect pests  used for organic quinoa production in  20,000 hectares, allowed producers to  reduce losses in 14.618.275.- USD.  • task is larger   dissemination of the integrated  management strategy, in order for  most producers to have access to it and  to bio-inputs for application in organic  quinoa production. For example, many  farmers still use spraying backpacks,  resulting in an inefficient product  application and control.    The implementation of community   control campaigns should also be  considered, because if one farmer  controls and others don’t, efficiency is  lost and the damages continues. This  will depend on the coordinated efforts  of producers, associations, companies,  state institutions (municipalities,  governorates, etc.), organic certifiers  and other actors.    • development an   management strategy that responds to  organic production demands is a  continuous research work that should  be directed to the development of new,  more efficient bio-inputs (plant  extracts, etc.) permitted for organic  production and which can be easily  accessed in local markets.   Suggested references   Aroni, G., Saravia R. 2008. Evaluación de la   eficiencia de ecoplaguicidas en el control  de Noctuideos (ticonas y kcona kconas)  en  Chenopodium quinoa  Willd. In:   Informe del Proyecto Desarrollo de  Ecoplaguicidas para el Control de Plagas  Insectiles del Cultivo de la Quinua.  PROINPA Foundation.   Arragan, T. 2010. Nivel de daño económico de   la polilla de la quinua (Eurysacca  quinoae) en la localidad de Jalsuri –  Altiplano Central. Bachelor degree thesis,  Faculty of Agriculture, Universidad Mayor  de San Andrés. La Paz, Bolivia.  FAO. 1994. La quinua, cultivo milenario para   contribuir a la seguridad alimentaria.  Oficina Regional para América Latina y el  Caribe.  Fundación PROINPA, Fundación AUTAPO.   2005. Module 2: Manejo Agronómico de  la Quinua Orgánica. La Paz, Bolivia. 105  p.  Saravia, R. Bonifacio, A., Aduviri, J. 2010. La   identificación de enemigos de la quinua,  una tarea esencial en el MIP. In:  Compendio de Actividades, PROINPA  Foundation, 2010. pp. 27-29.      Revista de Agricultura, Nro. 54 - Julio de 2014   Area: Technology Development 73   Native shrubs and their prospective   contribution to the sustainability   of quinoa production    Alejandro Bonifacio; Genaro Aroni;   Milton Villca; Miriam Alcon; Patricia Ramos; Liz Chambi    Work funded by: DANIDA; The McKnight Foundation; PROINPA Foundation  E mail: a.bonifacio@proinpa.org    Summary. Quinoa production statistics presented by the Ministry of Agriculture of Bolivia during   the last 10 years indicate that average quinoa yields do not exceed 600 kg/ha, thus the increased  production figures are determined by expansion of the agricultural frontier. When examining  production patterns, in traditional quinoa producing areas there is evidence that yields are  generally very low due to the following reasons: accelerated soil erosion; low fertility; proliferation  of pests; frosts and poor management of the production process. In Bolivia, much has been said  about the sustainability of quinoa production, but there isn’t a policy decision to make this wish  come true, mainly because there is no coordination between actors for this purpose. Within this  framework, PROINPA Foundation has begun the implementation of a series of activities to exploit  the biodiversity potential of shrub species in the region. These activities are based on a productive  system focus, which can make the production of quinoa sustainable. Information was collected on  similar experiences in the country, related to highland native shrubs and their management.  Yet  the most important element of this process was the voluntary participation of producers who  offered their plots of land for seed collection and to implement the suggested practices. Seed  collection through traditional methods was satisfactory and nursery multiplication of native species  was very good, with results that exceed project expectations. However, there were difficulties in  direct field sowing. Despite achieving some germination, problems associated with seedlings  buried by strong winds were crucial for the loss of material. Keywords: Agricultural Management; Repopulation; Seed Quality Resumen. Los arbustos nativos y las perspectivas de su contribución a la sostenibilidad de  la de  Las cifras de producción de quinua que presenta el Ministerio de   Agricultura en Bolivia, en los últimos 10 años, indican que los rendimientos promedio en el país no  superan los 600 kg/ha y el incremento de la producción está determinado por la expansión de la  frontera agrícola. Cuando se examina el comportamiento de la producción, en zonas tradicionales  del cultivo, se tiene la evidencia que los rendimientos en general son muy bajos por las siguientes  causas: erosión acelerada de suelos; baja fertilidad; proliferación de plagas; ocurrencia de  heladas y manejo deficiente del proceso productivo. En este marco, la Fundación PROINPA, ha  iniciado una serie de actividades para aprovechar las potencialidades de la biodiversidad de  especies arbustivas de la región, con un enfoque de sistemas de producción que puede hacer  sostenible la producción de este grano. Se recopiló información de experiencias similares en el  país, relacionadas con los arbustos nativos del altiplano y las propuestas de su manejo. Sin  embargo lo más importante en este proceso fue la participación voluntaria de productores,  quienes ofrecieron sus terrenos para recolectar semilla e implementar las prácticas sugeridas. La    Problem description and  Project actions   Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) Is  one of the most important crops in  Bolivia, acreage extends up to 131,190  hectares and production reached 61,659  tons in 2013 The families involved in its  cultivation are around 45,000, from the  North, South and Central Altiplano  (PROINPA Foundation and AUTAPO  Foundation, 2005).| One of the factors that adversely affects  crop productivity is the incidence of a  variety of insect pests, such as the socalled  ticona (cutworm) complex composed of  several species of moths,  Copitarsia   incommoda, Helicoverpa quinoa, Agrotis  andina and the quinoa moth Eurysacca  quinoae  (PROINPA, 2010). These pests   in their larval state produce damage to the  crop, affecting grain quality and causing  production losses of up to 30%, which for  2013 correspond to 147.520.893.- USD  per annum (based on the price of 1,800 BS  / qq, prevailing at the Challapata market in  June 2014). To control these pests in organic  production systems, products registered  and accepted in organic regulations must  be used. However, there is limited supply  of these products to be able to use them in  an extensive scale. For that reason  PROINPA has developed a strategy for  the efficient management of pest control,  based on bio-registered products  approved for organic production. With the  purpose of expanding and disseminating  the strategy, PROINPA has partnered  with BIOTOP SRL, who coordinated  outreach activities with independent    producers, organic quinoa associations  and companies.   Methodology   The strategy proposed by PROINPA, for  integrated pest management (IPM) in  organic production has been implemented  quite successfully in over 20,000 hectares  in 2013. This strategy is based on  monitoring of adults and larvae,  preventive treatments, alternation of  products (active ingredients and modes of  action), timely applications and use of  adjuvant products. The integrated  management components are: a  Installation of pheromone traps (for   noctuidae): The installation of four traps  per hectare within the plot (with a distance  of at least 25 m between traps), helps  identify the first presence of adult insects  and the beginning of the oviposition  period. In areas where the population of  noctuidae is still low, the use of the four  traps/ha keeps larval populations at levels  that do not cause significant damage (≤5%  damage). a  Field Inspection: Regular inspection   visits should be made in at least four  stages of crop development: six true  leaves, beginning of panicle formation,  grain formation and milky grain. At each  inspection at least 10 plants per hectare  should be sampled at random. If the  presence of eggs and / or early stages of  larvae are observed in 20% of the  evaluated plants, preventive applications  are recommended. When larvae of more  advanced stages are observed or in case of  increased incidence, the application of  control treatments is recommended.   a  Application of preventive treatments:   the application of lime sulfur plus chili is  recommended because of its contact mode  of action which affects the central nervous  system of the insect, allowing good  control of eggs and of larvae in early  stages. Additionally, this product has a  repellent effect for adult insects,  protecting the crop for at least 15 days  from new pest oviposition phases. a Application of control treatments: a  control treatment at the beginning of  panicle formation is recommended.  During this phenological period  protection against these pests is very  important. Control treatments can be  made when insect monitoring detects  populations that justify applications.  Damage to the crop causes proliferation of  side branches resulting in handling  difficulties and lower performance. When  the presence of at least one larva per plant  is observed, the application of Spinosad ®  is recommended. Another moment of care is the growth  stage of milky grain, because it is the time  when the larvae begin to feed on the grain  in formation, and can cause significant  economic damage. At this point it is  important to perform field inspections.   For ticonas (cutworms), if five larvae per  panicle are observed in ten plants, and in  the case of moths, if five larvae are  observed per panicle; the application of  Spinosad ® is recommended.  Spinosad ®  is a natural high efficiency insecticide (>  93%) accepted in organic production,  whose mode of action is through contact  and ingestion, allowing an efficient larval  control and minimal effect on existing  beneficial insect fauna.   a Alternation of treatments: Following  IPM principles and in order to avoid the  emergence of resistant populations,  alternation of treatments is recommended;  ie alternating the application of natural  insecticides considering their active  ingredients and different modes of action,  avoiding more than two continuous  applications of the same product per crop  cycle. For example, lime sulfur and chili  extract can be alternated with Spinosad ®. a Using adjuvants: Because of the   presence of large amounts of oxalates in  the surfaces of leaves, stems and panicles  of quinoa, bio-adhesion is difficult.   Therefore, it is very important to apply a  bonding agent such as Agricultural  Vegetable Oil, which acts as a dispersing  agent, improves application coverage and  prevents the formation of large droplets.  Application of Agricultural Oil ensures  the efficiency of products.   Achievements   During the 2013-2014 crop year, the  alliance PROINPA and BIOTOP SRL,  has worked in partnership with various  producer associations and companies: In CADEQUIR, ANAPQUI,  CADEPQUIOR, SINDAN, Jacha Inti,  APQUISA, APQO Villa Florida,  APQO-Toledo, APQO-Keluyo, FDTA  Valles, IDEPRO, APROACH,  APROCAL, Andean Valley,  APROQUIROT, APROCOVES,  APROACAY,  APROQUIOS, and APRACCUK,  knowledge, attitudes and practices of  approximately 2,800 associates (men and  women) were strengthened. These   farmers were reached through capacity  building events delivered by technicians  and promoters, who personally spread the  Integrated Pest Management strategy for  organic quinoa production, reaching about  20,000 acres with this technology. The implementation of the strategy  reduced losses from 30% to 10% in the  20,000 acres that used Integrated Pest  Management. In economic terms, with  values of 1.800 Bs/qq (market price in  June 2014), this means, 14,618,275 USD  that producers have stopped losing, and  represent a benefit to the country through  improvement of crop productivity,  enhanced yield, better product quality and  environmental stewardship. On the other hand, in quinoa production  areas of the Bolivian Altiplano, a total of  70,926 units of pheromones for quinoa  cutworms (ticonas) have been sold,  covering more the 20,000 ha, representing  30% of the area cultivated with organic  quinoa. In the case of lime sulfur and chili  extract, in the past three crop years, a total  of 20,684 liters have been sold, covering  approximately 8300 hectares. In the case  of Spinosad®, in the past three crop years,  a total of 117,400 grams have been sold,  covering approximately 4000 hectares. Figure 1 shows the positive trend of the  use of products in the last three years,  particularly high for the case of lime  sulfur and higher for Spinosad.   Conclusions and  recommendations   • a of and ng   activities for technicians, promoters  and farmers, the quinoa pest  management strategy developed by    PROINPA and disseminated by  BIOTOP SRL, has been accepted by  organic quinoa producers, and in  several cases has been adjusted with  the implementation of local practices  and inputs. This situation can be  evidenced through sales data recorded  by BIOTOP SRL.  • initiative PROINPA   BIOTOP SRL has been well received,  especially by producer associations  and companies dedicated to the  production of organic quinoa. The  process has resulted in agreements,  higher volumes of bio-inputs sold and  supported by training for adequate use;  being all reflected in higher income for  farmers.  •   Integrated Management of insect pests  used for organic quinoa production in  20,000 hectares, allowed producers to  reduce losses in 14.618.275.- USD.  • task is larger   dissemination of the integrated  management strategy, in order for  most producers to have access to it and  to bio-inputs for application in organic  quinoa production. For example, many  farmers still use spraying backpacks,  resulting in an inefficient product  application and control.    The implementation of community   control campaigns should also be  considered, because if one farmer  controls and others don’t, efficiency is  lost and the damages continues. This  will depend on the coordinated efforts  of producers, associations, companies,  state institutions (municipalities,  governorates, etc.), organic certifiers  and other actors.    • development an   management strategy that responds to  organic production demands is a  continuous research work that should  be directed to the development of new,  more efficient bio-inputs (plant  extracts, etc.) permitted for organic  production and which can be easily  accessed in local markets.   Suggested references   Aroni, G., Saravia R. 2008. Evaluación de la   eficiencia de ecoplaguicidas en el control  de Noctuideos (ticonas y kcona kconas)  en  Chenopodium quinoa  Willd. In:   Informe del Proyecto Desarrollo de  Ecoplaguicidas para el Control de Plagas  Insectiles del Cultivo de la Quinua.  PROINPA Foundation.   Arragan, T. 2010. Nivel de daño económico de   la polilla de la quinua (Eurysacca  quinoae) en la localidad de Jalsuri –  Altiplano Central. Bachelor degree thesis,  Faculty of Agriculture, Universidad Mayor  de San Andrés. La Paz, Bolivia.  FAO. 1994. La quinua, cultivo milenario para   contribuir a la seguridad alimentaria.  Oficina Regional para América Latina y el  Caribe.  Fundación PROINPA, Fundación AUTAPO.   2005. Module 2: Manejo Agronómico de  la Quinua Orgánica. La Paz, Bolivia. 105  p.  Saravia, R. Bonifacio, A., Aduviri, J. 2010. La   identificación de enemigos de la quinua,  una tarea esencial en el MIP. In:  Compendio de Actividades, PROINPA  Foundation, 2010. pp. 27-29.      colecta de semilla, mediante métodos artesanales, fue satisfactoria y la multiplicación en vivero de  las especies nativas fue muy buena, con resultados que superan las expectativas del Proyecto.   Sin embargo se tuvo dificultades en las siembras directas en campo. A pesar de lograrse alguna  germinación, los problemas relacionados con el enterramiento de plantines debido a fuertes  vientos fueron determinantes para la pérdida del material. Palabras clave: Manejo Agronómico; Repoblamiento; Calidad de Semilla     ISSN 1998 - 9652   Area: Technology Development 74   Resumen. Los arbustos nativos y las perspectivas de su contribución a la sostenibilidad de  la de  Las cifras de producción de quinua que presenta el Ministerio de   Agricultura en Bolivia, en los últimos 10 años, indican que los rendimientos promedio en el país no  superan los 600 kg/ha y el incremento de la producción está determinado por la expansión de la  frontera agrícola. Cuando se examina el comportamiento de la producción, en zonas tradicionales  del cultivo, se tiene la evidencia que los rendimientos en general son muy bajos por las siguientes  causas: erosión acelerada de suelos; baja fertilidad; proliferación de plagas; ocurrencia de  heladas y manejo deficiente del proceso productivo. En este marco, la Fundación PROINPA, ha  iniciado una serie de actividades para aprovechar las potencialidades de la biodiversidad de  especies arbustivas de la región, con un enfoque de sistemas de producción que puede hacer  sostenible la producción de este grano. Se recopiló información de experiencias similares en el  país, relacionadas con los arbustos nativos del altiplano y las propuestas de su manejo. Sin  embargo lo más importante en este proceso fue la participación voluntaria de productores,  quienes ofrecieron sus terrenos para recolectar semilla e implementar las prácticas sugeridas. La    Problem description and  Project actions   Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) Is  one of the most important crops in  Bolivia, acreage extends up to 131,190  hectares and production reached 61,659  tons in 2013 The families involved in its  cultivation are around 45,000, from the  North, South and Central Altiplano  (PROINPA Foundation and AUTAPO  Foundation, 2005).| One of the factors that adversely affects  crop productivity is the incidence of a  variety of insect pests, such as the socalled  ticona (cutworm) complex composed of  several species of moths,  Copitarsia   incommoda, Helicoverpa quinoa, Agrotis  andina and the quinoa moth Eurysacca  quinoae  (PROINPA, 2010). These pests   in their larval state produce damage to the  crop, affecting grain quality and causing  production losses of up to 30%, which for  2013 correspond to 147.520.893.- USD  per annum (based on the price of 1,800 BS  / qq, prevailing at the Challapata market in  June 2014). To control these pests in organic  production systems, products registered  and accepted in organic regulations must  be used. However, there is limited supply  of these products to be able to use them in  an extensive scale. For that reason  PROINPA has developed a strategy for  the efficient management of pest control,  based on bio-registered products  approved for organic production. With the  purpose of expanding and disseminating  the strategy, PROINPA has partnered  with BIOTOP SRL, who coordinated  outreach activities with independent    producers, organic quinoa associations  and companies.   Methodology   The strategy proposed by PROINPA, for  integrated pest management (IPM) in  organic production has been implemented  quite successfully in over 20,000 hectares  in 2013. This strategy is based on  monitoring of adults and larvae,  preventive treatments, alternation of  products (active ingredients and modes of  action), timely applications and use of  adjuvant products. The integrated  management components are: a  Installation of pheromone traps (for   noctuidae): The installation of four traps  per hectare within the plot (with a distance  of at least 25 m between traps), helps  identify the first presence of adult insects  and the beginning of the oviposition  period. In areas where the population of  noctuidae is still low, the use of the four  traps/ha keeps larval populations at levels  that do not cause significant damage (≤5%  damage). a  Field Inspection: Regular inspection   visits should be made in at least four  stages of crop development: six true  leaves, beginning of panicle formation,  grain formation and milky grain. At each  inspection at least 10 plants per hectare  should be sampled at random. If the  presence of eggs and / or early stages of  larvae are observed in 20% of the  evaluated plants, preventive applications  are recommended. When larvae of more  advanced stages are observed or in case of  increased incidence, the application of  control treatments is recommended.   a  Application of preventive treatments:   the application of lime sulfur plus chili is  recommended because of its contact mode  of action which affects the central nervous  system of the insect, allowing good  control of eggs and of larvae in early  stages. Additionally, this product has a  repellent effect for adult insects,  protecting the crop for at least 15 days  from new pest oviposition phases. a Application of control treatments: a  control treatment at the beginning of  panicle formation is recommended.  During this phenological period  protection against these pests is very  important. Control treatments can be  made when insect monitoring detects  populations that justify applications.  Damage to the crop causes proliferation of  side branches resulting in handling  difficulties and lower performance. When  the presence of at least one larva per plant  is observed, the application of Spinosad ®  is recommended. Another moment of care is the growth  stage of milky grain, because it is the time  when the larvae begin to feed on the grain  in formation, and can cause significant  economic damage. At this point it is  important to perform field inspections.   For ticonas (cutworms), if five larvae per  panicle are observed in ten plants, and in  the case of moths, if five larvae are  observed per panicle; the application of  Spinosad ® is recommended.  Spinosad ®  is a natural high efficiency insecticide (>  93%) accepted in organic production,  whose mode of action is through contact  and ingestion, allowing an efficient larval  control and minimal effect on existing  beneficial insect fauna.   a Alternation of treatments: Following  IPM principles and in order to avoid the  emergence of resistant populations,  alternation of treatments is recommended;  ie alternating the application of natural  insecticides considering their active  ingredients and different modes of action,  avoiding more than two continuous  applications of the same product per crop  cycle. For example, lime sulfur and chili  extract can be alternated with Spinosad ®. a Using adjuvants: Because of the   presence of large amounts of oxalates in  the surfaces of leaves, stems and panicles  of quinoa, bio-adhesion is difficult.   Therefore, it is very important to apply a  bonding agent such as Agricultural  Vegetable Oil, which acts as a dispersing  agent, improves application coverage and  prevents the formation of large droplets.  Application of Agricultural Oil ensures  the efficiency of products.   Achievements   During the 2013-2014 crop year, the  alliance PROINPA and BIOTOP SRL,  has worked in partnership with various  producer associations and companies: In CADEQUIR, ANAPQUI,  CADEPQUIOR, SINDAN, Jacha Inti,  APQUISA, APQO Villa Florida,  APQO-Toledo, APQO-Keluyo, FDTA  Valles, IDEPRO, APROACH,  APROCAL, Andean Valley,  APROQUIROT, APROCOVES,  APROACAY,  APROQUIOS, and APRACCUK,  knowledge, attitudes and practices of  approximately 2,800 associates (men and  women) were strengthened. These   farmers were reached through capacity  building events delivered by technicians  and promoters, who personally spread the  Integrated Pest Management strategy for  organic quinoa production, reaching about  20,000 acres with this technology. The implementation of the strategy  reduced losses from 30% to 10% in the  20,000 acres that used Integrated Pest  Management. In economic terms, with  values of 1.800 Bs/qq (market price in  June 2014), this means, 14,618,275 USD  that producers have stopped losing, and  represent a benefit to the country through  improvement of crop productivity,  enhanced yield, better product quality and  environmental stewardship. On the other hand, in quinoa production  areas of the Bolivian Altiplano, a total of  70,926 units of pheromones for quinoa  cutworms (ticonas) have been sold,  covering more the 20,000 ha, representing  30% of the area cultivated with organic  quinoa. In the case of lime sulfur and chili  extract, in the past three crop years, a total  of 20,684 liters have been sold, covering  approximately 8300 hectares. In the case  of Spinosad®, in the past three crop years,  a total of 117,400 grams have been sold,  covering approximately 4000 hectares. Figure 1 shows the positive trend of the  use of products in the last three years,  particularly high for the case of lime  sulfur and higher for Spinosad.   Conclusions and  recommendations   • a of and ng   activities for technicians, promoters  and farmers, the quinoa pest  management strategy developed by    PROINPA and disseminated by  BIOTOP SRL, has been accepted by  organic quinoa producers, and in  several cases has been adjusted with  the implementation of local practices  and inputs. This situation can be  evidenced through sales data recorded  by BIOTOP SRL.  • initiative PROINPA   BIOTOP SRL has been well received,  especially by producer associations  and companies dedicated to the  production of organic quinoa. The  process has resulted in agreements,  higher volumes of bio-inputs sold and  supported by training for adequate use;  being all reflected in higher income for  farmers.  •   Integrated Management of insect pests  used for organic quinoa production in  20,000 hectares, allowed producers to  reduce losses in 14.618.275.- USD.  • task is larger   dissemination of the integrated  management strategy, in order for  most producers to have access to it and  to bio-inputs for application in organic  quinoa production. For example, many  farmers still use spraying backpacks,  resulting in an inefficient product  application and control.    The implementation of community   control campaigns should also be  considered, because if one farmer  controls and others don’t, efficiency is  lost and the damages continues. This  will depend on the coordinated efforts  of producers, associations, companies,  state institutions (municipalities,  governorates, etc.), organic certifiers  and other actors.    • development an   management strategy that responds to  organic production demands is a  continuous research work that should  be directed to the development of new,  more efficient bio-inputs (plant  extracts, etc.) permitted for organic  production and which can be easily  accessed in local markets.   Suggested references   Aroni, G., Saravia R. 2008. Evaluación de la   eficiencia de ecoplaguicidas en el control  de Noctuideos (ticonas y kcona kconas)  en  Chenopodium quinoa  Willd. In:   Informe del Proyecto Desarrollo de  Ecoplaguicidas para el Control de Plagas  Insectiles del Cultivo de la Quinua.  PROINPA Foundation.   Arragan, T. 2010. Nivel de daño económico de   la polilla de la quinua (Eurysacca  quinoae) en la localidad de Jalsuri –  Altiplano Central. Bachelor degree thesis,  Faculty of Agriculture, Universidad Mayor  de San Andrés. La Paz, Bolivia.  FAO. 1994. La quinua, cultivo milenario para   contribuir a la seguridad alimentaria.  Oficina Regional para América Latina y el  Caribe.  Fundación PROINPA, Fundación AUTAPO.   2005. Module 2: Manejo Agronómico de  la Quinua Orgánica. La Paz, Bolivia. 105  p.  Saravia, R. Bonifacio, A., Aduviri, J. 2010. La   identificación de enemigos de la quinua,  una tarea esencial en el MIP. In:  Compendio de Actividades, PROINPA  Foundation, 2010. pp. 27-29.      colecta de semilla, mediante métodos artesanales, fue satisfactoria y la multiplicación en vivero de  las especies nativas fue muy buena, con resultados que superan las expectativas del Proyecto.   Sin embargo se tuvo dificultades en las siembras directas en campo. A pesar de lograrse alguna  germinación, los problemas relacionados con el enterramiento de plantines debido a fuertes  vientos fueron determinantes para la pérdida del material. Palabras clave: Manejo Agronómico; Repoblamiento; Calidad de Semilla   Description of the problem  and the actions taken to solve  it   In the Southern Altiplano three areas of  quinoa production can be differentiated:   mountains, hills or slopes and plains or  pampa. The soils are generally sandy,  loamy sand or sandy loam (Soraide, 2011;  Orsag et al., 2013.). In these types of soils   the most serious problem is erosion,  which results in low fertility and low  quinoa yields. In some traditional quinoa producing  areas, abandoned plots can be observed,  which have lost their productive capacity  after being cultivated with quinoa for  several years. It is common to see plots of  10, 20 or more hectares that have been  turned into sandbanks. A preliminary  estimation in the community of Chacala  shows that sandbanks can reach up to 600  ha, being very susceptible to wind  erosion. Due to this situation new plots  and new areas are prepared for growing  quinoa, expanding the agricultural frontier  and falling into quinoa monoculture. According to Altieri and Nichols (2000),  monocultures that expand throughout the  world are characterized by the cultivation  of the same species on the same land year  after year; where ecological  complementarity between soil, crops and  animals is nonexistent and where a    specific crop expands beyond its natural  environment or supporting area. This is the case of quinoa that expands  from slopes towards the plains. (Aroni,  2008, Aroni and Bonifacio, s/a., Soraide,  2011). Therefore, several authors have  addressed the problem of sustainability of  quinoa from reflective and critical points  of view, hence suggesting solutions  (Soraide, 2011 Medrano and Torrico,  2009, Jaldín, 2010, Jacobsen, 2011 and  2012, Winkel et al., 2012, Orsag et al.,  2013, Ormachea and Ramirez, 2013). According to the Bolivian Institute of  Foreign Trade (IBCE) (2013), during the  2001-2002 crop year Bolivia registered  more than 37,000 hectares of quinoa  cultivated land, after 10 years, during the  2011-2012 crop year, this area had  increased to 96,544 hectares. With this trend, a growth of 12% is  expected for the period 2013-2014 in  comparison to the previously mentioned  area. The increase in area allows for  increased production volumes, while  unitary yields in the Southern Altiplano  remain at about 500 kg/ha. The consequence of the expansion of the  agricultural frontier for quinoa production  is the reduction of grazing area and the  reduction in the population of lamas.   Thus negatively affecting the availability    of manure for agriculture (Aroni, 2008,  Jaldín, 2010, Vallejos et al., 2011,  Bonifacio Aroni and s/a). The most serious environmental effects in  recent years have been caused by the  strong winds that carry large amounts of  sand from surface layers of loose soils.   This causes seedlings in the establishment  phase to be buried, reduces the natural  repopulation of native flora, causes the  destruction of houses, etc. This  transportation of soil can be easily  perceived on plot edges and on access  roads. Accumulation of soil can be  observed in places where t'ula plants grow  and rills can be observed by t’ula fields  and roads. This situation only confirms that the true  vocation of the Southern Altiplano is  livestock production, but because of the  great market opportunity of quinoa, soils  are extensive and intensively used for  agriculture. The production and  commercialization of quinoa brings new  alternatives for a population that for  centuries has had few income generation  options, and for individual farmers it  brings in the opportunity to exit poverty. In the Altiplano agro-ecosystem and  particularly in the Southern Altiplano,  practices of deforestation of native  species, to clear new land for quinoa  production, are causing serious problems  in soil conservation and the elimination of  natural habitats. This in turn is causing  low productivity of soils and proliferation  of pests that attack the quinoa crop. In the last five years, the sustainability of  quinoa production emerged as a  fundamental problem.  To address this    problem, soil conservation practices are  proposed, including the implementation  of living barriers, physical barriers, soil  repopulation with native species, use of  manure, and crop rotation, among others  (Puschiasis, 2009, VSF-CICDA 2009,  Orsag  et al., 2013). Each of these   practices has a theoretical foundation and  holds its own contribution to reduce soil  erosion.  However, the feasibility of their  implementation on a larger scale needs  further consideration. Among priority themes, Jaldín (2010)  mentions: the ecological capacity of the  ecosystem in relation to territorial  dynamics, sustainable models for quinoa  production, environmentally sustainable  technologies among others; raising a  series of questions that should be  addressed through research. In this context, PROINPA Foundation  implements actions to contribute to the  sustainability of quinoa based production  systems, through research and the use of  native species ancestrally adapted to these  areas, particularly shrubs or t'ulas. For this  purpose, the most efficient technology is  sought, one that holds the possibility of  large-scale implementation, easy  replicability and economic feasibility.  Based on these concerns, the  technological alternatives considered  important are: the revaluation of shrubs or  t'ulas, the search for specific adaptation  sites of the different species, methods of  seed collection, germination tests,  propagation methods, transplanting and  establishment of demonstration plots and  implementation of multi species living  barriers.   Recognition and revaluation  of shrubs   Native shrubs play various roles in quinoa  centered production systems. The name  t'ula is the generic name of evergreen  woody and semi-woody native shrubs,  growing in semi arid areas (Alzérreca et  al,  2002, Zamora, 2008,. Pizarro, 2013,   Bonifacio Aroni and s/a). However there  are local names for each species as  discussed below: Parastrephia lepidophylla is known by  the native names  sup'u tula, aymar T'ula,   sip'u T'ula, khiruta, pacha-taya, taya  t'ulalos. These names hold reference to  the dense growth habit (sup'u), attached  recinous leaves (sip'u), adaptation to icy  environments (pacha-taya, taya T'ula),  hardiness (khiru T'ula) and the possibility  of its use as fuel (t’ula for bread,  firewood).   Parastrephia lucida (Meyen) Cabrera  whose native names are Uma T’ula, yacu  t’ula, qulla t’ula, water firewood, in  reference to plants adapted to relatively  moist soils, or plants used as water  indicators (uma t’ula, yacu t’ula), and  plants with medicinal uses related to fever  reduction and as cure for dislocations  (qulla t’ula). Fabiana densa Remy with common  names like tara-tara, tara, tola, tolilla,  pichana, representing the fasciated  stem  shape irregularly up to the branching in  some cases  (tara, tara/tara), and  thin  branches (tolilla), suitable for  the use as  broom (pichana). Parastrephia quadrangulare holds the  native names t'it'i t'ula, sunsu t'ula in  reference to its open - semi rosette-like,  growth habit, with waywardly stem  positions (t'it'i) or irregular flowering in  different seasons (sunsu, a derivative of  foolish).    Lampaya medicinalis Moldenke: known  by the native names lamphaya or  lamphayo, which reflects its use as fuel in  the kitchen (lawa and phaya or firewood  for cooking). Baccharis tricuneta, B. tola; a plant  whose native names ñak'a tula, ñak'a,  orqu ñak'a, qachu ñak'a, meaning t'ula  female or t'ula male, represent the  dioecious condition of plants where male  is (orqu) and female (qachu).   Senecio clivicolus is known by the native  names qariwa and waych'a, referring to its   prolific and invasive growth condition  (aqariwa) or to the open shape of the  stringy folliage (waych'a). Alcantholippia deserticola Phil., is known  by the common name rica-rica in clear  reference to the use of the leaves for the  preparation of infusions and drinks that  taste sweet.   Adaptation of species   The different native species have different  performance and adaptation patterns in  different Altiplano eco-regions. In a  panoramic perspective different species  were observed as part of pure and mixed  vegetation patches, located on slopes,  plains, sandbanks, wetlands, etc. Bibliographical references do not mention  or emphasize the adaptation of these  species to ecological niches of the  Altiplano (Zamora, 2008; Soraide, 2011;  Román  et al. 2011; Orsag et al. 2013),   they are generally regarded as species  from semi-arid areas. While Alzérreca  et al. (2002) offer   alternatives for handling tola fields, it  must be considered that for targeted  utilization of species, it is necessary to  understand their adaptation in specific and  broad sense. This understanding needs  also to be related to alternatives for seed  production and plant development.   Thus, the uma t'ula species is well adapted  to plains near wetlands, where soil  moisture is abundant. Farmers associate it  with underground aquifers, a fact  reflected in the native name uma t'ula, that  translated literally means water prone  t'ula. The lampaya’s prefered habitat is in  plains with sand accumulation, dunes or  hillsides, but always in sandy soils with  frequent occurrence of winds. The  lampaya has the characteristic of forming  abundant organic matter at the base of the  plant where insect fauna proliferates.  This  proliferation of insects contributes to the  decomposition of accumulated leaves. It  is very common to find there coleopteran  larvae (laqatu), the favorite food of  quirchincho (Chaetopractus nationi). Tara-tara, is a species that grows well on  slopes and foothills, which are relatively  sheltered from the strong winds and where  soils are loam, sandy loam up to clay  loams. The sites where tara-tara grows are good   for quinoa production (fertility indicator).   The sup'u t'ula, grows well both in plains  and slopes, being the most widespread  species in the Altiplano. It prefers loam to  clay loam, deep soils with relatively acid  reaction. The sup'u t'ula forms abundant  leaf litter at the base of the plant which is  a source of organic matter. The  qariwa is a semi woody species of   multi-seasonal to biennial cycle. This is a  very common species in the Northern  Altiplano, which in recent years has  moved to the Central Altiplano and lately  can be found in the Southern Altiplano  colonizing considerable areas. This species is characterized by its high  prolificity and frost tolerance.  It grows in  winter, blooms in summer and dies after  forming seed during the rainy season. In  some areas it is considered an invasive  species. However, in semi-arid areas it  could be an alternative source of plant soil  cover and organic matter. In any case it  must be accompanied by a management  strategy. The rica-rica is a semi thorny shrub that   grows on hillsides. It has a deep root  which enables its establishment even in  compact soils. It is a highly drought  tolerant plant. The thorny branches help it  to withstand animal grazing.   Seed collection methods    The study of the reproductive biology of  the species has revealed its vegetative and  reproductive stages. Shrubs flower    between September and October. Fruiting  takes place between November and  December. In many cases there has been  fruiting outside this period (January,  February, March) probably because of the  disruptions caused by climate change. Seed collection was originally artisanal,  using conditioned containers (cut  jerrycan), locating the cut part against the  wind to facilitate seed collection. In some cases, wide mouth polypropylene  bags have been used to collect seeds. The  fruits and seeds of shrubs are very  sensitive to wind scattering, even with  very light winds. Their dissemination  structures are formed by the thistledown  which are organized in a sort of parachute. To facilitate collection a portable vacuum  was adapted to obtain power supply from  a car battery.  Although the management  of the equipment in the field is somewhat  difficult, it facilitates seed collection,  especially from the ñaka (Baccharis  tricuneata). Based on this experience, a  more powerful electric vacuum is being  adapted, in addition to entomological net  type seed collectors. Seed processing of shrub species includes  the removal of dissemination structures  (thistledown, bracts and residues of male  flowers). This work requires the use of  eye protection and masks to prevent  inhalation of plant particles and other  impurities adhered to the seed.     Revista de Agricultura, Nro. 54 - Julio de 2014   Area: Technology Development 75   Problem description and  Project actions   Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) Is  one of the most important crops in  Bolivia, acreage extends up to 131,190  hectares and production reached 61,659  tons in 2013 The families involved in its  cultivation are around 45,000, from the  North, South and Central Altiplano  (PROINPA Foundation and AUTAPO  Foundation, 2005).| One of the factors that adversely affects  crop productivity is the incidence of a  variety of insect pests, such as the socalled  ticona (cutworm) complex composed of  several species of moths,  Copitarsia   incommoda, Helicoverpa quinoa, Agrotis  andina and the quinoa moth Eurysacca  quinoae  (PROINPA, 2010). These pests   in their larval state produce damage to the  crop, affecting grain quality and causing  production losses of up to 30%, which for  2013 correspond to 147.520.893.- USD  per annum (based on the price of 1,800 BS  / qq, prevailing at the Challapata market in  June 2014). To control these pests in organic  production systems, products registered  and accepted in organic regulations must  be used. However, there is limited supply  of these products to be able to use them in  an extensive scale. For that reason  PROINPA has developed a strategy for  the efficient management of pest control,  based on bio-registered products  approved for organic production. With the  purpose of expanding and disseminating  the strategy, PROINPA has partnered  with BIOTOP SRL, who coordinated  outreach activities with independent    producers, organic quinoa associations  and companies.   Methodology   The strategy proposed by PROINPA, for  integrated pest management (IPM) in  organic production has been implemented  quite successfully in over 20,000 hectares  in 2013. This strategy is based on  monitoring of adults and larvae,  preventive treatments, alternation of  products (active ingredients and modes of  action), timely applications and use of  adjuvant products. The integrated  management components are: a  Installation of pheromone traps (for   noctuidae): The installation of four traps  per hectare within the plot (with a distance  of at least 25 m between traps), helps  identify the first presence of adult insects  and the beginning of the oviposition  period. In areas where the population of  noctuidae is still low, the use of the four  traps/ha keeps larval populations at levels  that do not cause significant damage (≤5%  damage). a  Field Inspection: Regular inspection   visits should be made in at least four  stages of crop development: six true  leaves, beginning of panicle formation,  grain formation and milky grain. At each  inspection at least 10 plants per hectare  should be sampled at random. If the  presence of eggs and / or early stages of  larvae are observed in 20% of the  evaluated plants, preventive applications  are recommended. When larvae of more  advanced stages are observed or in case of  increased incidence, the application of  control treatments is recommended.   a  Application of preventive treatments:   the application of lime sulfur plus chili is  recommended because of its contact mode  of action which affects the central nervous  system of the insect, allowing good  control of eggs and of larvae in early  stages. Additionally, this product has a  repellent effect for adult insects,  protecting the crop for at least 15 days  from new pest oviposition phases. a Application of control treatments: a  control treatment at the beginning of  panicle formation is recommended.  During this phenological period  protection against these pests is very  important. Control treatments can be  made when insect monitoring detects  populations that justify applications.  Damage to the crop causes proliferation of  side branches resulting in handling  difficulties and lower performance. When  the presence of at least one larva per plant  is observed, the application of Spinosad ®  is recommended. Another moment of care is the growth  stage of milky grain, because it is the time  when the larvae begin to feed on the grain  in formation, and can cause significant  economic damage. At this point it is  important to perform field inspections.   For ticonas (cutworms), if five larvae per  panicle are observed in ten plants, and in  the case of moths, if five larvae are  observed per panicle; the application of  Spinosad ® is recommended.  Spinosad ®  is a natural high efficiency insecticide (>  93%) accepted in organic production,  whose mode of action is through contact  and ingestion, allowing an efficient larval  control and minimal effect on existing  beneficial insect fauna.   a Alternation of treatments: Following  IPM principles and in order to avoid the  emergence of resistant populations,  alternation of treatments is recommended;  ie alternating the application of natural  insecticides considering their active  ingredients and different modes of action,  avoiding more than two continuous  applications of the same product per crop  cycle. For example, lime sulfur and chili  extract can be alternated with Spinosad ®. a Using adjuvants: Because of the   presence of large amounts of oxalates in  the surfaces of leaves, stems and panicles  of quinoa, bio-adhesion is difficult.   Therefore, it is very important to apply a  bonding agent such as Agricultural  Vegetable Oil, which acts as a dispersing  agent, improves application coverage and  prevents the formation of large droplets.  Application of Agricultural Oil ensures  the efficiency of products.   Achievements   During the 2013-2014 crop year, the  alliance PROINPA and BIOTOP SRL,  has worked in partnership with various  producer associations and companies: In CADEQUIR, ANAPQUI,  CADEPQUIOR, SINDAN, Jacha Inti,  APQUISA, APQO Villa Florida,  APQO-Toledo, APQO-Keluyo, FDTA  Valles, IDEPRO, APROACH,  APROCAL, Andean Valley,  APROQUIROT, APROCOVES,  APROACAY,  APROQUIOS, and APRACCUK,  knowledge, attitudes and practices of  approximately 2,800 associates (men and  women) were strengthened. These   farmers were reached through capacity  building events delivered by technicians  and promoters, who personally spread the  Integrated Pest Management strategy for  organic quinoa production, reaching about  20,000 acres with this technology. The implementation of the strategy  reduced losses from 30% to 10% in the  20,000 acres that used Integrated Pest  Management. In economic terms, with  values of 1.800 Bs/qq (market price in  June 2014), this means, 14,618,275 USD  that producers have stopped losing, and  represent a benefit to the country through  improvement of crop productivity,  enhanced yield, better product quality and  environmental stewardship. On the other hand, in quinoa production  areas of the Bolivian Altiplano, a total of  70,926 units of pheromones for quinoa  cutworms (ticonas) have been sold,  covering more the 20,000 ha, representing  30% of the area cultivated with organic  quinoa. In the case of lime sulfur and chili  extract, in the past three crop years, a total  of 20,684 liters have been sold, covering  approximately 8300 hectares. In the case  of Spinosad®, in the past three crop years,  a total of 117,400 grams have been sold,  covering approximately 4000 hectares. Figure 1 shows the positive trend of the  use of products in the last three years,  particularly high for the case of lime  sulfur and higher for Spinosad.   Conclusions and  recommendations   • a of and ng   activities for technicians, promoters  and farmers, the quinoa pest  management strategy developed by    PROINPA and disseminated by  BIOTOP SRL, has been accepted by  organic quinoa producers, and in  several cases has been adjusted with  the implementation of local practices  and inputs. This situation can be  evidenced through sales data recorded  by BIOTOP SRL.  • initiative PROINPA   BIOTOP SRL has been well received,  especially by producer associations  and companies dedicated to the  production of organic quinoa. The  process has resulted in agreements,  higher volumes of bio-inputs sold and  supported by training for adequate use;  being all reflected in higher income for  farmers.  •   Integrated Management of insect pests  used for organic quinoa production in  20,000 hectares, allowed producers to  reduce losses in 14.618.275.- USD.  • task is larger   dissemination of the integrated  management strategy, in order for  most producers to have access to it and  to bio-inputs for application in organic  quinoa production. For example, many  farmers still use spraying backpacks,  resulting in an inefficient product  application and control.    The implementation of community   control campaigns should also be  considered, because if one farmer  controls and others don’t, efficiency is  lost and the damages continues. This  will depend on the coordinated efforts  of producers, associations, companies,  state institutions (municipalities,  governorates, etc.), organic certifiers  and other actors.    • development an   management strategy that responds to  organic production demands is a  continuous research work that should  be directed to the development of new,  more efficient bio-inputs (plant  extracts, etc.) permitted for organic  production and which can be easily  accessed in local markets.   Suggested references   Aroni, G., Saravia R. 2008. Evaluación de la   eficiencia de ecoplaguicidas en el control  de Noctuideos (ticonas y kcona kconas)  en  Chenopodium quinoa  Willd. In:   Informe del Proyecto Desarrollo de  Ecoplaguicidas para el Control de Plagas  Insectiles del Cultivo de la Quinua.  PROINPA Foundation.   Arragan, T. 2010. Nivel de daño económico de   la polilla de la quinua (Eurysacca  quinoae) en la localidad de Jalsuri –  Altiplano Central. Bachelor degree thesis,  Faculty of Agriculture, Universidad Mayor  de San Andrés. La Paz, Bolivia.  FAO. 1994. La quinua, cultivo milenario para   contribuir a la seguridad alimentaria.  Oficina Regional para América Latina y el  Caribe.  Fundación PROINPA, Fundación AUTAPO.   2005. Module 2: Manejo Agronómico de  la Quinua Orgánica. La Paz, Bolivia. 105  p.  Saravia, R. Bonifacio, A., Aduviri, J. 2010. La   identificación de enemigos de la quinua,  una tarea esencial en el MIP. In:  Compendio de Actividades, PROINPA  Foundation, 2010. pp. 27-29.      Description of the problem  and the actions taken to solve  it   In the Southern Altiplano three areas of  quinoa production can be differentiated:   mountains, hills or slopes and plains or  pampa. The soils are generally sandy,  loamy sand or sandy loam (Soraide, 2011;  Orsag et al., 2013.). In these types of soils   the most serious problem is erosion,  which results in low fertility and low  quinoa yields. In some traditional quinoa producing  areas, abandoned plots can be observed,  which have lost their productive capacity  after being cultivated with quinoa for  several years. It is common to see plots of  10, 20 or more hectares that have been  turned into sandbanks. A preliminary  estimation in the community of Chacala  shows that sandbanks can reach up to 600  ha, being very susceptible to wind  erosion. Due to this situation new plots  and new areas are prepared for growing  quinoa, expanding the agricultural frontier  and falling into quinoa monoculture. According to Altieri and Nichols (2000),  monocultures that expand throughout the  world are characterized by the cultivation  of the same species on the same land year  after year; where ecological  complementarity between soil, crops and  animals is nonexistent and where a    specific crop expands beyond its natural  environment or supporting area. This is the case of quinoa that expands  from slopes towards the plains. (Aroni,  2008, Aroni and Bonifacio, s/a., Soraide,  2011). Therefore, several authors have  addressed the problem of sustainability of  quinoa from reflective and critical points  of view, hence suggesting solutions  (Soraide, 2011 Medrano and Torrico,  2009, Jaldín, 2010, Jacobsen, 2011 and  2012, Winkel et al., 2012, Orsag et al.,  2013, Ormachea and Ramirez, 2013). According to the Bolivian Institute of  Foreign Trade (IBCE) (2013), during the  2001-2002 crop year Bolivia registered  more than 37,000 hectares of quinoa  cultivated land, after 10 years, during the  2011-2012 crop year, this area had  increased to 96,544 hectares. With this trend, a growth of 12% is  expected for the period 2013-2014 in  comparison to the previously mentioned  area. The increase in area allows for  increased production volumes, while  unitary yields in the Southern Altiplano  remain at about 500 kg/ha. The consequence of the expansion of the  agricultural frontier for quinoa production  is the reduction of grazing area and the  reduction in the population of lamas.   Thus negatively affecting the availability    of manure for agriculture (Aroni, 2008,  Jaldín, 2010, Vallejos et al., 2011,  Bonifacio Aroni and s/a). The most serious environmental effects in  recent years have been caused by the  strong winds that carry large amounts of  sand from surface layers of loose soils.   This causes seedlings in the establishment  phase to be buried, reduces the natural  repopulation of native flora, causes the  destruction of houses, etc. This  transportation of soil can be easily  perceived on plot edges and on access  roads. Accumulation of soil can be  observed in places where t'ula plants grow  and rills can be observed by t’ula fields  and roads. This situation only confirms that the true  vocation of the Southern Altiplano is  livestock production, but because of the  great market opportunity of quinoa, soils  are extensive and intensively used for  agriculture. The production and  commercialization of quinoa brings new  alternatives for a population that for  centuries has had few income generation  options, and for individual farmers it  brings in the opportunity to exit poverty. In the Altiplano agro-ecosystem and  particularly in the Southern Altiplano,  practices of deforestation of native  species, to clear new land for quinoa  production, are causing serious problems  in soil conservation and the elimination of  natural habitats. This in turn is causing  low productivity of soils and proliferation  of pests that attack the quinoa crop. In the last five years, the sustainability of  quinoa production emerged as a  fundamental problem.  To address this    problem, soil conservation practices are  proposed, including the implementation  of living barriers, physical barriers, soil  repopulation with native species, use of  manure, and crop rotation, among others  (Puschiasis, 2009, VSF-CICDA 2009,  Orsag  et al., 2013). Each of these   practices has a theoretical foundation and  holds its own contribution to reduce soil  erosion.  However, the feasibility of their  implementation on a larger scale needs  further consideration. Among priority themes, Jaldín (2010)  mentions: the ecological capacity of the  ecosystem in relation to territorial  dynamics, sustainable models for quinoa  production, environmentally sustainable  technologies among others; raising a  series of questions that should be  addressed through research. In this context, PROINPA Foundation  implements actions to contribute to the  sustainability of quinoa based production  systems, through research and the use of  native species ancestrally adapted to these  areas, particularly shrubs or t'ulas. For this  purpose, the most efficient technology is  sought, one that holds the possibility of  large-scale implementation, easy  replicability and economic feasibility.  Based on these concerns, the  technological alternatives considered  important are: the revaluation of shrubs or  t'ulas, the search for specific adaptation  sites of the different species, methods of  seed collection, germination tests,  propagation methods, transplanting and  establishment of demonstration plots and  implementation of multi species living  barriers.   Recognition and revaluation  of shrubs   Native shrubs play various roles in quinoa  centered production systems. The name  t'ula is the generic name of evergreen  woody and semi-woody native shrubs,  growing in semi arid areas (Alzérreca et  al,  2002, Zamora, 2008,. Pizarro, 2013,   Bonifacio Aroni and s/a). However there  are local names for each species as  discussed below: Parastrephia lepidophylla is known by  the native names  sup'u tula, aymar T'ula,   sip'u T'ula, khiruta, pacha-taya, taya  t'ulalos. These names hold reference to  the dense growth habit (sup'u), attached  recinous leaves (sip'u), adaptation to icy  environments (pacha-taya, taya T'ula),  hardiness (khiru T'ula) and the possibility  of its use as fuel (t’ula for bread,  firewood).   Parastrephia lucida (Meyen) Cabrera  whose native names are Uma T’ula, yacu  t’ula, qulla t’ula, water firewood, in  reference to plants adapted to relatively  moist soils, or plants used as water  indicators (uma t’ula, yacu t’ula), and  plants with medicinal uses related to fever  reduction and as cure for dislocations  (qulla t’ula). Fabiana densa Remy with common  names like tara-tara, tara, tola, tolilla,  pichana, representing the fasciated  stem  shape irregularly up to the branching in  some cases  (tara, tara/tara), and  thin  branches (tolilla), suitable for  the use as  broom (pichana). Parastrephia quadrangulare holds the  native names t'it'i t'ula, sunsu t'ula in  reference to its open - semi rosette-like,  growth habit, with waywardly stem  positions (t'it'i) or irregular flowering in  different seasons (sunsu, a derivative of  foolish).    Lampaya medicinalis Moldenke: known  by the native names lamphaya or  lamphayo, which reflects its use as fuel in  the kitchen (lawa and phaya or firewood  for cooking). Baccharis tricuneta, B. tola; a plant  whose native names ñak'a tula, ñak'a,  orqu ñak'a, qachu ñak'a, meaning t'ula  female or t'ula male, represent the  dioecious condition of plants where male  is (orqu) and female (qachu).   Senecio clivicolus is known by the native  names qariwa and waych'a, referring to its   prolific and invasive growth condition  (aqariwa) or to the open shape of the  stringy folliage (waych'a). Alcantholippia deserticola Phil., is known  by the common name rica-rica in clear  reference to the use of the leaves for the  preparation of infusions and drinks that  taste sweet.   Adaptation of species   The different native species have different  performance and adaptation patterns in  different Altiplano eco-regions. In a  panoramic perspective different species  were observed as part of pure and mixed  vegetation patches, located on slopes,  plains, sandbanks, wetlands, etc. Bibliographical references do not mention  or emphasize the adaptation of these  species to ecological niches of the  Altiplano (Zamora, 2008; Soraide, 2011;  Román  et al. 2011; Orsag et al. 2013),   they are generally regarded as species  from semi-arid areas. While Alzérreca  et al. (2002) offer   alternatives for handling tola fields, it  must be considered that for targeted  utilization of species, it is necessary to  understand their adaptation in specific and  broad sense. This understanding needs  also to be related to alternatives for seed  production and plant development.   Thus, the uma t'ula species is well adapted  to plains near wetlands, where soil  moisture is abundant. Farmers associate it  with underground aquifers, a fact  reflected in the native name uma t'ula, that  translated literally means water prone  t'ula. The lampaya’s prefered habitat is in  plains with sand accumulation, dunes or  hillsides, but always in sandy soils with  frequent occurrence of winds. The  lampaya has the characteristic of forming  abundant organic matter at the base of the  plant where insect fauna proliferates.  This  proliferation of insects contributes to the  decomposition of accumulated leaves. It  is very common to find there coleopteran  larvae (laqatu), the favorite food of  quirchincho (Chaetopractus nationi). Tara-tara, is a species that grows well on  slopes and foothills, which are relatively  sheltered from the strong winds and where  soils are loam, sandy loam up to clay  loams. The sites where tara-tara grows are good   for quinoa production (fertility indicator).   The sup'u t'ula, grows well both in plains  and slopes, being the most widespread  species in the Altiplano. It prefers loam to  clay loam, deep soils with relatively acid  reaction. The sup'u t'ula forms abundant  leaf litter at the base of the plant which is  a source of organic matter. The  qariwa is a semi woody species of   multi-seasonal to biennial cycle. This is a  very common species in the Northern  Altiplano, which in recent years has  moved to the Central Altiplano and lately  can be found in the Southern Altiplano  colonizing considerable areas. This species is characterized by its high  prolificity and frost tolerance.  It grows in  winter, blooms in summer and dies after  forming seed during the rainy season. In  some areas it is considered an invasive  species. However, in semi-arid areas it  could be an alternative source of plant soil  cover and organic matter. In any case it  must be accompanied by a management  strategy. The rica-rica is a semi thorny shrub that   grows on hillsides. It has a deep root  which enables its establishment even in  compact soils. It is a highly drought  tolerant plant. The thorny branches help it  to withstand animal grazing.   Seed collection methods    The study of the reproductive biology of  the species has revealed its vegetative and  reproductive stages. Shrubs flower    between September and October. Fruiting  takes place between November and  December. In many cases there has been  fruiting outside this period (January,  February, March) probably because of the  disruptions caused by climate change. Seed collection was originally artisanal,  using conditioned containers (cut  jerrycan), locating the cut part against the  wind to facilitate seed collection. In some cases, wide mouth polypropylene  bags have been used to collect seeds. The  fruits and seeds of shrubs are very  sensitive to wind scattering, even with  very light winds. Their dissemination  structures are formed by the thistledown  which are organized in a sort of parachute. To facilitate collection a portable vacuum  was adapted to obtain power supply from  a car battery.  Although the management  of the equipment in the field is somewhat  difficult, it facilitates seed collection,  especially from the ñaka (Baccharis  tricuneata). Based on this experience, a  more powerful electric vacuum is being  adapted, in addition to entomological net  type seed collectors. Seed processing of shrub species includes  the removal of dissemination structures  (thistledown, bracts and residues of male  flowers). This work requires the use of  eye protection and masks to prevent  inhalation of plant particles and other  impurities adhered to the seed.     ISSN 1998 - 9652   Area: Technology Development 76   Parastrephia lepidophylla (Well.) Cabrera   sup’u tula, aymar t’ula, sip’u t’ula, khiruta,   pacha-taya, taya, tuya, tola de pan, leña   Parastrephia lucida (Meyen) Cabrera  uma t’ula, yacu t’ula, qulla t’ula, leña de   agua, pacha-taya, taya, tola de pan, leña   Problem description and  Project actions   Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) Is  one of the most important crops in  Bolivia, acreage extends up to 131,190  hectares and production reached 61,659  tons in 2013 The families involved in its  cultivation are around 45,000, from the  North, South and Central Altiplano  (PROINPA Foundation and AUTAPO  Foundation, 2005).| One of the factors that adversely affects  crop productivity is the incidence of a  variety of insect pests, such as the socalled  ticona (cutworm) complex composed of  several species of moths,  Copitarsia   incommoda, Helicoverpa quinoa, Agrotis  andina and the quinoa moth Eurysacca  quinoae  (PROINPA, 2010). These pests   in their larval state produce damage to the  crop, affecting grain quality and causing  production losses of up to 30%, which for  2013 correspond to 147.520.893.- USD  per annum (based on the price of 1,800 BS  / qq, prevailing at the Challapata market in  June 2014). To control these pests in organic  production systems, products registered  and accepted in organic regulations must  be used. However, there is limited supply  of these products to be able to use them in  an extensive scale. For that reason  PROINPA has developed a strategy for  the efficient management of pest control,  based on bio-registered products  approved for organic production. With the  purpose of expanding and disseminating  the strategy, PROINPA has partnered  with BIOTOP SRL, who coordinated  outreach activities with independent    producers, organic quinoa associations  and companies.   Methodology   The strategy proposed by PROINPA, for  integrated pest management (IPM) in  organic production has been implemented  quite successfully in over 20,000 hectares  in 2013. This strategy is based on  monitoring of adults and larvae,  preventive treatments, alternation of  products (active ingredients and modes of  action), timely applications and use of  adjuvant products. The integrated  management components are: a  Installation of pheromone traps (for   noctuidae): The installation of four traps  per hectare within the plot (with a distance  of at least 25 m between traps), helps  identify the first presence of adult insects  and the beginning of the oviposition  period. In areas where the population of  noctuidae is still low, the use of the four  traps/ha keeps larval populations at levels  that do not cause significant damage (≤5%  damage). a  Field Inspection: Regular inspection   visits should be made in at least four  stages of crop development: six true  leaves, beginning of panicle formation,  grain formation and milky grain. At each  inspection at least 10 plants per hectare  should be sampled at random. If the  presence of eggs and / or early stages of  larvae are observed in 20% of the  evaluated plants, preventive applications  are recommended. When larvae of more  advanced stages are observed or in case of  increased incidence, the application of  control treatments is recommended.   a  Application of preventive treatments:   the application of lime sulfur plus chili is  recommended because of its contact mode  of action which affects the central nervous  system of the insect, allowing good  control of eggs and of larvae in early  stages. Additionally, this product has a  repellent effect for adult insects,  protecting the crop for at least 15 days  from new pest oviposition phases. a Application of control treatments: a  control treatment at the beginning of  panicle formation is recommended.  During this phenological period  protection against these pests is very  important. Control treatments can be  made when insect monitoring detects  populations that justify applications.  Damage to the crop causes proliferation of  side branches resulting in handling  difficulties and lower performance. When  the presence of at least one larva per plant  is observed, the application of Spinosad ®  is recommended. Another moment of care is the growth  stage of milky grain, because it is the time  when the larvae begin to feed on the grain  in formation, and can cause significant  economic damage. At this point it is  important to perform field inspections.   For ticonas (cutworms), if five larvae per  panicle are observed in ten plants, and in  the case of moths, if five larvae are  observed per panicle; the application of  Spinosad ® is recommended.  Spinosad ®  is a natural high efficiency insecticide (>  93%) accepted in organic production,  whose mode of action is through contact  and ingestion, allowing an efficient larval  control and minimal effect on existing  beneficial insect fauna.   a Alternation of treatments: Following  IPM principles and in order to avoid the  emergence of resistant populations,  alternation of treatments is recommended;  ie alternating the application of natural  insecticides considering their active  ingredients and different modes of action,  avoiding more than two continuous  applications of the same product per crop  cycle. For example, lime sulfur and chili  extract can be alternated with Spinosad ®. a Using adjuvants: Because of the   presence of large amounts of oxalates in  the surfaces of leaves, stems and panicles  of quinoa, bio-adhesion is difficult.   Therefore, it is very important to apply a  bonding agent such as Agricultural  Vegetable Oil, which acts as a dispersing  agent, improves application coverage and  prevents the formation of large droplets.  Application of Agricultural Oil ensures  the efficiency of products.   Achievements   During the 2013-2014 crop year, the  alliance PROINPA and BIOTOP SRL,  has worked in partnership with various  producer associations and companies: In CADEQUIR, ANAPQUI,  CADEPQUIOR, SINDAN, Jacha Inti,  APQUISA, APQO Villa Florida,  APQO-Toledo, APQO-Keluyo, FDTA  Valles, IDEPRO, APROACH,  APROCAL, Andean Valley,  APROQUIROT, APROCOVES,  APROACAY,  APROQUIOS, and APRACCUK,  knowledge, attitudes and practices of  approximately 2,800 associates (men and  women) were strengthened. These   farmers were reached through capacity  building events delivered by technicians  and promoters, who personally spread the  Integrated Pest Management strategy for  organic quinoa production, reaching about  20,000 acres with this technology. The implementation of the strategy  reduced losses from 30% to 10% in the  20,000 acres that used Integrated Pest  Management. In economic terms, with  values of 1.800 Bs/qq (market price in  June 2014), this means, 14,618,275 USD  that producers have stopped losing, and  represent a benefit to the country through  improvement of crop productivity,  enhanced yield, better product quality and  environmental stewardship. On the other hand, in quinoa production  areas of the Bolivian Altiplano, a total of  70,926 units of pheromones for quinoa  cutworms (ticonas) have been sold,  covering more the 20,000 ha, representing  30% of the area cultivated with organic  quinoa. In the case of lime sulfur and chili  extract, in the past three crop years, a total  of 20,684 liters have been sold, covering  approximately 8300 hectares. In the case  of Spinosad®, in the past three crop years,  a total of 117,400 grams have been sold,  covering approximately 4000 hectares. Figure 1 shows the positive trend of the  use of products in the last three years,  particularly high for the case of lime  sulfur and higher for Spinosad.   Conclusions and  recommendations   • a of and ng   activities for technicians, promoters  and farmers, the quinoa pest  management strategy developed by    PROINPA and disseminated by  BIOTOP SRL, has been accepted by  organic quinoa producers, and in  several cases has been adjusted with  the implementation of local practices  and inputs. This situation can be  evidenced through sales data recorded  by BIOTOP SRL.  • initiative PROINPA   BIOTOP SRL has been well received,  especially by producer associations  and companies dedicated to the  production of organic quinoa. The  process has resulted in agreements,  higher volumes of bio-inputs sold and  supported by training for adequate use;  being all reflected in higher income for  farmers.  •   Integrated Management of insect pests  used for organic quinoa production in  20,000 hectares, allowed producers to  reduce losses in 14.618.275.- USD.  • task is larger   dissemination of the integrated  management strategy, in order for  most producers to have access to it and  to bio-inputs for application in organic  quinoa production. For example, many  farmers still use spraying backpacks,  resulting in an inefficient product  application and control.    The implementation of community   control campaigns should also be  considered, because if one farmer  controls and others don’t, efficiency is  lost and the damages continues. This  will depend on the coordinated efforts  of producers, associations, companies,  state institutions (municipalities,  governorates, etc.), organic certifiers  and other actors.    • development an   management strategy that responds to  organic production demands is a  continuous research work that should  be directed to the development of new,  more efficient bio-inputs (plant  extracts, etc.) permitted for organic  production and which can be easily  accessed in local markets.   Suggested references   Aroni, G., Saravia R. 2008. Evaluación de la   eficiencia de ecoplaguicidas en el control  de Noctuideos (ticonas y kcona kconas)  en  Chenopodium quinoa  Willd. In:   Informe del Proyecto Desarrollo de  Ecoplaguicidas para el Control de Plagas  Insectiles del Cultivo de la Quinua.  PROINPA Foundation.   Arragan, T. 2010. Nivel de daño económico de   la polilla de la quinua (Eurysacca  quinoae) en la localidad de Jalsuri –  Altiplano Central. Bachelor degree thesis,  Faculty of Agriculture, Universidad Mayor  de San Andrés. La Paz, Bolivia.  FAO. 1994. La quinua, cultivo milenario para   contribuir a la seguridad alimentaria.  Oficina Regional para América Latina y el  Caribe.  Fundación PROINPA, Fundación AUTAPO.   2005. Module 2: Manejo Agronómico de  la Quinua Orgánica. La Paz, Bolivia. 105  p.  Saravia, R. Bonifacio, A., Aduviri, J. 2010. La   identificación de enemigos de la quinua,  una tarea esencial en el MIP. In:  Compendio de Actividades, PROINPA  Foundation, 2010. pp. 27-29.      Description of the problem  and the actions taken to solve  it   In the Southern Altiplano three areas of  quinoa production can be differentiated:   mountains, hills or slopes and plains or  pampa. The soils are generally sandy,  loamy sand or sandy loam (Soraide, 2011;  Orsag et al., 2013.). In these types of soils   the most serious problem is erosion,  which results in low fertility and low  quinoa yields. In some traditional quinoa producing  areas, abandoned plots can be observed,  which have lost their productive capacity  after being cultivated with quinoa for  several years. It is common to see plots of  10, 20 or more hectares that have been  turned into sandbanks. A preliminary  estimation in the community of Chacala  shows that sandbanks can reach up to 600  ha, being very susceptible to wind  erosion. Due to this situation new plots  and new areas are prepared for growing  quinoa, expanding the agricultural frontier  and falling into quinoa monoculture. According to Altieri and Nichols (2000),  monocultures that expand throughout the  world are characterized by the cultivation  of the same species on the same land year  after year; where ecological  complementarity between soil, crops and  animals is nonexistent and where a    specific crop expands beyond its natural  environment or supporting area. This is the case of quinoa that expands  from slopes towards the plains. (Aroni,  2008, Aroni and Bonifacio, s/a., Soraide,  2011). Therefore, several authors have  addressed the problem of sustainability of  quinoa from reflective and critical points  of view, hence suggesting solutions  (Soraide, 2011 Medrano and Torrico,  2009, Jaldín, 2010, Jacobsen, 2011 and  2012, Winkel et al., 2012, Orsag et al.,  2013, Ormachea and Ramirez, 2013). According to the Bolivian Institute of  Foreign Trade (IBCE) (2013), during the  2001-2002 crop year Bolivia registered  more than 37,000 hectares of quinoa  cultivated land, after 10 years, during the  2011-2012 crop year, this area had  increased to 96,544 hectares. With this trend, a growth of 12% is  expected for the period 2013-2014 in  comparison to the previously mentioned  area. The increase in area allows for  increased production volumes, while  unitary yields in the Southern Altiplano  remain at about 500 kg/ha. The consequence of the expansion of the  agricultural frontier for quinoa production  is the reduction of grazing area and the  reduction in the population of lamas.   Thus negatively affecting the availability    of manure for agriculture (Aroni, 2008,  Jaldín, 2010, Vallejos et al., 2011,  Bonifacio Aroni and s/a). The most serious environmental effects in  recent years have been caused by the  strong winds that carry large amounts of  sand from surface layers of loose soils.   This causes seedlings in the establishment  phase to be buried, reduces the natural  repopulation of native flora, causes the  destruction of houses, etc. This  transportation of soil can be easily  perceived on plot edges and on access  roads. Accumulation of soil can be  observed in places where t'ula plants grow  and rills can be observed by t’ula fields  and roads. This situation only confirms that the true  vocation of the Southern Altiplano is   livestock production, but because of the  great market opportunity of quinoa, soils  are extensive and intensively used for  agriculture. The production and  commercialization of quinoa brings new  alternatives for a population that for  centuries has had few income generation  options, and for individual farmers it  brings in the opportunity to exit poverty. In the Altiplano agro-ecosystem and  particularly in the Southern Altiplano,  practices of deforestation of native  species, to clear new land for quinoa  production, are causing serious problems  in soil conservation and the elimination of  natural habitats. This in turn is causing  low productivity of soils and proliferation  of pests that attack the quinoa crop. In the last five years, the sustainability of  quinoa production emerged as a  fundamental problem.  To address this    problem, soil conservation practices are  proposed, including the implementation  of living barriers, physical barriers, soil  repopulation with native species, use of  manure, and crop rotation, among others  (Puschiasis, 2009, VSF-CICDA 2009,  Orsag  et al., 2013). Each of these   practices has a theoretical foundation and  holds its own contribution to reduce soil  erosion.  However, the feasibility of their  implementation on a larger scale needs  further consideration. Among priority themes, Jaldín (2010)  mentions: the ecological capacity of the  ecosystem in relation to territorial  dynamics, sustainable models for quinoa  production, environmentally sustainable  technologies among others; raising a  series of questions that should be  addressed through research. In this context, PROINPA Foundation  implements actions to contribute to the  sustainability of quinoa based production  systems, through research and the use of  native species ancestrally adapted to these  areas, particularly shrubs or t'ulas. For this  purpose, the most efficient technology is  sought, one that holds the possibility of  large-scale implementation, easy  replicability and economic feasibility.  Based on these concerns, the  technological alternatives considered  important are: the revaluation of shrubs or  t'ulas, the search for specific adaptation  sites of the different species, methods of  seed collection, germination tests,  propagation methods, transplanting and  establishment of demonstration plots and  implementation of multi species living  barriers.   Recognition and revaluation  of shrubs   Native shrubs play various roles in quinoa  centered production systems. The name  t'ula is the generic name of evergreen  woody and semi-woody native shrubs,  growing in semi arid areas (Alzérreca et  al,  2002, Zamora, 2008,. Pizarro, 2013,   Bonifacio Aroni and s/a). However there  are local names for each species as  discussed below: Parastrephia lepidophylla is known by  the native names  sup'u tula, aymar T'ula,   sip'u T'ula, khiruta, pacha-taya, taya  t'ulalos. These names hold reference to  the dense growth habit (sup'u), attached  recinous leaves (sip'u), adaptation to icy  environments (pacha-taya, taya T'ula),  hardiness (khiru T'ula) and the possibility  of its use as fuel (t’ula for bread,  firewood).   Parastrephia lucida (Meyen) Cabrera  whose native names are Uma T’ula, yacu  t’ula, qulla t’ula, water firewood, in  reference to plants adapted to relatively  moist soils, or plants used as water  indicators (uma t’ula, yacu t’ula), and  plants with medicinal uses related to fever  reduction and as cure for dislocations  (qulla t’ula). Fabiana densa Remy with common  names like tara-tara, tara, tola, tolilla,  pichana, representing the fasciated  stem  shape irregularly up to the branching in  some cases  (tara, tara/tara), and  thin  branches (tolilla), suitable for  the use as  broom (pichana). Parastrephia quadrangulare holds the  native names t'it'i t'ula, sunsu t'ula in  reference to its open - semi rosette-like,  growth habit, with waywardly stem  positions (t'it'i) or irregular flowering in  different seasons (sunsu, a derivative of  foolish).    Lampaya medicinalis Moldenke: known  by the native names lamphaya or  lamphayo, which reflects its use as fuel in  the kitchen (lawa and phaya or firewood  for cooking). Baccharis tricuneta, B. tola; a plant  whose native names ñak'a tula, ñak'a,  orqu ñak'a, qachu ñak'a, meaning t'ula  female or t'ula male, represent the  dioecious condition of plants where male  is (orqu) and female (qachu).   Senecio clivicolus is known by the native  names qariwa and waych'a, referring to its   prolific and invasive growth condition  (aqariwa) or to the open shape of the  stringy folliage (waych'a). Alcantholippia deserticola Phil., is known  by the common name rica-rica in clear  reference to the use of the leaves for the  preparation of infusions and drinks that  taste sweet.   Adaptation of species   The different native species have different  performance and adaptation patterns in  different Altiplano eco-regions. In a  panoramic perspective different species  were observed as part of pure and mixed  vegetation patches, located on slopes,  plains, sandbanks, wetlands, etc. Bibliographical references do not mention  or emphasize the adaptation of these  species to ecological niches of the  Altiplano (Zamora, 2008; Soraide, 2011;  Román  et al. 2011; Orsag et al. 2013),   they are generally regarded as species  from semi-arid areas. While Alzérreca  et al. (2002) offer   alternatives for handling tola fields, it  must be considered that for targeted  utilization of species, it is necessary to  understand their adaptation in specific and  broad sense. This understanding needs  also to be related to alternatives for seed  production and plant development.   Thus, the uma t'ula species is well adapted  to plains near wetlands, where soil  moisture is abundant. Farmers associate it  with underground aquifers, a fact  reflected in the native name uma t'ula, that  translated literally means water prone  t'ula. The lampaya’s prefered habitat is in  plains with sand accumulation, dunes or  hillsides, but always in sandy soils with  frequent occurrence of winds. The  lampaya has the characteristic of forming  abundant organic matter at the base of the  plant where insect fauna proliferates.  This  proliferation of insects contributes to the  decomposition of accumulated leaves. It  is very common to find there coleopteran  larvae (laqatu), the favorite food of  quirchincho (Chaetopractus nationi). Tara-tara, is a species that grows well on  slopes and foothills, which are relatively  sheltered from the strong winds and where  soils are loam, sandy loam up to clay  loams. The sites where tara-tara grows are good   for quinoa production (fertility indicator).   The sup'u t'ula, grows well both in plains  and slopes, being the most widespread  species in the Altiplano. It prefers loam to  clay loam, deep soils with relatively acid  reaction. The sup'u t'ula forms abundant  leaf litter at the base of the plant which is  a source of organic matter. The  qariwa is a semi woody species of   multi-seasonal to biennial cycle. This is a  very common species in the Northern  Altiplano, which in recent years has  moved to the Central Altiplano and lately  can be found in the Southern Altiplano  colonizing considerable areas. This species is characterized by its high  prolificity and frost tolerance.  It grows in  winter, blooms in summer and dies after  forming seed during the rainy season. In  some areas it is considered an invasive  species. However, in semi-arid areas it  could be an alternative source of plant soil  cover and organic matter. In any case it  must be accompanied by a management  strategy. The rica-rica is a semi thorny shrub that   grows on hillsides. It has a deep root  which enables its establishment even in  compact soils. It is a highly drought  tolerant plant. The thorny branches help it  to withstand animal grazing.   Seed collection methods    The study of the reproductive biology of  the species has revealed its vegetative and  reproductive stages. Shrubs flower    between September and October. Fruiting  takes place between November and  December. In many cases there has been  fruiting outside this period (January,  February, March) probably because of the  disruptions caused by climate change. Seed collection was originally artisanal,  using conditioned containers (cut  jerrycan), locating the cut part against the  wind to facilitate seed collection. In some cases, wide mouth polypropylene  bags have been used to collect seeds. The  fruits and seeds of shrubs are very  sensitive to wind scattering, even with  very light winds. Their dissemination  structures are formed by the thistledown  which are organized in a sort of parachute. To facilitate collection a portable vacuum  was adapted to obtain power supply from  a car battery.  Although the management  of the equipment in the field is somewhat  difficult, it facilitates seed collection,  especially from the ñaka (Baccharis  tricuneata). Based on this experience, a  more powerful electric vacuum is being  adapted, in addition to entomological net  type seed collectors. Seed processing of shrub species includes  the removal of dissemination structures  (thistledown, bracts and residues of male  flowers). This work requires the use of  eye protection and masks to prevent  inhalation of plant particles and other  impurities adhered to the seed.     Revista de Agricultura, Nro. 54 - Julio de 2014   Area: Technology Development 77   Fabiana densa Remy  tara-tara, tola, tolilla, tara, pichana    Parastrephia quadrangulare Cabrera   t’iti’i t’ula, sunsus t’ula   Lampaya medicinalis Moldenke  lamphaya, lamphayo    Baccharis tricuneta    ñak’a tula, ñak’a, orqu ñak’a,               qachu ñak’a, t’ula hembra, t’ula macho    Problem description and  Project actions   Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) Is  one of the most important crops in  Bolivia, acreage extends up to 131,190  hectares and production reached 61,659  tons in 2013 The families involved in its  cultivation are around 45,000, from the  North, South and Central Altiplano  (PROINPA Foundation and AUTAPO  Foundation, 2005).| One of the factors that adversely affects  crop productivity is the incidence of a  variety of insect pests, such as the socalled  ticona (cutworm) complex composed of  several species of moths,  Copitarsia   incommoda, Helicoverpa quinoa, Agrotis  andina and the quinoa moth Eurysacca  quinoae  (PROINPA, 2010). These pests   in their larval state produce damage to the  crop, affecting grain quality and causing  production losses of up to 30%, which for  2013 correspond to 147.520.893.- USD  per annum (based on the price of 1,800 BS  / qq, prevailing at the Challapata market in  June 2014). To control these pests in organic  production systems, products registered  and accepted in organic regulations must  be used. However, there is limited supply  of these products to be able to use them in  an extensive scale. For that reason  PROINPA has developed a strategy for  the efficient management of pest control,  based on bio-registered products  approved for organic production. With the  purpose of expanding and disseminating  the strategy, PROINPA has partnered  with BIOTOP SRL, who coordinated  outreach activities with independent    producers, organic quinoa associations  and companies.   Methodology   The strategy proposed by PROINPA, for  integrated pest management (IPM) in  organic production has been implemented  quite successfully in over 20,000 hectares  in 2013. This strategy is based on  monitoring of adults and larvae,  preventive treatments, alternation of  products (active ingredients and modes of  action), timely applications and use of  adjuvant products. The integrated  management components are: a  Installation of pheromone traps (for   noctuidae): The installation of four traps  per hectare within the plot (with a distance  of at least 25 m between traps), helps  identify the first presence of adult insects  and the beginning of the oviposition  period. In areas where the population of  noctuidae is still low, the use of the four  traps/ha keeps larval populations at levels  that do not cause significant damage (≤5%  damage). a  Field Inspection: Regular inspection   visits should be made in at least four  stages of crop development: six true  leaves, beginning of panicle formation,  grain formation and milky grain. At each  inspection at least 10 plants per hectare  should be sampled at random. If the  presence of eggs and / or early stages of  larvae are observed in 20% of the  evaluated plants, preventive applications  are recommended. When larvae of more  advanced stages are observed or in case of  increased incidence, the application of  control treatments is recommended.   a  Application of preventive treatments:   the application of lime sulfur plus chili is  recommended because of its contact mode  of action which affects the central nervous  system of the insect, allowing good  control of eggs and of larvae in early  stages. Additionally, this product has a  repellent effect for adult insects,  protecting the crop for at least 15 days  from new pest oviposition phases. a Application of control treatments: a  control treatment at the beginning of  panicle formation is recommended.  During this phenological period  protection against these pests is very  important. Control treatments can be  made when insect monitoring detects  populations that justify applications.  Damage to the crop causes proliferation of  side branches resulting in handling  difficulties and lower performance. When  the presence of at least one larva per plant  is observed, the application of Spinosad ®  is recommended. Another moment of care is the growth  stage of milky grain, because it is the time  when the larvae begin to feed on the grain  in formation, and can cause significant  economic damage. At this point it is  important to perform field inspections.   For ticonas (cutworms), if five larvae per  panicle are observed in ten plants, and in  the case of moths, if five larvae are  observed per panicle; the application of  Spinosad ® is recommended.  Spinosad ®  is a natural high efficiency insecticide (>  93%) accepted in organic production,  whose mode of action is through contact  and ingestion, allowing an efficient larval  control and minimal effect on existing  beneficial insect fauna.   a Alternation of treatments: Following  IPM principles and in order to avoid the  emergence of resistant populations,  alternation of treatments is recommended;  ie alternating the application of natural  insecticides considering their active  ingredients and different modes of action,  avoiding more than two continuous  applications of the same product per crop  cycle. For example, lime sulfur and chili  extract can be alternated with Spinosad ®. a Using adjuvants: Because of the   presence of large amounts of oxalates in  the surfaces of leaves, stems and panicles  of quinoa, bio-adhesion is difficult.   Therefore, it is very important to apply a  bonding agent such as Agricultural  Vegetable Oil, which acts as a dispersing  agent, improves application coverage and  prevents the formation of large droplets.  Application of Agricultural Oil ensures  the efficiency of products.   Achievements   During the 2013-2014 crop year, the  alliance PROINPA and BIOTOP SRL,  has worked in partnership with various  producer associations and companies: In CADEQUIR, ANAPQUI,  CADEPQUIOR, SINDAN, Jacha Inti,  APQUISA, APQO Villa Florida,  APQO-Toledo, APQO-Keluyo, FDTA  Valles, IDEPRO, APROACH,  APROCAL, Andean Valley,  APROQUIROT, APROCOVES,  APROACAY,  APROQUIOS, and APRACCUK,  knowledge, attitudes and practices of  approximately 2,800 associates (men and  women) were strengthened. These   farmers were reached through capacity  building events delivered by technicians  and promoters, who personally spread the  Integrated Pest Management strategy for  organic quinoa production, reaching about  20,000 acres with this technology. The implementation of the strategy  reduced losses from 30% to 10% in the  20,000 acres that used Integrated Pest  Management. In economic terms, with  values of 1.800 Bs/qq (market price in  June 2014), this means, 14,618,275 USD  that producers have stopped losing, and  represent a benefit to the country through  improvement of crop productivity,  enhanced yield, better product quality and  environmental stewardship. On the other hand, in quinoa production  areas of the Bolivian Altiplano, a total of  70,926 units of pheromones for quinoa  cutworms (ticonas) have been sold,  covering more the 20,000 ha, representing  30% of the area cultivated with organic  quinoa. In the case of lime sulfur and chili  extract, in the past three crop years, a total  of 20,684 liters have been sold, covering  approximately 8300 hectares. In the case  of Spinosad®, in the past three crop years,  a total of 117,400 grams have been sold,  covering approximately 4000 hectares. Figure 1 shows the positive trend of the  use of products in the last three years,  particularly high for the case of lime  sulfur and higher for Spinosad.   Conclusions and  recommendations   • a of and ng   activities for technicians, promoters  and farmers, the quinoa pest  management strategy developed by    PROINPA and disseminated by  BIOTOP SRL, has been accepted by  organic quinoa producers, and in  several cases has been adjusted with  the implementation of local practices  and inputs. This situation can be  evidenced through sales data recorded  by BIOTOP SRL.  • initiative PROINPA   BIOTOP SRL has been well received,  especially by producer associations  and companies dedicated to the  production of organic quinoa. The  process has resulted in agreements,  higher volumes of bio-inputs sold and  supported by training for adequate use;  being all reflected in higher income for  farmers.  •   Integrated Management of insect pests  used for organic quinoa production in  20,000 hectares, allowed producers to  reduce losses in 14.618.275.- USD.  • task is larger   dissemination of the integrated  management strategy, in order for  most producers to have access to it and  to bio-inputs for application in organic  quinoa production. For example, many  farmers still use spraying backpacks,  resulting in an inefficient product  application and control.    The implementation of community   control campaigns should also be  considered, because if one farmer  controls and others don’t, efficiency is  lost and the damages continues. This  will depend on the coordinated efforts  of producers, associations, companies,  state institutions (municipalities,  governorates, etc.), organic certifiers  and other actors.    • development an   management strategy that responds to  organic production demands is a  continuous research work that should  be directed to the development of new,  more efficient bio-inputs (plant  extracts, etc.) permitted for organic  production and which can be easily  accessed in local markets.   Suggested references   Aroni, G., Saravia R. 2008. Evaluación de la   eficiencia de ecoplaguicidas en el control  de Noctuideos (ticonas y kcona kconas)  en  Chenopodium quinoa  Willd. In:   Informe del Proyecto Desarrollo de  Ecoplaguicidas para el Control de Plagas  Insectiles del Cultivo de la Quinua.  PROINPA Foundation.   Arragan, T. 2010. Nivel de daño económico de   la polilla de la quinua (Eurysacca  quinoae) en la localidad de Jalsuri –  Altiplano Central. Bachelor degree thesis,  Faculty of Agriculture, Universidad Mayor  de San Andrés. La Paz, Bolivia.  FAO. 1994. La quinua, cultivo milenario para   contribuir a la seguridad alimentaria.  Oficina Regional para América Latina y el  Caribe.  Fundación PROINPA, Fundación AUTAPO.   2005. Module 2: Manejo Agronómico de  la Quinua Orgánica. La Paz, Bolivia. 105  p.  Saravia, R. Bonifacio, A., Aduviri, J. 2010. La   identificación de enemigos de la quinua,  una tarea esencial en el MIP. In:  Compendio de Actividades, PROINPA  Foundation, 2010. pp. 27-29.      Description of the problem  and the actions taken to solve  it   In the Southern Altiplano three areas of  quinoa production can be differentiated:   mountains, hills or slopes and plains or  pampa. The soils are generally sandy,  loamy sand or sandy loam (Soraide, 2011;  Orsag et al., 2013.). In these types of soils   the most serious problem is erosion,  which results in low fertility and low  quinoa yields. In some traditional quinoa producing  areas, abandoned plots can be observed,  which have lost their productive capacity  after being cultivated with quinoa for  several years. It is common to see plots of  10, 20 or more hectares that have been  turned into sandbanks. A preliminary  estimation in the community of Chacala  shows that sandbanks can reach up to 600  ha, being very susceptible to wind  erosion. Due to this situation new plots  and new areas are prepared for growing  quinoa, expanding the agricultural frontier  and falling into quinoa monoculture. According to Altieri and Nichols (2000),  monocultures that expand throughout the  world are characterized by the cultivation  of the same species on the same land year  after year; where ecological  complementarity between soil, crops and  animals is nonexistent and where a    specific crop expands beyond its natural  environment or supporting area. This is the case of quinoa that expands  from slopes towards the plains. (Aroni,  2008, Aroni and Bonifacio, s/a., Soraide,  2011). Therefore, several authors have  addressed the problem of sustainability of  quinoa from reflective and critical points  of view, hence suggesting solutions  (Soraide, 2011 Medrano and Torrico,  2009, Jaldín, 2010, Jacobsen, 2011 and  2012, Winkel et al., 2012, Orsag et al.,  2013, Ormachea and Ramirez, 2013). According to the Bolivian Institute of  Foreign Trade (IBCE) (2013), during the  2001-2002 crop year Bolivia registered  more than 37,000 hectares of quinoa  cultivated land, after 10 years, during the  2011-2012 crop year, this area had  increased to 96,544 hectares. With this trend, a growth of 12% is  expected for the period 2013-2014 in  comparison to the previously mentioned  area. The increase in area allows for  increased production volumes, while  unitary yields in the Southern Altiplano  remain at about 500 kg/ha. The consequence of the expansion of the  agricultural frontier for quinoa production  is the reduction of grazing area and the  reduction in the population of lamas.   Thus negatively affecting the availability    of manure for agriculture (Aroni, 2008,  Jaldín, 2010, Vallejos et al., 2011,  Bonifacio Aroni and s/a). The most serious environmental effects in  recent years have been caused by the  strong winds that carry large amounts of  sand from surface layers of loose soils.   This causes seedlings in the establishment  phase to be buried, reduces the natural  repopulation of native flora, causes the  destruction of houses, etc. This  transportation of soil can be easily  perceived on plot edges and on access  roads. Accumulation of soil can be  observed in places where t'ula plants grow  and rills can be observed by t’ula fields  and roads. This situation only confirms that the true  vocation of the Southern Altiplano is   livestock production, but because of the  great market opportunity of quinoa, soils  are extensive and intensively used for  agriculture. The production and  commercialization of quinoa brings new  alternatives for a population that for  centuries has had few income generation  options, and for individual farmers it  brings in the opportunity to exit poverty. In the Altiplano agro-ecosystem and  particularly in the Southern Altiplano,  practices of deforestation of native  species, to clear new land for quinoa  production, are causing serious problems  in soil conservation and the elimination of  natural habitats. This in turn is causing  low productivity of soils and proliferation  of pests that attack the quinoa crop. In the last five years, the sustainability of  quinoa production emerged as a  fundamental problem.  To address this    problem, soil conservation practices are  proposed, including the implementation  of living barriers, physical barriers, soil  repopulation with native species, use of  manure, and crop rotation, among others  (Puschiasis, 2009, VSF-CICDA 2009,  Orsag  et al., 2013). Each of these   practices has a theoretical foundation and  holds its own contribution to reduce soil  erosion.  However, the feasibility of their  implementation on a larger scale needs  further consideration. Among priority themes, Jaldín (2010)  mentions: the ecological capacity of the  ecosystem in relation to territorial  dynamics, sustainable models for quinoa  production, environmentally sustainable  technologies among others; raising a  series of questions that should be  addressed through research. In this context, PROINPA Foundation  implements actions to contribute to the  sustainability of quinoa based production  systems, through research and the use of  native species ancestrally adapted to these  areas, particularly shrubs or t'ulas. For this  purpose, the most efficient technology is  sought, one that holds the possibility of  large-scale implementation, easy  replicability and economic feasibility.  Based on these concerns, the  technological alternatives considered  important are: the revaluation of shrubs or  t'ulas, the search for specific adaptation  sites of the different species, methods of  seed collection, germination tests,  propagation methods, transplanting and  establishment of demonstration plots and  implementation of multi species living  barriers.   Recognition and revaluation  of shrubs   Native shrubs play various roles in quinoa  centered production systems. The name  t'ula is the generic name of evergreen  woody and semi-woody native shrubs,  growing in semi arid areas (Alzérreca et  al,  2002, Zamora, 2008,. Pizarro, 2013,   Bonifacio Aroni and s/a). However there  are local names for each species as  discussed below: Parastrephia lepidophylla is known by  the native names  sup'u tula, aymar T'ula,   sip'u T'ula, khiruta, pacha-taya, taya  t'ulalos. These names hold reference to  the dense growth habit (sup'u), attached  recinous leaves (sip'u), adaptation to icy  environments (pacha-taya, taya T'ula),  hardiness (khiru T'ula) and the possibility  of its use as fuel (t’ula for bread,  firewood).   Parastrephia lucida (Meyen) Cabrera  whose native names are Uma T’ula, yacu  t’ula, qulla t’ula, water firewood, in  reference to plants adapted to relatively  moist soils, or plants used as water  indicators (uma t’ula, yacu t’ula), and  plants with medicinal uses related to fever  reduction and as cure for dislocations  (qulla t’ula). Fabiana densa Remy with common  names like tara-tara, tara, tola, tolilla,  pichana, representing the fasciated  stem  shape irregularly up to the branching in  some cases  (tara, tara/tara), and  thin  branches (tolilla), suitable for  the use as  broom (pichana). Parastrephia quadrangulare holds the  native names t'it'i t'ula, sunsu t'ula in  reference to its open - semi rosette-like,  growth habit, with waywardly stem  positions (t'it'i) or irregular flowering in  different seasons (sunsu, a derivative of  foolish).    Lampaya medicinalis Moldenke: known  by the native names lamphaya or  lamphayo, which reflects its use as fuel in  the kitchen (lawa and phaya or firewood  for cooking). Baccharis tricuneta, B. tola; a plant  whose native names ñak'a tula, ñak'a,  orqu ñak'a, qachu ñak'a, meaning t'ula  female or t'ula male, represent the  dioecious condition of plants where male  is (orqu) and female (qachu).   Senecio clivicolus is known by the native  names qariwa and waych'a, referring to its   prolific and invasive growth condition  (aqariwa) or to the open shape of the  stringy folliage (waych'a). Alcantholippia deserticola Phil., is known  by the common name rica-rica in clear  reference to the use of the leaves for the  preparation of infusions and drinks that  taste sweet.   Adaptation of species   The different native species have different  performance and adaptation patterns in  different Altiplano eco-regions. In a  panoramic perspective different species  were observed as part of pure and mixed  vegetation patches, located on slopes,  plains, sandbanks, wetlands, etc. Bibliographical references do not mention  or emphasize the adaptation of these  species to ecological niches of the  Altiplano (Zamora, 2008; Soraide, 2011;  Román  et al. 2011; Orsag et al. 2013),   they are generally regarded as species  from semi-arid areas. While Alzérreca  et al. (2002) offer   alternatives for handling tola fields, it  must be considered that for targeted  utilization of species, it is necessary to  understand their adaptation in specific and  broad sense. This understanding needs  also to be related to alternatives for seed  production and plant development.   Thus, the uma t'ula species is well adapted  to plains near wetlands, where soil  moisture is abundant. Farmers associate it  with underground aquifers, a fact  reflected in the native name uma t'ula, that  translated literally means water prone  t'ula. The lampaya’s prefered habitat is in  plains with sand accumulation, dunes or  hillsides, but always in sandy soils with  frequent occurrence of winds. The  lampaya has the characteristic of forming  abundant organic matter at the base of the  plant where insect fauna proliferates.  This  proliferation of insects contributes to the  decomposition of accumulated leaves. It  is very common to find there coleopteran  larvae (laqatu), the favorite food of  quirchincho (Chaetopractus nationi). Tara-tara, is a species that grows well on  slopes and foothills, which are relatively  sheltered from the strong winds and where  soils are loam, sandy loam up to clay  loams. The sites where tara-tara grows are good   for quinoa production (fertility indicator).   The sup'u t'ula, grows well both in plains  and slopes, being the most widespread  species in the Altiplano. It prefers loam to  clay loam, deep soils with relatively acid  reaction. The sup'u t'ula forms abundant  leaf litter at the base of the plant which is  a source of organic matter. The  qariwa is a semi woody species of   multi-seasonal to biennial cycle. This is a  very common species in the Northern  Altiplano, which in recent years has  moved to the Central Altiplano and lately  can be found in the Southern Altiplano  colonizing considerable areas. This species is characterized by its high  prolificity and frost tolerance.  It grows in  winter, blooms in summer and dies after  forming seed during the rainy season. In  some areas it is considered an invasive  species. However, in semi-arid areas it  could be an alternative source of plant soil  cover and organic matter. In any case it  must be accompanied by a management  strategy. The rica-rica is a semi thorny shrub that   grows on hillsides. It has a deep root  which enables its establishment even in  compact soils. It is a highly drought  tolerant plant. The thorny branches help it  to withstand animal grazing.   Seed collection methods    The study of the reproductive biology of  the species has revealed its vegetative and  reproductive stages. Shrubs flower    between September and October. Fruiting  takes place between November and  December. In many cases there has been  fruiting outside this period (January,  February, March) probably because of the  disruptions caused by climate change. Seed collection was originally artisanal,  using conditioned containers (cut  jerrycan), locating the cut part against the  wind to facilitate seed collection. In some cases, wide mouth polypropylene  bags have been used to collect seeds. The  fruits and seeds of shrubs are very  sensitive to wind scattering, even with  very light winds. Their dissemination  structures are formed by the thistledown  which are organized in a sort of parachute. To facilitate collection a portable vacuum  was adapted to obtain power supply from  a car battery.  Although the management  of the equipment in the field is somewhat  difficult, it facilitates seed collection,  especially from the ñaka (Baccharis  tricuneata). Based on this experience, a  more powerful electric vacuum is being  adapted, in addition to entomological net  type seed collectors. Seed processing of shrub species includes  the removal of dissemination structures  (thistledown, bracts and residues of male  flowers). This work requires the use of  eye protection and masks to prevent  inhalation of plant particles and other  impurities adhered to the seed.     ISSN 1998 - 9652   Area: Technology Development 78   Senecio clivicolus   qariwa, waych’a   Alcantholippia deserticola Phil.  rica-rica   Problem description and  Project actions   Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) Is  one of the most important crops in  Bolivia, acreage extends up to 131,190  hectares and production reached 61,659  tons in 2013 The families involved in its  cultivation are around 45,000, from the  North, South and Central Altiplano  (PROINPA Foundation and AUTAPO  Foundation, 2005).| One of the factors that adversely affects  crop productivity is the incidence of a  variety of insect pests, such as the socalled  ticona (cutworm) complex composed of  several species of moths,  Copitarsia   incommoda, Helicoverpa quinoa, Agrotis  andina and the quinoa moth Eurysacca  quinoae  (PROINPA, 2010). These pests   in their larval state produce damage to the  crop, affecting grain quality and causing  production losses of up to 30%, which for  2013 correspond to 147.520.893.- USD  per annum (based on the price of 1,800 BS  / qq, prevailing at the Challapata market in  June 2014). To control these pests in organic  production systems, products registered  and accepted in organic regulations must  be used. However, there is limited supply  of these products to be able to use them in  an extensive scale. For that reason  PROINPA has developed a strategy for  the efficient management of pest control,  based on bio-registered products  approved for organic production. With the  purpose of expanding and disseminating  the strategy, PROINPA has partnered  with BIOTOP SRL, who coordinated  outreach activities with independent    producers, organic quinoa associations  and companies.   Methodology   The strategy proposed by PROINPA, for  integrated pest management (IPM) in  organic production has been implemented  quite successfully in over 20,000 hectares  in 2013. This strategy is based on  monitoring of adults and larvae,  preventive treatments, alternation of  products (active ingredients and modes of  action), timely applications and use of  adjuvant products. The integrated  management components are: a  Installation of pheromone traps (for   noctuidae): The installation of four traps  per hectare within the plot (with a distance  of at least 25 m between traps), helps  identify the first presence of adult insects  and the beginning of the oviposition  period. In areas where the population of  noctuidae is still low, the use of the four  traps/ha keeps larval populations at levels  that do not cause significant damage (≤5%  damage). a  Field Inspection: Regular inspection   visits should be made in at least four  stages of crop development: six true  leaves, beginning of panicle formation,  grain formation and milky grain. At each  inspection at least 10 plants per hectare  should be sampled at random. If the  presence of eggs and / or early stages of  larvae are observed in 20% of the  evaluated plants, preventive applications  are recommended. When larvae of more  advanced stages are observed or in case of  increased incidence, the application of  control treatments is recommended.   a  Application of preventive treatments:   the application of lime sulfur plus chili is  recommended because of its contact mode  of action which affects the central nervous  system of the insect, allowing good  control of eggs and of larvae in early  stages. Additionally, this product has a  repellent effect for adult insects,  protecting the crop for at least 15 days  from new pest oviposition phases. a Application of control treatments: a  control treatment at the beginning of  panicle formation is recommended.  During this phenological period  protection against these pests is very  important. Control treatments can be  made when insect monitoring detects  populations that justify applications.  Damage to the crop causes proliferation of  side branches resulting in handling  difficulties and lower performance. When  the presence of at least one larva per plant  is observed, the application of Spinosad ®  is recommended. Another moment of care is the growth  stage of milky grain, because it is the time  when the larvae begin to feed on the grain  in formation, and can cause significant  economic damage. At this point it is  important to perform field inspections.   For ticonas (cutworms), if five larvae per  panicle are observed in ten plants, and in  the case of moths, if five larvae are  observed per panicle; the application of  Spinosad ® is recommended.  Spinosad ®  is a natural high efficiency insecticide (>  93%) accepted in organic production,  whose mode of action is through contact  and ingestion, allowing an efficient larval  control and minimal effect on existing  beneficial insect fauna.   a Alternation of treatments: Following  IPM principles and in order to avoid the  emergence of resistant populations,  alternation of treatments is recommended;  ie alternating the application of natural  insecticides considering their active  ingredients and different modes of action,  avoiding more than two continuous  applications of the same product per crop  cycle. For example, lime sulfur and chili  extract can be alternated with Spinosad ®. a Using adjuvants: Because of the   presence of large amounts of oxalates in  the surfaces of leaves, stems and panicles  of quinoa, bio-adhesion is difficult.   Therefore, it is very important to apply a  bonding agent such as Agricultural  Vegetable Oil, which acts as a dispersing  agent, improves application coverage and  prevents the formation of large droplets.  Application of Agricultural Oil ensures  the efficiency of products.   Achievements   During the 2013-2014 crop year, the  alliance PROINPA and BIOTOP SRL,  has worked in partnership with various  producer associations and companies: In CADEQUIR, ANAPQUI,  CADEPQUIOR, SINDAN, Jacha Inti,  APQUISA, APQO Villa Florida,  APQO-Toledo, APQO-Keluyo, FDTA  Valles, IDEPRO, APROACH,  APROCAL, Andean Valley,  APROQUIROT, APROCOVES,  APROACAY,  APROQUIOS, and APRACCUK,  knowledge, attitudes and practices of  approximately 2,800 associates (men and  women) were strengthened. These   farmers were reached through capacity  building events delivered by technicians  and promoters, who personally spread the  Integrated Pest Management strategy for  organic quinoa production, reaching about  20,000 acres with this technology. The implementation of the strategy  reduced losses from 30% to 10% in the  20,000 acres that used Integrated Pest  Management. In economic terms, with  values of 1.800 Bs/qq (market price in  June 2014), this means, 14,618,275 USD  that producers have stopped losing, and  represent a benefit to the country through  improvement of crop productivity,  enhanced yield, better product quality and  environmental stewardship. On the other hand, in quinoa production  areas of the Bolivian Altiplano, a total of  70,926 units of pheromones for quinoa  cutworms (ticonas) have been sold,  covering more the 20,000 ha, representing  30% of the area cultivated with organic  quinoa. In the case of lime sulfur and chili  extract, in the past three crop years, a total  of 20,684 liters have been sold, covering  approximately 8300 hectares. In the case  of Spinosad®, in the past three crop years,  a total of 117,400 grams have been sold,  covering approximately 4000 hectares. Figure 1 shows the positive trend of the  use of products in the last three years,  particularly high for the case of lime  sulfur and higher for Spinosad.   Conclusions and  recommendations   • a of and ng   activities for technicians, promoters  and farmers, the quinoa pest  management strategy developed by    PROINPA and disseminated by  BIOTOP SRL, has been accepted by  organic quinoa producers, and in  several cases has been adjusted with  the implementation of local practices  and inputs. This situation can be  evidenced through sales data recorded  by BIOTOP SRL.  • initiative PROINPA   BIOTOP SRL has been well received,  especially by producer associations  and companies dedicated to the  production of organic quinoa. The  process has resulted in agreements,  higher volumes of bio-inputs sold and  supported by training for adequate use;  being all reflected in higher income for  farmers.  •   Integrated Management of insect pests  used for organic quinoa production in  20,000 hectares, allowed producers to  reduce losses in 14.618.275.- USD.  • task is larger   dissemination of the integrated  management strategy, in order for  most producers to have access to it and  to bio-inputs for application in organic  quinoa production. For example, many  farmers still use spraying backpacks,  resulting in an inefficient product  application and control.    The implementation of community   control campaigns should also be  considered, because if one farmer  controls and others don’t, efficiency is  lost and the damages continues. This  will depend on the coordinated efforts  of producers, associations, companies,  state institutions (municipalities,  governorates, etc.), organic certifiers  and other actors.    • development an   management strategy that responds to  organic production demands is a  continuous research work that should  be directed to the development of new,  more efficient bio-inputs (plant  extracts, etc.) permitted for organic  production and which can be easily  accessed in local markets.   Suggested references   Aroni, G., Saravia R. 2008. Evaluación de la   eficiencia de ecoplaguicidas en el control  de Noctuideos (ticonas y kcona kconas)  en  Chenopodium quinoa  Willd. In:   Informe del Proyecto Desarrollo de  Ecoplaguicidas para el Control de Plagas  Insectiles del Cultivo de la Quinua.  PROINPA Foundation.   Arragan, T. 2010. Nivel de daño económico de   la polilla de la quinua (Eurysacca  quinoae) en la localidad de Jalsuri –  Altiplano Central. Bachelor degree thesis,  Faculty of Agriculture, Universidad Mayor  de San Andrés. La Paz, Bolivia.  FAO. 1994. La quinua, cultivo milenario para   contribuir a la seguridad alimentaria.  Oficina Regional para América Latina y el  Caribe.  Fundación PROINPA, Fundación AUTAPO.   2005. Module 2: Manejo Agronómico de  la Quinua Orgánica. La Paz, Bolivia. 105  p.  Saravia, R. Bonifacio, A., Aduviri, J. 2010. La   identificación de enemigos de la quinua,  una tarea esencial en el MIP. In:  Compendio de Actividades, PROINPA  Foundation, 2010. pp. 27-29.      Description of the problem  and the actions taken to solve  it   In the Southern Altiplano three areas of  quinoa production can be differentiated:   mountains, hills or slopes and plains or  pampa. The soils are generally sandy,  loamy sand or sandy loam (Soraide, 2011;  Orsag et al., 2013.). In these types of soils   the most serious problem is erosion,  which results in low fertility and low  quinoa yields. In some traditional quinoa producing  areas, abandoned plots can be observed,  which have lost their productive capacity  after being cultivated with quinoa for  several years. It is common to see plots of  10, 20 or more hectares that have been  turned into sandbanks. A preliminary  estimation in the community of Chacala  shows that sandbanks can reach up to 600  ha, being very susceptible to wind  erosion. Due to this situation new plots  and new areas are prepared for growing  quinoa, expanding the agricultural frontier  and falling into quinoa monoculture. According to Altieri and Nichols (2000),  monocultures that expand throughout the  world are characterized by the cultivation  of the same species on the same land year  after year; where ecological  complementarity between soil, crops and  animals is nonexistent and where a    specific crop expands beyond its natural  environment or supporting area. This is the case of quinoa that expands  from slopes towards the plains. (Aroni,  2008, Aroni and Bonifacio, s/a., Soraide,  2011). Therefore, several authors have  addressed the problem of sustainability of  quinoa from reflective and critical points  of view, hence suggesting solutions  (Soraide, 2011 Medrano and Torrico,  2009, Jaldín, 2010, Jacobsen, 2011 and  2012, Winkel et al., 2012, Orsag et al.,  2013, Ormachea and Ramirez, 2013). According to the Bolivian Institute of  Foreign Trade (IBCE) (2013), during the  2001-2002 crop year Bolivia registered  more than 37,000 hectares of quinoa  cultivated land, after 10 years, during the  2011-2012 crop year, this area had  increased to 96,544 hectares. With this trend, a growth of 12% is  expected for the period 2013-2014 in  comparison to the previously mentioned  area. The increase in area allows for  increased production volumes, while  unitary yields in the Southern Altiplano  remain at about 500 kg/ha. The consequence of the expansion of the  agricultural frontier for quinoa production  is the reduction of grazing area and the  reduction in the population of lamas.   Thus negatively affecting the availability    of manure for agriculture (Aroni, 2008,  Jaldín, 2010, Vallejos et al., 2011,  Bonifacio Aroni and s/a). The most serious environmental effects in  recent years have been caused by the  strong winds that carry large amounts of  sand from surface layers of loose soils.   This causes seedlings in the establishment  phase to be buried, reduces the natural  repopulation of native flora, causes the  destruction of houses, etc. This  transportation of soil can be easily  perceived on plot edges and on access  roads. Accumulation of soil can be  observed in places where t'ula plants grow  and rills can be observed by t’ula fields  and roads. This situation only confirms that the true  vocation of the Southern Altiplano is   livestock production, but because of the  great market opportunity of quinoa, soils  are extensive and intensively used for  agriculture. The production and  commercialization of quinoa brings new  alternatives for a population that for  centuries has had few income generation  options, and for individual farmers it  brings in the opportunity to exit poverty. In the Altiplano agro-ecosystem and  particularly in the Southern Altiplano,  practices of deforestation of native  species, to clear new land for quinoa  production, are causing serious problems  in soil conservation and the elimination of  natural habitats. This in turn is causing  low productivity of soils and proliferation  of pests that attack the quinoa crop. In the last five years, the sustainability of  quinoa production emerged as a  fundamental problem.  To address this    problem, soil conservation practices are  proposed, including the implementation  of living barriers, physical barriers, soil  repopulation with native species, use of  manure, and crop rotation, among others  (Puschiasis, 2009, VSF-CICDA 2009,  Orsag  et al., 2013). Each of these   practices has a theoretical foundation and  holds its own contribution to reduce soil  erosion.  However, the feasibility of their  implementation on a larger scale needs  further consideration. Among priority themes, Jaldín (2010)  mentions: the ecological capacity of the  ecosystem in relation to territorial  dynamics, sustainable models for quinoa  production, environmentally sustainable  technologies among others; raising a  series of questions that should be  addressed through research. In this context, PROINPA Foundation  implements actions to contribute to the  sustainability of quinoa based production  systems, through research and the use of  native species ancestrally adapted to these  areas, particularly shrubs or t'ulas. For this  purpose, the most efficient technology is  sought, one that holds the possibility of  large-scale implementation, easy  replicability and economic feasibility.  Based on these concerns, the  technological alternatives considered  important are: the revaluation of shrubs or  t'ulas, the search for specific adaptation  sites of the different species, methods of  seed collection, germination tests,  propagation methods, transplanting and  establishment of demonstration plots and  implementation of multi species living  barriers.   Recognition and revaluation  of shrubs   Native shrubs play various roles in quinoa  centered production systems. The name  t'ula is the generic name of evergreen  woody and semi-woody native shrubs,  growing in semi arid areas (Alzérreca et  al,  2002, Zamora, 2008,. Pizarro, 2013,   Bonifacio Aroni and s/a). However there  are local names for each species as  discussed below: Parastrephia lepidophylla is known by  the native names  sup'u tula, aymar T'ula,   sip'u T'ula, khiruta, pacha-taya, taya  t'ulalos. These names hold reference to  the dense growth habit (sup'u), attached  recinous leaves (sip'u), adaptation to icy  environments (pacha-taya, taya T'ula),  hardiness (khiru T'ula) and the possibility  of its use as fuel (t’ula for bread,  firewood).   Parastrephia lucida (Meyen) Cabrera  whose native names are Uma T’ula, yacu  t’ula, qulla t’ula, water firewood, in  reference to plants adapted to relatively  moist soils, or plants used as water  indicators (uma t’ula, yacu t’ula), and  plants with medicinal uses related to fever  reduction and as cure for dislocations  (qulla t’ula). Fabiana densa Remy with common  names like tara-tara, tara, tola, tolilla,  pichana, representing the fasciated  stem  shape irregularly up to the branching in  some cases  (tara, tara/tara), and  thin  branches (tolilla), suitable for  the use as  broom (pichana). Parastrephia quadrangulare holds the  native names t'it'i t'ula, sunsu t'ula in  reference to its open - semi rosette-like,  growth habit, with waywardly stem  positions (t'it'i) or irregular flowering in  different seasons (sunsu, a derivative of  foolish).    Lampaya medicinalis Moldenke: known  by the native names lamphaya or  lamphayo, which reflects its use as fuel in  the kitchen (lawa and phaya or firewood  for cooking). Baccharis tricuneta, B. tola; a plant  whose native names ñak'a tula, ñak'a,  orqu ñak'a, qachu ñak'a, meaning t'ula  female or t'ula male, represent the  dioecious condition of plants where male  is (orqu) and female (qachu).   Senecio clivicolus is known by the native  names qariwa and waych'a, referring to its   prolific and invasive growth condition  (aqariwa) or to the open shape of the  stringy folliage (waych'a). Alcantholippia deserticola Phil., is known  by the common name rica-rica in clear  reference to the use of the leaves for the  preparation of infusions and drinks that  taste sweet.   Adaptation of species   The different native species have different  performance and adaptation patterns in  different Altiplano eco-regions. In a  panoramic perspective different species  were observed as part of pure and mixed  vegetation patches, located on slopes,  plains, sandbanks, wetlands, etc. Bibliographical references do not mention  or emphasize the adaptation of these  species to ecological niches of the  Altiplano (Zamora, 2008; Soraide, 2011;  Román  et al. 2011; Orsag et al. 2013),   they are generally regarded as species  from semi-arid areas. While Alzérreca  et al. (2002) offer   alternatives for handling tola fields, it  must be considered that for targeted  utilization of species, it is necessary to  understand their adaptation in specific and  broad sense. This understanding needs  also to be related to alternatives for seed  production and plant development.   Thus, the uma t'ula species is well adapted  to plains near wetlands, where soil  moisture is abundant. Farmers associate it  with underground aquifers, a fact  reflected in the native name uma t'ula, that  translated literally means water prone  t'ula. The lampaya’s prefered habitat is in  plains with sand accumulation, dunes or  hillsides, but always in sandy soils with  frequent occurrence of winds. The  lampaya has the characteristic of forming  abundant organic matter at the base of the  plant where insect fauna proliferates.  This  proliferation of insects contributes to the  decomposition of accumulated leaves. It  is very common to find there coleopteran  larvae (laqatu), the favorite food of  quirchincho (Chaetopractus nationi). Tara-tara, is a species that grows well on  slopes and foothills, which are relatively  sheltered from the strong winds and where  soils are loam, sandy loam up to clay  loams. The sites where tara-tara grows are good   for quinoa production (fertility indicator).   The sup'u t'ula, grows well both in plains  and slopes, being the most widespread  species in the Altiplano. It prefers loam to  clay loam, deep soils with relatively acid  reaction. The sup'u t'ula forms abundant  leaf litter at the base of the plant which is  a source of organic matter. The  qariwa is a semi woody species of   multi-seasonal to biennial cycle. This is a  very common species in the Northern  Altiplano, which in recent years has  moved to the Central Altiplano and lately  can be found in the Southern Altiplano  colonizing considerable areas. This species is characterized by its high  prolificity and frost tolerance.  It grows in  winter, blooms in summer and dies after  forming seed during the rainy season. In  some areas it is considered an invasive  species. However, in semi-arid areas it  could be an alternative source of plant soil  cover and organic matter. In any case it  must be accompanied by a management  strategy. The rica-rica is a semi thorny shrub that   grows on hillsides. It has a deep root  which enables its establishment even in  compact soils. It is a highly drought  tolerant plant. The thorny branches help it  to withstand animal grazing.   Seed collection methods    The study of the reproductive biology of  the species has revealed its vegetative and  reproductive stages. Shrubs flower    between September and October. Fruiting  takes place between November and  December. In many cases there has been  fruiting outside this period (January,  February, March) probably because of the  disruptions caused by climate change. Seed collection was originally artisanal,  using conditioned containers (cut  jerrycan), locating the cut part against the  wind to facilitate seed collection. In some cases, wide mouth polypropylene  bags have been used to collect seeds. The  fruits and seeds of shrubs are very  sensitive to wind scattering, even with  very light winds. Their dissemination  structures are formed by the thistledown  which are organized in a sort of parachute. To facilitate collection a portable vacuum  was adapted to obtain power supply from  a car battery.  Although the management  of the equipment in the field is somewhat  difficult, it facilitates seed collection,  especially from the ñaka (Baccharis  tricuneata). Based on this experience, a  more powerful electric vacuum is being  adapted, in addition to entomological net  type seed collectors. Seed processing of shrub species includes  the removal of dissemination structures  (thistledown, bracts and residues of male  flowers). This work requires the use of  eye protection and masks to prevent  inhalation of plant particles and other  impurities adhered to the seed.     Revista de Agricultura, Nro. 54 - Julio de 2014   Area: Technology Development 79   Problem description and  Project actions   Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) Is  one of the most important crops in  Bolivia, acreage extends up to 131,190  hectares and production reached 61,659  tons in 2013 The families involved in its  cultivation are around 45,000, from the  North, South and Central Altiplano  (PROINPA Foundation and AUTAPO  Foundation, 2005).| One of the factors that adversely affects  crop productivity is the incidence of a  variety of insect pests, such as the socalled  ticona (cutworm) complex composed of  several species of moths,  Copitarsia   incommoda, Helicoverpa quinoa, Agrotis  andina and the quinoa moth Eurysacca  quinoae  (PROINPA, 2010). These pests   in their larval state produce damage to the  crop, affecting grain quality and causing  production losses of up to 30%, which for  2013 correspond to 147.520.893.- USD  per annum (based on the price of 1,800 BS  / qq, prevailing at the Challapata market in  June 2014). To control these pests in organic  production systems, products registered  and accepted in organic regulations must  be used. However, there is limited supply  of these products to be able to use them in  an extensive scale. For that reason  PROINPA has developed a strategy for  the efficient management of pest control,  based on bio-registered products  approved for organic production. With the  purpose of expanding and disseminating  the strategy, PROINPA has partnered  with BIOTOP SRL, who coordinated  outreach activities with independent    producers, organic quinoa associations  and companies.   Methodology   The strategy proposed by PROINPA, for  integrated pest management (IPM) in  organic production has been implemented  quite successfully in over 20,000 hectares  in 2013. This strategy is based on  monitoring of adults and larvae,  preventive treatments, alternation of  products (active ingredients and modes of  action), timely applications and use of  adjuvant products. The integrated  management components are: a  Installation of pheromone traps (for   noctuidae): The installation of four traps  per hectare within the plot (with a distance  of at least 25 m between traps), helps  identify the first presence of adult insects  and the beginning of the oviposition  period. In areas where the population of  noctuidae is still low, the use of the four  traps/ha keeps larval populations at levels  that do not cause significant damage (≤5%  damage). a  Field Inspection: Regular inspection   visits should be made in at least four  stages of crop development: six true  leaves, beginning of panicle formation,  grain formation and milky grain. At each  inspection at least 10 plants per hectare  should be sampled at random. If the  presence of eggs and / or early stages of  larvae are observed in 20% of the  evaluated plants, preventive applications  are recommended. When larvae of more  advanced stages are observed or in case of  increased incidence, the application of  control treatments is recommended.   a  Application of preventive treatments:   the application of lime sulfur plus chili is  recommended because of its contact mode  of action which affects the central nervous  system of the insect, allowing good  control of eggs and of larvae in early  stages. Additionally, this product has a  repellent effect for adult insects,  protecting the crop for at least 15 days  from new pest oviposition phases. a Application of control treatments: a  control treatment at the beginning of  panicle formation is recommended.  During this phenological period  protection against these pests is very  important. Control treatments can be  made when insect monitoring detects  populations that justify applications.  Damage to the crop causes proliferation of  side branches resulting in handling  difficulties and lower performance. When  the presence of at least one larva per plant  is observed, the application of Spinosad ®  is recommended. Another moment of care is the growth  stage of milky grain, because it is the time  when the larvae begin to feed on the grain  in formation, and can cause significant  economic damage. At this point it is  important to perform field inspections.   For ticonas (cutworms), if five larvae per  panicle are observed in ten plants, and in  the case of moths, if five larvae are  observed per panicle; the application of  Spinosad ® is recommended.  Spinosad ®  is a natural high efficiency insecticide (>  93%) accepted in organic production,  whose mode of action is through contact  and ingestion, allowing an efficient larval  control and minimal effect on existing  beneficial insect fauna.   a Alternation of treatments: Following  IPM principles and in order to avoid the  emergence of resistant populations,  alternation of treatments is recommended;  ie alternating the application of natural  insecticides considering their active  ingredients and different modes of action,  avoiding more than two continuous  applications of the same product per crop  cycle. For example, lime sulfur and chili  extract can be alternated with Spinosad ®. a Using adjuvants: Because of the   presence of large amounts of oxalates in  the surfaces of leaves, stems and panicles  of quinoa, bio-adhesion is difficult.   Therefore, it is very important to apply a  bonding agent such as Agricultural  Vegetable Oil, which acts as a dispersing  agent, improves application coverage and  prevents the formation of large droplets.  Application of Agricultural Oil ensures  the efficiency of products.   Achievements   During the 2013-2014 crop year, the  alliance PROINPA and BIOTOP SRL,  has worked in partnership with various  producer associations and companies: In CADEQUIR, ANAPQUI,  CADEPQUIOR, SINDAN, Jacha Inti,  APQUISA, APQO Villa Florida,  APQO-Toledo, APQO-Keluyo, FDTA  Valles, IDEPRO, APROACH,  APROCAL, Andean Valley,  APROQUIROT, APROCOVES,  APROACAY,  APROQUIOS, and APRACCUK,  knowledge, attitudes and practices of  approximately 2,800 associates (men and  women) were strengthened. These   farmers were reached through capacity  building events delivered by technicians  and promoters, who personally spread the  Integrated Pest Management strategy for  organic quinoa production, reaching about  20,000 acres with this technology. The implementation of the strategy  reduced losses from 30% to 10% in the  20,000 acres that used Integrated Pest  Management. In economic terms, with  values of 1.800 Bs/qq (market price in  June 2014), this means, 14,618,275 USD  that producers have stopped losing, and  represent a benefit to the country through  improvement of crop productivity,  enhanced yield, better product quality and  environmental stewardship. On the other hand, in quinoa production  areas of the Bolivian Altiplano, a total of  70,926 units of pheromones for quinoa  cutworms (ticonas) have been sold,  covering more the 20,000 ha, representing  30% of the area cultivated with organic  quinoa. In the case of lime sulfur and chili  extract, in the past three crop years, a total  of 20,684 liters have been sold, covering  approximately 8300 hectares. In the case  of Spinosad®, in the past three crop years,  a total of 117,400 grams have been sold,  covering approximately 4000 hectares. Figure 1 shows the positive trend of the  use of products in the last three years,  particularly high for the case of lime  sulfur and higher for Spinosad.   Conclusions and  recommendations   • a of and ng   activities for technicians, promoters  and farmers, the quinoa pest  management strategy developed by    PROINPA and disseminated by  BIOTOP SRL, has been accepted by  organic quinoa producers, and in  several cases has been adjusted with  the implementation of local practices  and inputs. This situation can be  evidenced through sales data recorded  by BIOTOP SRL.  • initiative PROINPA   BIOTOP SRL has been well received,  especially by producer associations  and companies dedicated to the  production of organic quinoa. The  process has resulted in agreements,  higher volumes of bio-inputs sold and  supported by training for adequate use;  being all reflected in higher income for  farmers.  •   Integrated Management of insect pests  used for organic quinoa production in  20,000 hectares, allowed producers to  reduce losses in 14.618.275.- USD.  • task is larger   dissemination of the integrated  management strategy, in order for  most producers to have access to it and  to bio-inputs for application in organic  quinoa production. For example, many  farmers still use spraying backpacks,  resulting in an inefficient product  application and control.    The implementation of community   control campaigns should also be  considered, because if one farmer  controls and others don’t, efficiency is  lost and the damages continues. This  will depend on the coordinated efforts  of producers, associations, companies,  state institutions (municipalities,  governorates, etc.), organic certifiers  and other actors.    • development an   management strategy that responds to  organic production demands is a  continuous research work that should  be directed to the development of new,  more efficient bio-inputs (plant  extracts, etc.) permitted for organic  production and which can be easily  accessed in local markets.   Suggested references   Aroni, G., Saravia R. 2008. Evaluación de la   eficiencia de ecoplaguicidas en el control  de Noctuideos (ticonas y kcona kconas)  en  Chenopodium quinoa  Willd. In:   Informe del Proyecto Desarrollo de  Ecoplaguicidas para el Control de Plagas  Insectiles del Cultivo de la Quinua.  PROINPA Foundation.   Arragan, T. 2010. Nivel de daño económico de   la polilla de la quinua (Eurysacca  quinoae) en la localidad de Jalsuri –  Altiplano Central. Bachelor degree thesis,  Faculty of Agriculture, Universidad Mayor  de San Andrés. La Paz, Bolivia.  FAO. 1994. La quinua, cultivo milenario para   contribuir a la seguridad alimentaria.  Oficina Regional para América Latina y el  Caribe.  Fundación PROINPA, Fundación AUTAPO.   2005. Module 2: Manejo Agronómico de  la Quinua Orgánica. La Paz, Bolivia. 105  p.  Saravia, R. Bonifacio, A., Aduviri, J. 2010. La   identificación de enemigos de la quinua,  una tarea esencial en el MIP. In:  Compendio de Actividades, PROINPA  Foundation, 2010. pp. 27-29.      Description of the problem  and the actions taken to solve  it   In the Southern Altiplano three areas of  quinoa production can be differentiated:   mountains, hills or slopes and plains or  pampa. The soils are generally sandy,  loamy sand or sandy loam (Soraide, 2011;  Orsag et al., 2013.). In these types of soils   the most serious problem is erosion,  which results in low fertility and low  quinoa yields. In some traditional quinoa producing  areas, abandoned plots can be observed,  which have lost their productive capacity  after being cultivated with quinoa for  several years. It is common to see plots of  10, 20 or more hectares that have been  turned into sandbanks. A preliminary  estimation in the community of Chacala  shows that sandbanks can reach up to 600  ha, being very susceptible to wind  erosion. Due to this situation new plots  and new areas are prepared for growing  quinoa, expanding the agricultural frontier  and falling into quinoa monoculture. According to Altieri and Nichols (2000),  monocultures that expand throughout the  world are characterized by the cultivation  of the same species on the same land year  after year; where ecological  complementarity between soil, crops and  animals is nonexistent and where a    specific crop expands beyond its natural  environment or supporting area. This is the case of quinoa that expands  from slopes towards the plains. (Aroni,  2008, Aroni and Bonifacio, s/a., Soraide,  2011). Therefore, several authors have  addressed the problem of sustainability of  quinoa from reflective and critical points  of view, hence suggesting solutions  (Soraide, 2011 Medrano and Torrico,  2009, Jaldín, 2010, Jacobsen, 2011 and  2012, Winkel et al., 2012, Orsag et al.,  2013, Ormachea and Ramirez, 2013). According to the Bolivian Institute of  Foreign Trade (IBCE) (2013), during the  2001-2002 crop year Bolivia registered  more than 37,000 hectares of quinoa  cultivated land, after 10 years, during the  2011-2012 crop year, this area had  increased to 96,544 hectares. With this trend, a growth of 12% is  expected for the period 2013-2014 in  comparison to the previously mentioned  area. The increase in area allows for  increased production volumes, while  unitary yields in the Southern Altiplano  remain at about 500 kg/ha. The consequence of the expansion of the  agricultural frontier for quinoa production  is the reduction of grazing area and the  reduction in the population of lamas.   Thus negatively affecting the availability    of manure for agriculture (Aroni, 2008,  Jaldín, 2010, Vallejos et al., 2011,  Bonifacio Aroni and s/a). The most serious environmental effects in  recent years have been caused by the  strong winds that carry large amounts of  sand from surface layers of loose soils.   This causes seedlings in the establishment  phase to be buried, reduces the natural  repopulation of native flora, causes the  destruction of houses, etc. This  transportation of soil can be easily  perceived on plot edges and on access  roads. Accumulation of soil can be  observed in places where t'ula plants grow  and rills can be observed by t’ula fields  and roads. This situation only confirms that the true  vocation of the Southern Altiplano is   livestock production, but because of the  great market opportunity of quinoa, soils  are extensive and intensively used for  agriculture. The production and  commercialization of quinoa brings new  alternatives for a population that for  centuries has had few income generation  options, and for individual farmers it  brings in the opportunity to exit poverty. In the Altiplano agro-ecosystem and  particularly in the Southern Altiplano,  practices of deforestation of native  species, to clear new land for quinoa  production, are causing serious problems  in soil conservation and the elimination of  natural habitats. This in turn is causing  low productivity of soils and proliferation  of pests that attack the quinoa crop. In the last five years, the sustainability of  quinoa production emerged as a  fundamental problem.  To address this    problem, soil conservation practices are  proposed, including the implementation  of living barriers, physical barriers, soil  repopulation with native species, use of  manure, and crop rotation, among others  (Puschiasis, 2009, VSF-CICDA 2009,  Orsag  et al., 2013). Each of these   practices has a theoretical foundation and  holds its own contribution to reduce soil  erosion.  However, the feasibility of their  implementation on a larger scale needs  further consideration. Among priority themes, Jaldín (2010)  mentions: the ecological capacity of the  ecosystem in relation to territorial  dynamics, sustainable models for quinoa  production, environmentally sustainable  technologies among others; raising a  series of questions that should be  addressed through research. In this context, PROINPA Foundation  implements actions to contribute to the  sustainability of quinoa based production  systems, through research and the use of  native species ancestrally adapted to these  areas, particularly shrubs or t'ulas. For this  purpose, the most efficient technology is  sought, one that holds the possibility of  large-scale implementation, easy  replicability and economic feasibility.  Based on these concerns, the  technological alternatives considered  important are: the revaluation of shrubs or  t'ulas, the search for specific adaptation  sites of the different species, methods of  seed collection, germination tests,  propagation methods, transplanting and  establishment of demonstration plots and  implementation of multi species living  barriers.   Recognition and revaluation  of shrubs   Native shrubs play various roles in quinoa  centered production systems. The name  t'ula is the generic name of evergreen  woody and semi-woody native shrubs,  growing in semi arid areas (Alzérreca et  al,  2002, Zamora, 2008,. Pizarro, 2013,   Bonifacio Aroni and s/a). However there  are local names for each species as  discussed below: Parastrephia lepidophylla is known by  the native names  sup'u tula, aymar T'ula,   sip'u T'ula, khiruta, pacha-taya, taya  t'ulalos. These names hold reference to  the dense growth habit (sup'u), attached  recinous leaves (sip'u), adaptation to icy  environments (pacha-taya, taya T'ula),  hardiness (khiru T'ula) and the possibility  of its use as fuel (t’ula for bread,  firewood).   Parastrephia lucida (Meyen) Cabrera  whose native names are Uma T’ula, yacu  t’ula, qulla t’ula, water firewood, in  reference to plants adapted to relatively  moist soils, or plants used as water  indicators (uma t’ula, yacu t’ula), and  plants with medicinal uses related to fever  reduction and as cure for dislocations  (qulla t’ula). Fabiana densa Remy with common  names like tara-tara, tara, tola, tolilla,  pichana, representing the fasciated  stem  shape irregularly up to the branching in  some cases  (tara, tara/tara), and  thin  branches (tolilla), suitable for  the use as  broom (pichana). Parastrephia quadrangulare holds the  native names t'it'i t'ula, sunsu t'ula in  reference to its open - semi rosette-like,  growth habit, with waywardly stem  positions (t'it'i) or irregular flowering in  different seasons (sunsu, a derivative of  foolish).    Lampaya medicinalis Moldenke: known  by the native names lamphaya or  lamphayo, which reflects its use as fuel in  the kitchen (lawa and phaya or firewood  for cooking). Baccharis tricuneta, B. tola; a plant  whose native names ñak'a tula, ñak'a,  orqu ñak'a, qachu ñak'a, meaning t'ula  female or t'ula male, represent the  dioecious condition of plants where male  is (orqu) and female (qachu).   Senecio clivicolus is known by the native  names qariwa and waych'a, referring to its   prolific and invasive growth condition  (aqariwa) or to the open shape of the  stringy folliage (waych'a). Alcantholippia deserticola Phil., is known  by the common name rica-rica in clear  reference to the use of the leaves for the  preparation of infusions and drinks that  taste sweet.   Adaptation of species   The different native species have different  performance and adaptation patterns in  different Altiplano eco-regions. In a  panoramic perspective different species  were observed as part of pure and mixed  vegetation patches, located on slopes,  plains, sandbanks, wetlands, etc. Bibliographical references do not mention  or emphasize the adaptation of these  species to ecological niches of the  Altiplano (Zamora, 2008; Soraide, 2011;  Román  et al. 2011; Orsag et al. 2013),   they are generally regarded as species  from semi-arid areas. While Alzérreca  et al. (2002) offer   alternatives for handling tola fields, it  must be considered that for targeted  utilization of species, it is necessary to  understand their adaptation in specific and  broad sense. This understanding needs  also to be related to alternatives for seed  production and plant development.   Thus, the uma t'ula species is well adapted  to plains near wetlands, where soil  moisture is abundant. Farmers associate it  with underground aquifers, a fact  reflected in the native name uma t'ula, that  translated literally means water prone  t'ula. The lampaya’s prefered habitat is in  plains with sand accumulation, dunes or  hillsides, but always in sandy soils with  frequent occurrence of winds. The  lampaya has the characteristic of forming  abundant organic matter at the base of the  plant where insect fauna proliferates.  This  proliferation of insects contributes to the  decomposition of accumulated leaves. It  is very common to find there coleopteran  larvae (laqatu), the favorite food of  quirchincho (Chaetopractus nationi). Tara-tara, is a species that grows well on  slopes and foothills, which are relatively  sheltered from the strong winds and where  soils are loam, sandy loam up to clay  loams. The sites where tara-tara grows are good   for quinoa production (fertility indicator).   The sup'u t'ula, grows well both in plains  and slopes, being the most widespread  species in the Altiplano. It prefers loam to  clay loam, deep soils with relatively acid  reaction. The sup'u t'ula forms abundant  leaf litter at the base of the plant which is  a source of organic matter. The  qariwa is a semi woody species of   multi-seasonal to biennial cycle. This is a  very common species in the Northern  Altiplano, which in recent years has  moved to the Central Altiplano and lately  can be found in the Southern Altiplano  colonizing considerable areas. This species is characterized by its high  prolificity and frost tolerance.  It grows in  winter, blooms in summer and dies after  forming seed during the rainy season. In  some areas it is considered an invasive  species. However, in semi-arid areas it  could be an alternative source of plant soil  cover and organic matter. In any case it  must be accompanied by a management  strategy. The rica-rica is a semi thorny shrub that   grows on hillsides. It has a deep root  which enables its establishment even in  compact soils. It is a highly drought  tolerant plant. The thorny branches help it  to withstand animal grazing.   Seed collection methods    The study of the reproductive biology of  the species has revealed its vegetative and  reproductive stages. Shrubs flower    between September and October. Fruiting  takes place between November and  December. In many cases there has been  fruiting outside this period (January,  February, March) probably because of the  disruptions caused by climate change. Seed collection was originally artisanal,  using conditioned containers (cut  jerrycan), locating the cut part against the  wind to facilitate seed collection. In some cases, wide mouth polypropylene  bags have been used to collect seeds. The  fruits and seeds of shrubs are very  sensitive to wind scattering, even with  very light winds. Their dissemination  structures are formed by the thistledown  which are organized in a sort of parachute. To facilitate collection a portable vacuum  was adapted to obtain power supply from  a car battery.  Although the management  of the equipment in the field is somewhat  difficult, it facilitates seed collection,  especially from the ñaka (Baccharis  tricuneata). Based on this experience, a  more powerful electric vacuum is being  adapted, in addition to entomological net  type seed collectors. Seed processing of shrub species includes  the removal of dissemination structures  (thistledown, bracts and residues of male  flowers). This work requires the use of  eye protection and masks to prevent  inhalation of plant particles and other  impurities adhered to the seed.     ISSN 1998 - 9652   Area: Technology Development 80   Manual collection of sup’u t’ula seeds Seed collection with battery opperated  portable vacuum (12 v 76 A)  Ñak’a t’ula seeds  (seed processing)  Fruit/seed of lamphaya  (non-processed seed)  Sup’u t’ula multiplication stalls in the  Chacala nursery   Problem description and  Project actions   Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) Is  one of the most important crops in  Bolivia, acreage extends up to 131,190  hectares and production reached 61,659  tons in 2013 The families involved in its  cultivation are around 45,000, from the  North, South and Central Altiplano  (PROINPA Foundation and AUTAPO  Foundation, 2005).| One of the factors that adversely affects  crop productivity is the incidence of a  variety of insect pests, such as the socalled  ticona (cutworm) complex composed of  several species of moths,  Copitarsia   incommoda, Helicoverpa quinoa, Agrotis  andina and the quinoa moth Eurysacca  quinoae  (PROINPA, 2010). These pests   in their larval state produce damage to the  crop, affecting grain quality and causing  production losses of up to 30%, which for  2013 correspond to 147.520.893.- USD  per annum (based on the price of 1,800 BS  / qq, prevailing at the Challapata market in  June 2014). To control these pests in organic  production systems, products registered  and accepted in organic regulations must  be used. However, there is limited supply  of these products to be able to use them in  an extensive scale. For that reason  PROINPA has developed a strategy for  the efficient management of pest control,  based on bio-registered products  approved for organic production. With the  purpose of expanding and disseminating  the strategy, PROINPA has partnered  with BIOTOP SRL, who coordinated  outreach activities with independent    producers, organic quinoa associations  and companies.   Methodology   The strategy proposed by PROINPA, for  integrated pest management (IPM) in  organic production has been implemented  quite successfully in over 20,000 hectares  in 2013. This strategy is based on  monitoring of adults and larvae,  preventive treatments, alternation of  products (active ingredients and modes of  action), timely applications and use of  adjuvant products. The integrated  management components are: a  Installation of pheromone traps (for   noctuidae): The installation of four traps  per hectare within the plot (with a distance  of at least 25 m between traps), helps  identify the first presence of adult insects  and the beginning of the oviposition  period. In areas where the population of  noctuidae is still low, the use of the four  traps/ha keeps larval populations at levels  that do not cause significant damage (≤5%  damage). a  Field Inspection: Regular inspection   visits should be made in at least four  stages of crop development: six true  leaves, beginning of panicle formation,  grain formation and milky grain. At each  inspection at least 10 plants per hectare  should be sampled at random. If the  presence of eggs and / or early stages of  larvae are observed in 20% of the  evaluated plants, preventive applications  are recommended. When larvae of more  advanced stages are observed or in case of  increased incidence, the application of  control treatments is recommended.   a  Application of preventive treatments:   the application of lime sulfur plus chili is  recommended because of its contact mode  of action which affects the central nervous  system of the insect, allowing good  control of eggs and of larvae in early  stages. Additionally, this product has a  repellent effect for adult insects,  protecting the crop for at least 15 days  from new pest oviposition phases. a Application of control treatments: a  control treatment at the beginning of  panicle formation is recommended.  During this phenological period  protection against these pests is very  important. Control treatments can be  made when insect monitoring detects  populations that justify applications.  Damage to the crop causes proliferation of  side branches resulting in handling  difficulties and lower performance. When  the presence of at least one larva per plant  is observed, the application of Spinosad ®  is recommended. Another moment of care is the growth  stage of milky grain, because it is the time  when the larvae begin to feed on the grain  in formation, and can cause significant  economic damage. At this point it is  important to perform field inspections.   For ticonas (cutworms), if five larvae per  panicle are observed in ten plants, and in  the case of moths, if five larvae are  observed per panicle; the application of  Spinosad ® is recommended.  Spinosad ®  is a natural high efficiency insecticide (>  93%) accepted in organic production,  whose mode of action is through contact  and ingestion, allowing an efficient larval  control and minimal effect on existing  beneficial insect fauna.   a Alternation of treatments: Following  IPM principles and in order to avoid the  emergence of resistant populations,  alternation of treatments is recommended;  ie alternating the application of natural  insecticides considering their active  ingredients and different modes of action,  avoiding more than two continuous  applications of the same product per crop  cycle. For example, lime sulfur and chili  extract can be alternated with Spinosad ®. a Using adjuvants: Because of the   presence of large amounts of oxalates in  the surfaces of leaves, stems and panicles  of quinoa, bio-adhesion is difficult.   Therefore, it is very important to apply a  bonding agent such as Agricultural  Vegetable Oil, which acts as a dispersing  agent, improves application coverage and  prevents the formation of large droplets.  Application of Agricultural Oil ensures  the efficiency of products.   Achievements   During the 2013-2014 crop year, the  alliance PROINPA and BIOTOP SRL,  has worked in partnership with various  producer associations and companies: In CADEQUIR, ANAPQUI,  CADEPQUIOR, SINDAN, Jacha Inti,  APQUISA, APQO Villa Florida,  APQO-Toledo, APQO-Keluyo, FDTA  Valles, IDEPRO, APROACH,  APROCAL, Andean Valley,  APROQUIROT, APROCOVES,  APROACAY,  APROQUIOS, and APRACCUK,  knowledge, attitudes and practices of  approximately 2,800 associates (men and  women) were strengthened. These   farmers were reached through capacity  building events delivered by technicians  and promoters, who personally spread the  Integrated Pest Management strategy for  organic quinoa production, reaching about  20,000 acres with this technology. The implementation of the strategy  reduced losses from 30% to 10% in the  20,000 acres that used Integrated Pest  Management. In economic terms, with  values of 1.800 Bs/qq (market price in  June 2014), this means, 14,618,275 USD  that producers have stopped losing, and  represent a benefit to the country through  improvement of crop productivity,  enhanced yield, better product quality and  environmental stewardship. On the other hand, in quinoa production  areas of the Bolivian Altiplano, a total of  70,926 units of pheromones for quinoa  cutworms (ticonas) have been sold,  covering more the 20,000 ha, representing  30% of the area cultivated with organic  quinoa. In the case of lime sulfur and chili  extract, in the past three crop years, a total  of 20,684 liters have been sold, covering  approximately 8300 hectares. In the case  of Spinosad®, in the past three crop years,  a total of 117,400 grams have been sold,  covering approximately 4000 hectares. Figure 1 shows the positive trend of the  use of products in the last three years,  particularly high for the case of lime  sulfur and higher for Spinosad.   Conclusions and  recommendations   • a of and ng   activities for technicians, promoters  and farmers, the quinoa pest  management strategy developed by    PROINPA and disseminated by  BIOTOP SRL, has been accepted by  organic quinoa producers, and in  several cases has been adjusted with  the implementation of local practices  and inputs. This situation can be  evidenced through sales data recorded  by BIOTOP SRL.  • initiative PROINPA   BIOTOP SRL has been well received,  especially by producer associations  and companies dedicated to the  production of organic quinoa. The  process has resulted in agreements,  higher volumes of bio-inputs sold and  supported by training for adequate use;  being all reflected in higher income for  farmers.  •   Integrated Management of insect pests  used for organic quinoa production in  20,000 hectares, allowed producers to  reduce losses in 14.618.275.- USD.  • task is larger   dissemination of the integrated  management strategy, in order for  most producers to have access to it and  to bio-inputs for application in organic  quinoa production. For example, many  farmers still use spraying backpacks,  resulting in an inefficient product  application and control.    The implementation of community   control campaigns should also be  considered, because if one farmer  controls and others don’t, efficiency is  lost and the damages continues. This  will depend on the coordinated efforts  of producers, associations, companies,  state institutions (municipalities,  governorates, etc.), organic certifiers  and other actors.    • development an   management strategy that responds to  organic production demands is a  continuous research work that should  be directed to the development of new,  more efficient bio-inputs (plant  extracts, etc.) permitted for organic  production and which can be easily  accessed in local markets.   Suggested references   Aroni, G., Saravia R. 2008. Evaluación de la   eficiencia de ecoplaguicidas en el control  de Noctuideos (ticonas y kcona kconas)  en  Chenopodium quinoa  Willd. In:   Informe del Proyecto Desarrollo de  Ecoplaguicidas para el Control de Plagas  Insectiles del Cultivo de la Quinua.  PROINPA Foundation.   Arragan, T. 2010. Nivel de daño económico de   la polilla de la quinua (Eurysacca  quinoae) en la localidad de Jalsuri –  Altiplano Central. Bachelor degree thesis,  Faculty of Agriculture, Universidad Mayor  de San Andrés. La Paz, Bolivia.  FAO. 1994. La quinua, cultivo milenario para   contribuir a la seguridad alimentaria.  Oficina Regional para América Latina y el  Caribe.  Fundación PROINPA, Fundación AUTAPO.   2005. Module 2: Manejo Agronómico de  la Quinua Orgánica. La Paz, Bolivia. 105  p.  Saravia, R. Bonifacio, A., Aduviri, J. 2010. La   identificación de enemigos de la quinua,  una tarea esencial en el MIP. In:  Compendio de Actividades, PROINPA  Foundation, 2010. pp. 27-29.      Nursery multiplication of  species   In the native species nurseries of  Quipaquipani (La Paz), Rancho Grande  (Oruro) and Chacala (Potosí), methods for  mass multiplication of native species are  being tested. These are the places where  seedlings receive the necessary care to  ensure the rearing of vigorous plants that  can survive and develop in the field after  the final transplant. Multiplication practices include the use of  seedbeds followed by replanting in    bag-pots, and direct planting in bag-pots,  the latter method being cheaper and more  efficient.     Revista de Agricultura, Nro. 54 - Julio de 2014   Area: Technology Development 81   Living barriers with ñak’a tu’la   Direct seeding in the field (scattering) has  had little success due to wind burial and  trawling of seeds, and by fast dehydration  of sprouting seeds. It is necessary to  continue adjusting some direct planting  techniques using pelleted seed (clay  pellets, use of pregerminated seed, etc.). The materials used were seeds of the  following species: ñak’a t’ula  (Bacccharis tricuneata),  sup’u t’ula   (Parastrepia lepidophylla),  uma t’ula   (Parastrephia lucida) tara tara (Fabiana  densa), lam phaya (Lampaya castellani),   qariwa (Senecio clivicolus).   Final transplant in living  barriers   In quinoa production areas, particularly  those in the Southern Altiplano, plots of  quinoa are distributed erratically without  any management standard. In some cases  you can see very wide plots in the  direction of local winds, a condition that  facilitates erosion processes. To mitigate the effect of erosion, living  barriers have been established transversal  to the direction of local winds. The width  of the plots is of 50 to 60 m, the length of  the plots varies from 100 m to 300 m. This  design should be applied to all new  parcels being incorporated into  commercial production. It has been proven that the seedlings of  native species developed in small bags,  are easier to transport and handle in the  field. Something to note is the time of  transplantation, which must necessarily  coincide with the onset of rains. Once rain  arrives there is a period of one month to  transplant shrubs successfully.   Given the magnitude of the problem that  concerns the sustainability of quinoa  production, the proposal of reforestation  with native species is a contribution that  in the medium and long term can help an  ecological stabilization and help achieve  sustainability. The millennial adaptation  of native species and the perspective of  their use in quinoa production systems  must be emphasized.  This process would  help reduce soil erosion, generate organic  matter locally and would provide food and  shelter for beneficial insects and  micro-organisms, enabling the  achievement of a desired ecological  balance. Being a big task, reforestation with native  and naturalized species, is a matter that  concerns higher levels of public decision  making such as municipalities,  departmental governments and the  national government.   Moreover, resources and time required for  the establishment and management of  native shrubs should be considered in the  context of ecological and environmental  services.  Given its nature these services  are eligible for the support of national  public actors and international  cooperation bodies. In this context, the first experiences  implemented by PROINPA Foundation  have enabled the following achievements: • and of   main shrubs of native species.  • and of   diversity of species and the genetic  diversity within shrub species.  • of ecological   adaptation of existing native species in  the Altiplano.  • of for   native species seed collection.  • of for   multiplication of shrubs.  • about viability   seeds from shrub species.  •   barriers feasibility of implementation.  • of and of   final transplant for living barriers.  In all previous work, it is important to  note the involvement of producers, who  through their local knowledge and  experience have made a valuable  contribution to this initiative that seeks to  make sustainable use of local biodiversity  in quinoa production systems in the  Bolivian Altiplano.   Communities of farmers involved:    • of and   Potosí.   •  • farmers Buena   Vista, Aroma, Oruro.   Cited references   Altieri M., Nichols C. 2000. Agroecología.   Teoría y práctica para una agricultura  sustentable. UN/PNUMA. Red de  formación ambiental para América Latina  y el Caribe. México. 200 p. Series: Textos  básicos para la formación ambiental, Vol.  4.  Alzérreca, H., Calle, P., Laura J. 2002. Manual   de manejo y uso sostenible de la tola y los  tolares. PNUD-ALT-AIGACA. La Paz,  Bolivia. 55 p.  Aroni, G. 2008. Recuperación de suelos para   una producción sostenible de quinua en  el Altiplano Sur, LIDEMA, Hábitat  Magazine. La Paz, Bolivia pp. 50-53.  Aroni G., Bonifacio, A. Erosión de suelos en   Altiplano Sur: Camino a la desertificación.  On Line. Available at:    http://www.proinpa.org. Retreived on:    June 6, 2014.  IBCE. 2013. La quinua boliviana traspasa   fronteras para el consumo mundial. 2013:  Año Internacional de la quinua. Comercio  Exterior No. 2010.  Jacobsen, S. 2011. The situation for quinoa   and its production in southern Bolivia:  from economic success to environmental  disaster. J. Agron. Crop Sci.  197:390–399.  Jacobsen, S. 2012. What is Wrong With the   Sustainability of Quinoa Production in  Southern Bolivia – A Reply to Winkel et al.  (2012). J. Agron. Crop Sci. Short  Communications: 1-4.  Jaldín, R. 2010. Producción de quinua en   Oruro y Potosí. Plural, La Paz, Bolivia.    Estados de investigación temática PIEB  No. 3. 100 p.  Medrano, A., Torrico, J. 2009. Consecuencias   del incremento de la producción de  quinua (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) en  el Altiplano Sur de Bolivia. CienciAgro  1(4):117-123.  Ormachea, S., Ramírez, N. 2013. Propiedad   colectiva de la tierra y producción  agrícola capitalista. El caso de la quinua  en el Altiplano Sur de Bolivia. Presencia  SRL, CEDLA. La Paz, Bolivia. 172 p.  Orsag, V., León, L., Pacosaca, O., Castro, E.   2013. Evaluación de la fertilidad de los  suelos para la producción sostenible de  quinua. T’inkazos. 33: 89-112.  Pizarro, J. 2013. Formas de vida en la   etnobotánica aymara. Indiana.  30:301-323.  Puschiasis, O. 2009. La fertilidad: Un recurso   "cuchicheado". Análisis de la valorización  del recurso territorial fertilidad por las  familias de la zona Intersalar, Bolivia. On  Line. Available at: http://www.ird.fr.          Retreived on: May 27, 2014. Román, P., Ayaviri, D., Navarro, Z. 2011.   Medio ambiente y producción de quinua:  Estrategias de adaptación a los impactos  del cambio climático. Programa de  Investigación Estratégica en Bolivia  PIEB. La Paz, Bolivia. 242 p.  Soraide, D. 2011. La quinua real en el   Altiplano Sur de Bolivia. Documento  técnico para la denominación de origen.    ANAPQUI - CECAOT - APQUISA –  CADEPQUIOR - CADEQUIR/CNPQ -  CABOLQUI - Reino de Los Países Bajos.  FAUTAPO - Educación para el  Desarrollo. 108 p.   Vallejos, P., Ayaviri, D., Navarro, Z. 2011.   Medio ambiente y producción de quinua.  Estrategias de adaptación a los impactos  del cambio climático. Programa de  Investigación Estratégica en Bolivia.  PIEB. La Paz, Bolivia. 242 p.  VSF-CICDA. 2009. Quinua y territorio.   RURALTER, IRD, VSF - CICDA y  Comunidades del Intersalar, Agronomes  y Veterinaires sans Frontiéres. Plural, La  Paz, Bolivia. 156 p.  Winkel, T., Bertero, D., Bommel, P., Chevarria.   M., Cortes, G., Gasselin, P., Geerts, S.,  Joffre, R., Le´ger, F., Martinez, B.,  Rambal, S., Rambal, G., Tichit, M.,  Tourrand, J., Vassas, A., Vacher, J.,  Vieira, M. 2012: The sustainability of  quinoa production in southern Bolivia:  From misrepresentations to dubious  solutions. Comments on Jacobsen  (2011). J. Agron. Crop Sci. 197:390-399.  Zamora, V. 2008. Estudio de aproximaciones   etnobotánicas en áreas productoras del  intersalar de quinua real del  departamento de Potosí. Parte I.  FAUTAPO-DELA. Potosí, Bolivia. 74 p.       Molecular characterization yielded  diversity indices as the Polymorphic  Information Content (PIC) and  heterozygosity (H), for each set of  samples coming from the different  geographic regions.  Quinoas from the  Central Altiplano (CA) and Southern  Altiplano (SA) were the most abundant,  and also the most diverse (tables 2 and 3). For this study, the data of the alleles (in  base pairs) of every microsatellite were  transformed into binary data and arranged  in a matrix representing the presence of an  allele as 1 and the absence as 0. The  morphological information was obtained  from the evaluation of the germplasm  collection. 48 variables were selected that  included data on: stem coloring, plant  architecture, stem, leaf, inflorescence  and/or panicle, grain characteristics,  saponin, yield, phenology and tolerance to  abiotic (frost) and biotic (mildew) factors. Quinoas from every region have an  agromorphological pattern that  distinguishes them from each other. In the  Central Altiplano quinoas grow from 0.5    to 1.2 m, with short branches, the  glomerulate panicle prevails and the  phenological cycle lasts 168.40 ± 14.05  days. Quinoas in the Southern Altiplano have  larger grain (2.20 to 2.67 mm in  diameter), high saponin content; with a  prevailing amaraht-like panicle. In the Northern Altiplano, quinoas have a  height of 0.8 to 1.5 m, the glomerulate  panicle prevailes, the grain is small to  medium in size and white in color, the  growing season is fairly late to late (175  days). In inter-Andean valleys quinoas can reach  up to 2.5 m or more in height, with  branches reaching the second third of the  plant and very toothed leaves. The  phenological cycle is late (188-205 days),  amaranth-like panicles are dominant,  medium grain size (2 ± 0.13 mm) and high  saponin content (Rojas and Pinto 2013,  Bonifacio et al. 2012; Rojas 2003, Rojas   et al. 2001).   For the present study the above  morphological data were arranged in a  matrix where the names of the accessions  and morphological descriptors are  indicated with several levels of  descriptors (3-11). Based on available information about  molecular and morphological  characterization, out of all the accessions  from the quinoa collection, 1672 Bolivian  accessions from five regions were  selected: Northern Altiplano, Central  Altiplano, Southern Altiplano and  inter-Andean valleys and natural habitats  for the wild quinoas (ajaras) (Table 2).   Statistical Analysis: Forming the core  collection of quinoa   To form the core collection, a matrix with  molecular and morphological data was  developed. This information was  introduced in the PowerCore® program,  which enables sampling through the  Strategy M Maximization (van Hintum et  al. 2003). This strategy involves the use of  data indicating the magnitude of the  diversity of markers used for the  characterization of germplasm. It ensures  the inclusion of high allelic richness for  loci/markers used and directly takes into  account, in those loci, the magnitude of  the variation and deviation to the model or  pattern. Importantly, the M strategy not  only defines the number of accessions that  should come from different groups, but  also identifies the accessions that need to  be included (Schoen and Brown, 1994;  Schoen and Brown, 1995; Cortez 2011).  Thus, with the accessions selected by the  program, a dendrogram of the core  collection was generated. Using the  program NTSYSpc ® version 2.1.10 the    structure of this dendrogram was  compared with that of the total collection.  Diversity indices between the two  collections were also compared to check  the representativeness of the core  collection (Rohlf 2000; Zambrano et al.  2003).   Achievements   The data from the analysis, with a level of  100% of representation of the genetic  diversity, generated a subset of 486  accessions corresponding to 31% of the  total collection. Applying a level of 80%  of representation of the genetic diversity,  as suggested by the literature (Frankel et  al., 1984; Jaramillo and Baena, 2000;  Ozer  et al., 2004), a subset of 410   accessions was reached, which stands for  24% of the total collection (Table 2). Table 2 shows the number of accessions in  the core collection by region. The  percentage of accessions from each region  is variable; this indicates the degree of  redundancy (duplicated or genetically  very similar material) of accessions within  each region. This is the case of material from the  Northern Altiplano, from where a higher  percentage of accessions has been  considered both at 80% and 100% of  representation (46% and 57%,  respectively), compared with the other  regions. This is because in this region  there is less redundancy, therefore most  accessions are genetically different from  one another. A similar situation of low redundancy is  also observed in the material from the  inter-Andean valleys. It is noteworthy that    the number of accessions identified for the  core collection of this region is greater  than the number of accessions from the  core collection of the Southern Altiplano  and very close to that of the Central  Altiplano. This implies that although the  total number of accessions from the  Central and from the Southern Altiplano  is greater than that of the inter-Andean  valleys, it is likely that in the first two  regions of the Altiplano, several  genetically similar materials were  collected.   Comparison of the core collection with  the total collection, by visualization of the  dendrograms developed with the data  from each collection, shows that the core  collection conserves the structure of the  original collection. Figure 1 shows an example for material  from the Northern Altiplano, where the  genetic structure (arrangement of the  accessions into groups and subgroups) of  both collections (total and core) is the  same.   Table 3 compares PIC data from the total  collection, with PIC data from the core  collection, arranged by region. Diversity  indices of the core collection are slightly  higher than those of the original collection  because redundancies are reduced.  Therefore, the allele frequencies are  higher. The representativeness of the core  collection is consistent, although the  Bolivian Quinoa Collection has such a  diverse and complex structure. Genetic  diversity in the core collection is  maintained and redundancy has been  reduced to a minimum.   Conclusions   •  The methodology used for this study   enabled the identification of the most  representative quinoa accessions,  namely the group of accessions in  which the amplitude of the genetic  diversity found in the total collection    was maintained, based on  microsatellite markers,  agromorphological descriptors and  assessments of mildew and frost  tolerance. The quality and quantity of  information used to form the core  quinoa collection in this study, ensures  the inclusion of a wide range of  accessions that can be considered for  the selection of genetic material in  future assessments, either with  particular agromorphological  characteristics or with mildew and frost  tolerance characteristics.   • is to that   formation of a core collection is  dynamic. Future research could  include variables related to the  demands of the current context, such  as climate change, which requires  early and drought tolerant varieties; or  the market, which demands varieties  with nutritional and agroindustrial  qualities.   Participating agencies   The agromorphological and molecular  information used in this study was  generated within the framework of the  Project “Management, Conservation and   Sustainable Use of High Andean Grains”  as part of the National System of Genetic  Resources for Food and Agriculture  (SINARGEAA) and, the Quinoa Project  supported by the McKnight Foundation. The following people contributed  collecting information of molecular data,  during the implementation of the above  mentioned projects: Jorge Rojas Beltran,  Abel Turumaya, Pilar Gutiérrez, Rocío  Maldonado, Lucia Perez, Lilian Pinto and  Masiel Ovando. The agromorphological information has  been generated by the technical team of  PROINPA Foundation, Altiplano  Regional Office.    Cited references    Bonifacio, A., Aroni G., Villca, M. 2012.   Catálogo Etnobotánico de la Quinua  Real. Cochabamba, Bolivia. 123 p.  Brown, A., Schoen, D. 1994. Optimal sampling   strategies for core collections of plant  genetic resources. In: V. Loeschke, J.  Tomiuk y S. Jain (Eds.). Conservation  genetics. BirkhäuserVerlagBasel, Suiza.  pp. 357-369.  Cortez, F. 2011. Construcción de una   colección núcleo de  Solanum tuberosum   ssp.  andigena conservada en el banco   nacional de tubérculos y raíces andinas  en base a marcadores morfológicos y  moleculares. Master Degree Thesis.  Posgrado FCAP-UMSS. Cochabamba,  Bolivia.  Frankel, O., Brown, A. 1984. Plant genetic   resources today: A critical appraisal. In:  Holden, J., Williams, J. (Eds.). Crop    Genetic Resources: Conservation and  evaluation. Allen and Unwin. London, UK.  Jaramillo, S., Baena, M. 2000. Material de   apoyo a la capacitación en conservación  ex situ de recursos fitogenéticos.  International Plant Genetic Resource  Institute. Cali, Colombia. 210 p.  Kyu-Won, K., Chung, K., Cho, H.,   Chandrabalan, D., Jae-Gyun, G., Kim, T,  Eun G., Yong-Jin, P. 2007. PowerCore: A  program applying the advanced M  strategy with a heuristic search for  establishing core sets. Bioinformatics 23  (16):2155-2162.  Maughan, J., Bonifacio, A., Jellen, E., Stevens,   M., Coleman, C., Ricks, M., Mason, S.,  Jarvis, D., Ardunia, B., Fairbanks, D.  2004. A genetic linkage map of quinoa  (Chenopodium quinoa) based on AFLP,  RAPD, and SSR markers. Theor Appl  Genet 109:1188-1195.  Ozer, A., Suárez, R., Abadie, T. 2004.   Elaboración de una colección núcleo de  germoplasma de maíz de la raza blanco  dentado. Agrociencia Vol. VIII No. 1. pp.  1-10.  PASW. 2009. Predicción de resultados e   identificación de relaciones en los datos  categóricos. PASW® Categories 18 –  Specifications. 8 p.  Rojas, W., Pinto M. 2013. La diversidad   genética de quinua de Bolivia. In: Vargas,  M. (Ed.). Congreso Científico de la  Quinua (Proceedings). La Paz, Bolivia.  pp. 77 - 92.  Rojas, W., Pinto, M., Soto, J. 2010.   Distribución geográfica y variabilidad  genética de los granos andinos. In: Rojas  W., Pinto M., Soto J., Jagger M. y  Padulosi S. (Eds.). Granos Andinos:  Avances, logros y experiencias  desarrolladas en quinua, cañahua y  amaranto en Bolivia. Bioversity  International, Rome, Italy. pp. 11- 23.  Rojas, W. (Ed.). 2008. Manejo, conservación y   uso sostenible de los recursos genéticos  de granos altoandinos, en el marco del  SINARGEAA. Phase Report 2003-2008.  PROINPA Foundation. La Paz, Bolivia.  49 p.  Rojas, W., Cayoja, M., Espindola, G. 2001.   Catálogo de la colección de quinua  conservada en el Banco Nacional de  Granos Altoandinos. PROINPA  Foundation, MAGDER, PPD-PNUD,  SIBTA-UCEPSA, IPGRI, IFAD. La Paz,  Bolivia. 129 p.  Rohlf F. 2000. NTYSYS-pc, Numerical   Taxonomy and Multivariate Analysis  System, Version 2.10e. Appl.  Biostatistics, Inc., New York.  Schoen, D., Brown, A. 1995. Maximising   genetic diversity in core collections of wild  relatives of crop species. pp. 55-76. In:  Core collections of plant genetic    resources (T. Hodgkin, A. Brown, Th. van  Hintum y E. Morales, eds.). John Wiley  and Sons, United Kingdom.  van Hintum, Th., Brown, A., Spillane, C.,   Hodgkin, T. 2003 Colecciones núcleo de  recursos fitogenéticos. IPGRI Technical  Bulletin No. 3. International Plant Genetic  Resource Institute, Rome, Italy.  Zambrano, A., Demey, J., Fuenmayor, F.,   Segovia, V., Gutiérrez, Z. 2003.  Diversidad genética de una colección de  yuca a través de marcadores moleculares  RAPDS. Agronomía Trop. Venezuela 2  (53):155-174.     ISSN 1998 - 9652   Area: Technology Development 82   Direct seeding in the field (scattering) has  had little success due to wind burial and  trawling of seeds, and by fast dehydration  of sprouting seeds. It is necessary to  continue adjusting some direct planting  techniques using pelleted seed (clay  pellets, use of pregerminated seed, etc.). The materials used were seeds of the  following species: ñak’a t’ula  (Bacccharis tricuneata),  sup’u t’ula   (Parastrepia lepidophylla),  uma t’ula   (Parastrephia lucida) tara tara (Fabiana  densa), lam phaya (Lampaya castellani),   qariwa (Senecio clivicolus).   Final transplant in living  barriers   In quinoa production areas, particularly  those in the Southern Altiplano, plots of  quinoa are distributed erratically without  any management standard. In some cases  you can see very wide plots in the  direction of local winds, a condition that  facilitates erosion processes. To mitigate the effect of erosion, living  barriers have been established transversal  to the direction of local winds. The width  of the plots is of 50 to 60 m, the length of  the plots varies from 100 m to 300 m. This  design should be applied to all new  parcels being incorporated into  commercial production. It has been proven that the seedlings of  native species developed in small bags,  are easier to transport and handle in the  field. Something to note is the time of  transplantation, which must necessarily  coincide with the onset of rains. Once rain  arrives there is a period of one month to  transplant shrubs successfully.   Given the magnitude of the problem that  concerns the sustainability of quinoa  production, the proposal of reforestation  with native species is a contribution that  in the medium and long term can help an  ecological stabilization and help achieve  sustainability. The millennial adaptation  of native species and the perspective of  their use in quinoa production systems  must be emphasized.  This process would  help reduce soil erosion, generate organic  matter locally and would provide food and  shelter for beneficial insects and  micro-organisms, enabling the  achievement of a desired ecological  balance. Being a big task, reforestation with native  and naturalized species, is a matter that  concerns higher levels of public decision  making such as municipalities,  departmental governments and the  national government.   Moreover, resources and time required for  the establishment and management of  native shrubs should be considered in the  context of ecological and environmental  services.  Given its nature these services  are eligible for the support of national  public actors and international  cooperation bodies. In this context, the first experiences  implemented by PROINPA Foundation  have enabled the following achievements: • and of   main shrubs of native species.  • and of   diversity of species and the genetic  diversity within shrub species.  • of ecological   adaptation of existing native species in  the Altiplano.  • of for   native species seed collection.  • of for   multiplication of shrubs.  • about viability   seeds from shrub species.  •   barriers feasibility of implementation.  • of and of   final transplant for living barriers.  In all previous work, it is important to  note the involvement of producers, who  through their local knowledge and  experience have made a valuable  contribution to this initiative that seeks to  make sustainable use of local biodiversity  in quinoa production systems in the  Bolivian Altiplano.   Communities of farmers involved:    • of and   Potosí.   •  • farmers Buena   Vista, Aroma, Oruro.   Cited references   Altieri M., Nichols C. 2000. Agroecología.   Teoría y práctica para una agricultura  sustentable. UN/PNUMA. Red de  formación ambiental para América Latina  y el Caribe. México. 200 p. Series: Textos  básicos para la formación ambiental, Vol.  4.  Alzérreca, H., Calle, P., Laura J. 2002. Manual   de manejo y uso sostenible de la tola y los  tolares. PNUD-ALT-AIGACA. La Paz,  Bolivia. 55 p.  Aroni, G. 2008. Recuperación de suelos para   una producción sostenible de quinua en  el Altiplano Sur, LIDEMA, Hábitat  Magazine. La Paz, Bolivia pp. 50-53.  Aroni G., Bonifacio, A. Erosión de suelos en   Altiplano Sur: Camino a la desertificación.  On Line. Available at:    http://www.proinpa.org. Retreived on:    June 6, 2014.  IBCE. 2013. La quinua boliviana traspasa   fronteras para el consumo mundial. 2013:  Año Internacional de la quinua. Comercio  Exterior No. 2010.  Jacobsen, S. 2011. The situation for quinoa   and its production in southern Bolivia:  from economic success to environmental  disaster. J. Agron. Crop Sci.  197:390–399.  Jacobsen, S. 2012. What is Wrong With the   Sustainability of Quinoa Production in  Southern Bolivia – A Reply to Winkel et al.  (2012). J. Agron. Crop Sci. Short  Communications: 1-4.  Jaldín, R. 2010. Producción de quinua en   Oruro y Potosí. Plural, La Paz, Bolivia.    Estados de investigación temática PIEB  No. 3. 100 p.  Medrano, A., Torrico, J. 2009. Consecuencias   del incremento de la producción de  quinua (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) en  el Altiplano Sur de Bolivia. CienciAgro  1(4):117-123.  Ormachea, S., Ramírez, N. 2013. Propiedad   colectiva de la tierra y producción  agrícola capitalista. El caso de la quinua  en el Altiplano Sur de Bolivia. Presencia  SRL, CEDLA. La Paz, Bolivia. 172 p.  Orsag, V., León, L., Pacosaca, O., Castro, E.   2013. Evaluación de la fertilidad de los  suelos para la producción sostenible de  quinua. T’inkazos. 33: 89-112.  Pizarro, J. 2013. Formas de vida en la   etnobotánica aymara. Indiana.  30:301-323.  Puschiasis, O. 2009. La fertilidad: Un recurso   "cuchicheado". Análisis de la valorización  del recurso territorial fertilidad por las  familias de la zona Intersalar, Bolivia. On  Line. Available at: http://www.ird.fr.          Retreived on: May 27, 2014. Román, P., Ayaviri, D., Navarro, Z. 2011.   Medio ambiente y producción de quinua:  Estrategias de adaptación a los impactos  del cambio climático. Programa de  Investigación Estratégica en Bolivia  PIEB. La Paz, Bolivia. 242 p.  Soraide, D. 2011. La quinua real en el   Altiplano Sur de Bolivia. Documento  técnico para la denominación de origen.    ANAPQUI - CECAOT - APQUISA –  CADEPQUIOR - CADEQUIR/CNPQ -  CABOLQUI - Reino de Los Países Bajos.  FAUTAPO - Educación para el  Desarrollo. 108 p.   Vallejos, P., Ayaviri, D., Navarro, Z. 2011.   Medio ambiente y producción de quinua.  Estrategias de adaptación a los impactos  del cambio climático. Programa de  Investigación Estratégica en Bolivia.  PIEB. La Paz, Bolivia. 242 p.  VSF-CICDA. 2009. Quinua y territorio.   RURALTER, IRD, VSF - CICDA y  Comunidades del Intersalar, Agronomes  y Veterinaires sans Frontiéres. Plural, La  Paz, Bolivia. 156 p.  Winkel, T., Bertero, D., Bommel, P., Chevarria.   M., Cortes, G., Gasselin, P., Geerts, S.,  Joffre, R., Le´ger, F., Martinez, B.,  Rambal, S., Rambal, G., Tichit, M.,  Tourrand, J., Vassas, A., Vacher, J.,  Vieira, M. 2012: The sustainability of  quinoa production in southern Bolivia:  From misrepresentations to dubious  solutions. Comments on Jacobsen  (2011). J. Agron. Crop Sci. 197:390-399.  Zamora, V. 2008. Estudio de aproximaciones   etnobotánicas en áreas productoras del  intersalar de quinua real del  departamento de Potosí. Parte I.  FAUTAPO-DELA. Potosí, Bolivia. 74 p.       Molecular characterization yielded  diversity indices as the Polymorphic  Information Content (PIC) and  heterozygosity (H), for each set of  samples coming from the different  geographic regions.  Quinoas from the  Central Altiplano (CA) and Southern  Altiplano (SA) were the most abundant,  and also the most diverse (tables 2 and 3). For this study, the data of the alleles (in  base pairs) of every microsatellite were  transformed into binary data and arranged  in a matrix representing the presence of an  allele as 1 and the absence as 0. The  morphological information was obtained  from the evaluation of the germplasm  collection. 48 variables were selected that  included data on: stem coloring, plant  architecture, stem, leaf, inflorescence  and/or panicle, grain characteristics,  saponin, yield, phenology and tolerance to  abiotic (frost) and biotic (mildew) factors. Quinoas from every region have an  agromorphological pattern that  distinguishes them from each other. In the  Central Altiplano quinoas grow from 0.5    to 1.2 m, with short branches, the  glomerulate panicle prevails and the  phenological cycle lasts 168.40 ± 14.05  days. Quinoas in the Southern Altiplano have  larger grain (2.20 to 2.67 mm in  diameter), high saponin content; with a  prevailing amaraht-like panicle. In the Northern Altiplano, quinoas have a  height of 0.8 to 1.5 m, the glomerulate  panicle prevailes, the grain is small to  medium in size and white in color, the  growing season is fairly late to late (175  days). In inter-Andean valleys quinoas can reach  up to 2.5 m or more in height, with  branches reaching the second third of the  plant and very toothed leaves. The  phenological cycle is late (188-205 days),  amaranth-like panicles are dominant,  medium grain size (2 ± 0.13 mm) and high  saponin content (Rojas and Pinto 2013,  Bonifacio et al. 2012; Rojas 2003, Rojas   et al. 2001).   For the present study the above  morphological data were arranged in a  matrix where the names of the accessions  and morphological descriptors are  indicated with several levels of  descriptors (3-11). Based on available information about  molecular and morphological  characterization, out of all the accessions  from the quinoa collection, 1672 Bolivian  accessions from five regions were  selected: Northern Altiplano, Central  Altiplano, Southern Altiplano and  inter-Andean valleys and natural habitats  for the wild quinoas (ajaras) (Table 2).   Statistical Analysis: Forming the core  collection of quinoa   To form the core collection, a matrix with  molecular and morphological data was  developed. This information was  introduced in the PowerCore® program,  which enables sampling through the  Strategy M Maximization (van Hintum et  al. 2003). This strategy involves the use of  data indicating the magnitude of the  diversity of markers used for the  characterization of germplasm. It ensures  the inclusion of high allelic richness for  loci/markers used and directly takes into  account, in those loci, the magnitude of  the variation and deviation to the model or  pattern. Importantly, the M strategy not  only defines the number of accessions that  should come from different groups, but  also identifies the accessions that need to  be included (Schoen and Brown, 1994;  Schoen and Brown, 1995; Cortez 2011).  Thus, with the accessions selected by the  program, a dendrogram of the core  collection was generated. Using the  program NTSYSpc ® version 2.1.10 the    structure of this dendrogram was  compared with that of the total collection.  Diversity indices between the two  collections were also compared to check  the representativeness of the core  collection (Rohlf 2000; Zambrano et al.  2003).   Achievements   The data from the analysis, with a level of  100% of representation of the genetic  diversity, generated a subset of 486  accessions corresponding to 31% of the  total collection. Applying a level of 80%  of representation of the genetic diversity,  as suggested by the literature (Frankel et  al., 1984; Jaramillo and Baena, 2000;  Ozer  et al., 2004), a subset of 410   accessions was reached, which stands for  24% of the total collection (Table 2). Table 2 shows the number of accessions in  the core collection by region. The  percentage of accessions from each region  is variable; this indicates the degree of  redundancy (duplicated or genetically  very similar material) of accessions within  each region. This is the case of material from the  Northern Altiplano, from where a higher  percentage of accessions has been  considered both at 80% and 100% of  representation (46% and 57%,  respectively), compared with the other  regions. This is because in this region  there is less redundancy, therefore most  accessions are genetically different from  one another. A similar situation of low redundancy is  also observed in the material from the  inter-Andean valleys. It is noteworthy that    the number of accessions identified for the  core collection of this region is greater  than the number of accessions from the  core collection of the Southern Altiplano  and very close to that of the Central  Altiplano. This implies that although the  total number of accessions from the  Central and from the Southern Altiplano  is greater than that of the inter-Andean  valleys, it is likely that in the first two  regions of the Altiplano, several  genetically similar materials were  collected.   Comparison of the core collection with  the total collection, by visualization of the  dendrograms developed with the data  from each collection, shows that the core  collection conserves the structure of the  original collection. Figure 1 shows an example for material  from the Northern Altiplano, where the  genetic structure (arrangement of the  accessions into groups and subgroups) of  both collections (total and core) is the  same.   Table 3 compares PIC data from the total  collection, with PIC data from the core  collection, arranged by region. Diversity  indices of the core collection are slightly  higher than those of the original collection  because redundancies are reduced.  Therefore, the allele frequencies are  higher. The representativeness of the core  collection is consistent, although the  Bolivian Quinoa Collection has such a  diverse and complex structure. Genetic  diversity in the core collection is  maintained and redundancy has been  reduced to a minimum.   Conclusions   •  The methodology used for this study   enabled the identification of the most  representative quinoa accessions,  namely the group of accessions in  which the amplitude of the genetic  diversity found in the total collection    was maintained, based on  microsatellite markers,  agromorphological descriptors and  assessments of mildew and frost  tolerance. The quality and quantity of  information used to form the core  quinoa collection in this study, ensures  the inclusion of a wide range of  accessions that can be considered for  the selection of genetic material in  future assessments, either with  particular agromorphological  characteristics or with mildew and frost  tolerance characteristics.   • is to that   formation of a core collection is  dynamic. Future research could  include variables related to the  demands of the current context, such  as climate change, which requires  early and drought tolerant varieties; or  the market, which demands varieties  with nutritional and agroindustrial  qualities.   Participating agencies   The agromorphological and molecular  information used in this study was  generated within the framework of the  Project “Management, Conservation and   Sustainable Use of High Andean Grains”  as part of the National System of Genetic  Resources for Food and Agriculture  (SINARGEAA) and, the Quinoa Project  supported by the McKnight Foundation. The following people contributed  collecting information of molecular data,  during the implementation of the above  mentioned projects: Jorge Rojas Beltran,  Abel Turumaya, Pilar Gutiérrez, Rocío  Maldonado, Lucia Perez, Lilian Pinto and  Masiel Ovando. The agromorphological information has  been generated by the technical team of  PROINPA Foundation, Altiplano  Regional Office.    Cited references    Bonifacio, A., Aroni G., Villca, M. 2012.   Catálogo Etnobotánico de la Quinua  Real. Cochabamba, Bolivia. 123 p.  Brown, A., Schoen, D. 1994. Optimal sampling   strategies for core collections of plant  genetic resources. In: V. Loeschke, J.  Tomiuk y S. Jain (Eds.). Conservation  genetics. BirkhäuserVerlagBasel, Suiza.  pp. 357-369.  Cortez, F. 2011. Construcción de una   colección núcleo de  Solanum tuberosum   ssp.  andigena conservada en el banco   nacional de tubérculos y raíces andinas  en base a marcadores morfológicos y  moleculares. Master Degree Thesis.  Posgrado FCAP-UMSS. Cochabamba,  Bolivia.  Frankel, O., Brown, A. 1984. Plant genetic   resources today: A critical appraisal. In:  Holden, J., Williams, J. (Eds.). Crop    Genetic Resources: Conservation and  evaluation. Allen and Unwin. London, UK.  Jaramillo, S., Baena, M. 2000. Material de   apoyo a la capacitación en conservación  ex situ de recursos fitogenéticos.  International Plant Genetic Resource  Institute. Cali, Colombia. 210 p.  Kyu-Won, K., Chung, K., Cho, H.,   Chandrabalan, D., Jae-Gyun, G., Kim, T,  Eun G., Yong-Jin, P. 2007. PowerCore: A  program applying the advanced M  strategy with a heuristic search for  establishing core sets. Bioinformatics 23  (16):2155-2162.  Maughan, J., Bonifacio, A., Jellen, E., Stevens,   M., Coleman, C., Ricks, M., Mason, S.,  Jarvis, D., Ardunia, B., Fairbanks, D.  2004. A genetic linkage map of quinoa  (Chenopodium quinoa) based on AFLP,  RAPD, and SSR markers. Theor Appl  Genet 109:1188-1195.  Ozer, A., Suárez, R., Abadie, T. 2004.   Elaboración de una colección núcleo de  germoplasma de maíz de la raza blanco  dentado. Agrociencia Vol. VIII No. 1. pp.  1-10.  PASW. 2009. Predicción de resultados e   identificación de relaciones en los datos  categóricos. PASW® Categories 18 –  Specifications. 8 p.  Rojas, W., Pinto M. 2013. La diversidad   genética de quinua de Bolivia. In: Vargas,  M. (Ed.). Congreso Científico de la  Quinua (Proceedings). La Paz, Bolivia.  pp. 77 - 92.  Rojas, W., Pinto, M., Soto, J. 2010.   Distribución geográfica y variabilidad  genética de los granos andinos. In: Rojas  W., Pinto M., Soto J., Jagger M. y  Padulosi S. (Eds.). Granos Andinos:  Avances, logros y experiencias  desarrolladas en quinua, cañahua y  amaranto en Bolivia. Bioversity  International, Rome, Italy. pp. 11- 23.  Rojas, W. (Ed.). 2008. Manejo, conservación y   uso sostenible de los recursos genéticos  de granos altoandinos, en el marco del  SINARGEAA. Phase Report 2003-2008.  PROINPA Foundation. La Paz, Bolivia.  49 p.  Rojas, W., Cayoja, M., Espindola, G. 2001.   Catálogo de la colección de quinua  conservada en el Banco Nacional de  Granos Altoandinos. PROINPA  Foundation, MAGDER, PPD-PNUD,  SIBTA-UCEPSA, IPGRI, IFAD. La Paz,  Bolivia. 129 p.  Rohlf F. 2000. NTYSYS-pc, Numerical   Taxonomy and Multivariate Analysis  System, Version 2.10e. Appl.  Biostatistics, Inc., New York.  Schoen, D., Brown, A. 1995. Maximising   genetic diversity in core collections of wild  relatives of crop species. pp. 55-76. In:  Core collections of plant genetic    resources (T. Hodgkin, A. Brown, Th. van  Hintum y E. Morales, eds.). John Wiley  and Sons, United Kingdom.   van Hintum, Th., Brown, A., Spillane, C.,   Hodgkin, T. 2003 Colecciones núcleo de  recursos fitogenéticos. IPGRI Technical  Bulletin No. 3. International Plant Genetic  Resource Institute, Rome, Italy.  Zambrano, A., Demey, J., Fuenmayor, F.,   Segovia, V., Gutiérrez, Z. 2003.  Diversidad genética de una colección de  yuca a través de marcadores moleculares  RAPDS. Agronomía Trop. Venezuela 2  (53):155-174.     Revista de Agricultura, Nro. 54 - Julio de 2014   Area: Technology Development 83   Article received on June 12, 2014 – Article accepted on June 19, 2014   Direct seeding in the field (scattering) has  had little success due to wind burial and  trawling of seeds, and by fast dehydration  of sprouting seeds. It is necessary to  continue adjusting some direct planting  techniques using pelleted seed (clay  pellets, use of pregerminated seed, etc.). The materials used were seeds of the  following species: ñak’a t’ula  (Bacccharis tricuneata),  sup’u t’ula   (Parastrepia lepidophylla),  uma t’ula   (Parastrephia lucida) tara tara (Fabiana  densa), lam phaya (Lampaya castellani),   qariwa (Senecio clivicolus).   Final transplant in living  barriers   In quinoa production areas, particularly  those in the Southern Altiplano, plots of  quinoa are distributed erratically without  any management standard. In some cases  you can see very wide plots in the  direction of local winds, a condition that  facilitates erosion processes. To mitigate the effect of erosion, living  barriers have been established transversal  to the direction of local winds. The width  of the plots is of 50 to 60 m, the length of  the plots varies from 100 m to 300 m. This  design should be applied to all new  parcels being incorporated into  commercial production. It has been proven that the seedlings of  native species developed in small bags,  are easier to transport and handle in the  field. Something to note is the time of  transplantation, which must necessarily  coincide with the onset of rains. Once rain  arrives there is a period of one month to  transplant shrubs successfully.   Given the magnitude of the problem that  concerns the sustainability of quinoa  production, the proposal of reforestation  with native species is a contribution that  in the medium and long term can help an  ecological stabilization and help achieve  sustainability. The millennial adaptation  of native species and the perspective of  their use in quinoa production systems  must be emphasized.  This process would  help reduce soil erosion, generate organic  matter locally and would provide food and  shelter for beneficial insects and  micro-organisms, enabling the  achievement of a desired ecological  balance. Being a big task, reforestation with native  and naturalized species, is a matter that  concerns higher levels of public decision  making such as municipalities,  departmental governments and the  national government.   Moreover, resources and time required for  the establishment and management of  native shrubs should be considered in the  context of ecological and environmental  services.  Given its nature these services  are eligible for the support of national  public actors and international  cooperation bodies. In this context, the first experiences  implemented by PROINPA Foundation  have enabled the following achievements: • and of   main shrubs of native species.  • and of   diversity of species and the genetic  diversity within shrub species.  • of ecological   adaptation of existing native species in  the Altiplano.  • of for   native species seed collection.  • of for   multiplication of shrubs.  • about viability   seeds from shrub species.  •   barriers feasibility of implementation.  • of and of   final transplant for living barriers.  In all previous work, it is important to  note the involvement of producers, who  through their local knowledge and  experience have made a valuable  contribution to this initiative that seeks to  make sustainable use of local biodiversity  in quinoa production systems in the  Bolivian Altiplano.   Communities of farmers involved:    • of and   Potosí.   •  • farmers Buena   Vista, Aroma, Oruro.   Cited references   Altieri M., Nichols C. 2000. Agroecología.   Teoría y práctica para una agricultura  sustentable. UN/PNUMA. Red de  formación ambiental para América Latina  y el Caribe. México. 200 p. Series: Textos  básicos para la formación ambiental, Vol.  4.  Alzérreca, H., Calle, P., Laura J. 2002. Manual   de manejo y uso sostenible de la tola y los  tolares. PNUD-ALT-AIGACA. La Paz,  Bolivia. 55 p.  Aroni, G. 2008. Recuperación de suelos para   una producción sostenible de quinua en  el Altiplano Sur, LIDEMA, Hábitat  Magazine. La Paz, Bolivia pp. 50-53.  Aroni G., Bonifacio, A. Erosión de suelos en   Altiplano Sur: Camino a la desertificación.  On Line. Available at:    http://www.proinpa.org. Retreived on:    June 6, 2014.  IBCE. 2013. La quinua boliviana traspasa   fronteras para el consumo mundial. 2013:  Año Internacional de la quinua. Comercio  Exterior No. 2010.  Jacobsen, S. 2011. The situation for quinoa   and its production in southern Bolivia:  from economic success to environmental  disaster. J. Agron. Crop Sci.  197:390–399.  Jacobsen, S. 2012. What is Wrong With the   Sustainability of Quinoa Production in  Southern Bolivia – A Reply to Winkel et al.  (2012). J. Agron. Crop Sci. Short  Communications: 1-4.  Jaldín, R. 2010. Producción de quinua en   Oruro y Potosí. Plural, La Paz, Bolivia.    Estados de investigación temática PIEB  No. 3. 100 p.  Medrano, A., Torrico, J. 2009. Consecuencias   del incremento de la producción de  quinua (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) en  el Altiplano Sur de Bolivia. CienciAgro  1(4):117-123.  Ormachea, S., Ramírez, N. 2013. Propiedad   colectiva de la tierra y producción  agrícola capitalista. El caso de la quinua  en el Altiplano Sur de Bolivia. Presencia  SRL, CEDLA. La Paz, Bolivia. 172 p.  Orsag, V., León, L., Pacosaca, O., Castro, E.   2013. Evaluación de la fertilidad de los  suelos para la producción sostenible de  quinua. T’inkazos. 33: 89-112.  Pizarro, J. 2013. Formas de vida en la   etnobotánica aymara. Indiana.  30:301-323.  Puschiasis, O. 2009. La fertilidad: Un recurso   "cuchicheado". Análisis de la valorización  del recurso territorial fertilidad por las  familias de la zona Intersalar, Bolivia. On  Line. Available at: http://www.ird.fr.          Retreived on: May 27, 2014. Román, P., Ayaviri, D., Navarro, Z. 2011.   Medio ambiente y producción de quinua:  Estrategias de adaptación a los impactos  del cambio climático. Programa de  Investigación Estratégica en Bolivia  PIEB. La Paz, Bolivia. 242 p.  Soraide, D. 2011. La quinua real en el   Altiplano Sur de Bolivia. Documento  técnico para la denominación de origen.    ANAPQUI - CECAOT - APQUISA –  CADEPQUIOR - CADEQUIR/CNPQ -  CABOLQUI - Reino de Los Países Bajos.  FAUTAPO - Educación para el  Desarrollo. 108 p.   Vallejos, P., Ayaviri, D., Navarro, Z. 2011.   Medio ambiente y producción de quinua.  Estrategias de adaptación a los impactos  del cambio climático. Programa de  Investigación Estratégica en Bolivia.  PIEB. La Paz, Bolivia. 242 p.  VSF-CICDA. 2009. Quinua y territorio.   RURALTER, IRD, VSF - CICDA y  Comunidades del Intersalar, Agronomes  y Veterinaires sans Frontiéres. Plural, La  Paz, Bolivia. 156 p.  Winkel, T., Bertero, D., Bommel, P., Chevarria.   M., Cortes, G., Gasselin, P., Geerts, S.,  Joffre, R., Le´ger, F., Martinez, B.,  Rambal, S., Rambal, G., Tichit, M.,  Tourrand, J., Vassas, A., Vacher, J.,  Vieira, M. 2012: The sustainability of  quinoa production in southern Bolivia:  From misrepresentations to dubious  solutions. Comments on Jacobsen  (2011). J. Agron. Crop Sci. 197:390-399.  Zamora, V. 2008. Estudio de aproximaciones   etnobotánicas en áreas productoras del  intersalar de quinua real del  departamento de Potosí. Parte I.  FAUTAPO-DELA. Potosí, Bolivia. 74 p.       Molecular characterization yielded  diversity indices as the Polymorphic  Information Content (PIC) and  heterozygosity (H), for each set of  samples coming from the different  geographic regions.  Quinoas from the  Central Altiplano (CA) and Southern  Altiplano (SA) were the most abundant,  and also the most diverse (tables 2 and 3). For this study, the data of the alleles (in  base pairs) of every microsatellite were  transformed into binary data and arranged  in a matrix representing the presence of an  allele as 1 and the absence as 0. The  morphological information was obtained  from the evaluation of the germplasm  collection. 48 variables were selected that  included data on: stem coloring, plant  architecture, stem, leaf, inflorescence  and/or panicle, grain characteristics,  saponin, yield, phenology and tolerance to  abiotic (frost) and biotic (mildew) factors. Quinoas from every region have an  agromorphological pattern that  distinguishes them from each other. In the  Central Altiplano quinoas grow from 0.5    to 1.2 m, with short branches, the  glomerulate panicle prevails and the  phenological cycle lasts 168.40 ± 14.05  days. Quinoas in the Southern Altiplano have  larger grain (2.20 to 2.67 mm in  diameter), high saponin content; with a  prevailing amaraht-like panicle. In the Northern Altiplano, quinoas have a  height of 0.8 to 1.5 m, the glomerulate  panicle prevailes, the grain is small to  medium in size and white in color, the  growing season is fairly late to late (175  days). In inter-Andean valleys quinoas can reach  up to 2.5 m or more in height, with  branches reaching the second third of the  plant and very toothed leaves. The  phenological cycle is late (188-205 days),  amaranth-like panicles are dominant,  medium grain size (2 ± 0.13 mm) and high  saponin content (Rojas and Pinto 2013,  Bonifacio et al. 2012; Rojas 2003, Rojas   et al. 2001).   For the present study the above  morphological data were arranged in a  matrix where the names of the accessions  and morphological descriptors are  indicated with several levels of  descriptors (3-11). Based on available information about  molecular and morphological  characterization, out of all the accessions  from the quinoa collection, 1672 Bolivian  accessions from five regions were  selected: Northern Altiplano, Central  Altiplano, Southern Altiplano and  inter-Andean valleys and natural habitats  for the wild quinoas (ajaras) (Table 2).   Statistical Analysis: Forming the core  collection of quinoa   To form the core collection, a matrix with  molecular and morphological data was  developed. This information was  introduced in the PowerCore® program,  which enables sampling through the  Strategy M Maximization (van Hintum et  al. 2003). This strategy involves the use of  data indicating the magnitude of the  diversity of markers used for the  characterization of germplasm. It ensures  the inclusion of high allelic richness for  loci/markers used and directly takes into  account, in those loci, the magnitude of  the variation and deviation to the model or  pattern. Importantly, the M strategy not  only defines the number of accessions that  should come from different groups, but  also identifies the accessions that need to  be included (Schoen and Brown, 1994;  Schoen and Brown, 1995; Cortez 2011).  Thus, with the accessions selected by the  program, a dendrogram of the core  collection was generated. Using the  program NTSYSpc ® version 2.1.10 the    structure of this dendrogram was  compared with that of the total collection.  Diversity indices between the two  collections were also compared to check  the representativeness of the core  collection (Rohlf 2000; Zambrano et al.  2003).   Achievements   The data from the analysis, with a level of  100% of representation of the genetic  diversity, generated a subset of 486  accessions corresponding to 31% of the  total collection. Applying a level of 80%  of representation of the genetic diversity,  as suggested by the literature (Frankel et  al., 1984; Jaramillo and Baena, 2000;  Ozer  et al., 2004), a subset of 410   accessions was reached, which stands for  24% of the total collection (Table 2). Table 2 shows the number of accessions in  the core collection by region. The  percentage of accessions from each region  is variable; this indicates the degree of  redundancy (duplicated or genetically  very similar material) of accessions within  each region. This is the case of material from the  Northern Altiplano, from where a higher  percentage of accessions has been  considered both at 80% and 100% of  representation (46% and 57%,  respectively), compared with the other  regions. This is because in this region  there is less redundancy, therefore most  accessions are genetically different from  one another. A similar situation of low redundancy is  also observed in the material from the  inter-Andean valleys. It is noteworthy that    the number of accessions identified for the  core collection of this region is greater  than the number of accessions from the  core collection of the Southern Altiplano  and very close to that of the Central  Altiplano. This implies that although the  total number of accessions from the  Central and from the Southern Altiplano  is greater than that of the inter-Andean  valleys, it is likely that in the first two  regions of the Altiplano, several  genetically similar materials were  collected.   Comparison of the core collection with  the total collection, by visualization of the  dendrograms developed with the data  from each collection, shows that the core  collection conserves the structure of the  original collection. Figure 1 shows an example for material  from the Northern Altiplano, where the  genetic structure (arrangement of the  accessions into groups and subgroups) of  both collections (total and core) is the  same.   Table 3 compares PIC data from the total  collection, with PIC data from the core  collection, arranged by region. Diversity  indices of the core collection are slightly  higher than those of the original collection  because redundancies are reduced.  Therefore, the allele frequencies are  higher. The representativeness of the core  collection is consistent, although the  Bolivian Quinoa Collection has such a  diverse and complex structure. Genetic  diversity in the core collection is  maintained and redundancy has been  reduced to a minimum.   Conclusions   •  The methodology used for this study   enabled the identification of the most  representative quinoa accessions,  namely the group of accessions in  which the amplitude of the genetic  diversity found in the total collection    was maintained, based on  microsatellite markers,  agromorphological descriptors and  assessments of mildew and frost  tolerance. The quality and quantity of  information used to form the core  quinoa collection in this study, ensures  the inclusion of a wide range of  accessions that can be considered for  the selection of genetic material in  future assessments, either with  particular agromorphological  characteristics or with mildew and frost  tolerance characteristics.   • is to that   formation of a core collection is  dynamic. Future research could  include variables related to the  demands of the current context, such  as climate change, which requires  early and drought tolerant varieties; or  the market, which demands varieties  with nutritional and agroindustrial  qualities.   Participating agencies   The agromorphological and molecular  information used in this study was  generated within the framework of the  Project “Management, Conservation and   Sustainable Use of High Andean Grains”  as part of the National System of Genetic  Resources for Food and Agriculture  (SINARGEAA) and, the Quinoa Project  supported by the McKnight Foundation. The following people contributed  collecting information of molecular data,  during the implementation of the above  mentioned projects: Jorge Rojas Beltran,  Abel Turumaya, Pilar Gutiérrez, Rocío  Maldonado, Lucia Perez, Lilian Pinto and  Masiel Ovando. The agromorphological information has  been generated by the technical team of  PROINPA Foundation, Altiplano  Regional Office.    Cited references    Bonifacio, A., Aroni G., Villca, M. 2012.   Catálogo Etnobotánico de la Quinua  Real. Cochabamba, Bolivia. 123 p.  Brown, A., Schoen, D. 1994. Optimal sampling   strategies for core collections of plant  genetic resources. In: V. Loeschke, J.  Tomiuk y S. Jain (Eds.). Conservation  genetics. BirkhäuserVerlagBasel, Suiza.  pp. 357-369.  Cortez, F. 2011. Construcción de una   colección núcleo de  Solanum tuberosum   ssp.  andigena conservada en el banco   nacional de tubérculos y raíces andinas  en base a marcadores morfológicos y  moleculares. Master Degree Thesis.  Posgrado FCAP-UMSS. Cochabamba,  Bolivia.  Frankel, O., Brown, A. 1984. Plant genetic   resources today: A critical appraisal. In:  Holden, J., Williams, J. (Eds.). Crop    Genetic Resources: Conservation and  evaluation. Allen and Unwin. London, UK.  Jaramillo, S., Baena, M. 2000. Material de   apoyo a la capacitación en conservación  ex situ de recursos fitogenéticos.  International Plant Genetic Resource  Institute. Cali, Colombia. 210 p.  Kyu-Won, K., Chung, K., Cho, H.,   Chandrabalan, D., Jae-Gyun, G., Kim, T,  Eun G., Yong-Jin, P. 2007. PowerCore: A  program applying the advanced M  strategy with a heuristic search for  establishing core sets. Bioinformatics 23  (16):2155-2162.  Maughan, J., Bonifacio, A., Jellen, E., Stevens,   M., Coleman, C., Ricks, M., Mason, S.,  Jarvis, D., Ardunia, B., Fairbanks, D.  2004. A genetic linkage map of quinoa  (Chenopodium quinoa) based on AFLP,  RAPD, and SSR markers. Theor Appl  Genet 109:1188-1195.  Ozer, A., Suárez, R., Abadie, T. 2004.   Elaboración de una colección núcleo de  germoplasma de maíz de la raza blanco  dentado. Agrociencia Vol. VIII No. 1. pp.  1-10.  PASW. 2009. Predicción de resultados e   identificación de relaciones en los datos  categóricos. PASW® Categories 18 –  Specifications. 8 p.  Rojas, W., Pinto M. 2013. La diversidad   genética de quinua de Bolivia. In: Vargas,  M. (Ed.). Congreso Científico de la  Quinua (Proceedings). La Paz, Bolivia.  pp. 77 - 92.  Rojas, W., Pinto, M., Soto, J. 2010.   Distribución geográfica y variabilidad  genética de los granos andinos. In: Rojas  W., Pinto M., Soto J., Jagger M. y  Padulosi S. (Eds.). Granos Andinos:  Avances, logros y experiencias  desarrolladas en quinua, cañahua y  amaranto en Bolivia. Bioversity  International, Rome, Italy. pp. 11- 23.  Rojas, W. (Ed.). 2008. Manejo, conservación y   uso sostenible de los recursos genéticos  de granos altoandinos, en el marco del  SINARGEAA. Phase Report 2003-2008.  PROINPA Foundation. La Paz, Bolivia.  49 p.  Rojas, W., Cayoja, M., Espindola, G. 2001.   Catálogo de la colección de quinua  conservada en el Banco Nacional de  Granos Altoandinos. PROINPA  Foundation, MAGDER, PPD-PNUD,  SIBTA-UCEPSA, IPGRI, IFAD. La Paz,  Bolivia. 129 p.  Rohlf F. 2000. NTYSYS-pc, Numerical   Taxonomy and Multivariate Analysis  System, Version 2.10e. Appl.  Biostatistics, Inc., New York.  Schoen, D., Brown, A. 1995. Maximising   genetic diversity in core collections of wild  relatives of crop species. pp. 55-76. In:  Core collections of plant genetic    resources (T. Hodgkin, A. Brown, Th. van  Hintum y E. Morales, eds.). John Wiley  and Sons, United Kingdom.  van Hintum, Th., Brown, A., Spillane, C.,   Hodgkin, T. 2003 Colecciones núcleo de  recursos fitogenéticos. IPGRI Technical  Bulletin No. 3. International Plant Genetic  Resource Institute, Rome, Italy.  Zambrano, A., Demey, J., Fuenmayor, F.,   Segovia, V., Gutiérrez, Z. 2003.  Diversidad genética de una colección de  yuca a través de marcadores moleculares  RAPDS. Agronomía Trop. Venezuela 2  (53):155-174.     ISSN 1998 - 9652   Area: Technology Development 84   Formation of the Chenopodium quinoa Willd. (quinoa)  core collection in Bolivia   with morphological and molecular data   Silene Veramendi; Ximena Cadima; Milton Pinto; Wilfredo Rojas    Work funded by: SIBTA, McKnight Foundation, PROINPA Foundation  E mail: x.cadima@proinpa.org    Summary. The core collection is representative of a crop’s genetic diversity, aimed at promoting a   more efficient use of material conserved in genebanks. The objective of this study was to form a  core collection of quinoa with morphological and molecular data, and to evaluate its  representativeness, so that the entity responsible for the custody of the Bolivian Quinoa Collection,  can have the necessary information to facilitate decisions-making regarding the use and  evaluation of the genetic diversity of quinoa germplasm. The M or Maximization of Diversity  Strategy was used for the selection of representative materials that form the core collection, using  the PowerCore ® software. The study was conducted with the Bolivian Quinoa Collection formed  by materials from the Altiplano, the inter-Andean valleys and wild materials that had complete data  on morphological and molecular characterization. Two core collection scenarios were identified: 1)  31% of the total collection representing 100% of the genetic diversity and, 2) 24% of the total  collection representing 80% of the genetic diversity. By comparing the diversity indices between  the total collection and the core collection, the representativeness of the latter genetic diversity was  confirmed. Keywords: Genetic Diversity; Microsatellites; Genebank Resumen. de colección de  Chenopodium quinoa (quinua)   Bolivia con información morfológica y molecular.  La colección núcleo es representativa de la  diversidad genética de un cultivo, dirigida a promover un uso más eficiente de los materiales  conservados en los Bancos de Germoplasma. El objetivo de este trabajo fue conformar una  colección núcleo de quinua con datos morfológicos y moleculares y evaluar su representatividad,  de forma que la entidad responsable de la custodia de la Colección Boliviana de Quinua, cuente  con información necesaria para facilitar la toma de decisiones en cuanto al uso y evaluación de la  diversidad genética del germoplasma de quinua. Se utilizó la Estrategia M o de Maximización de  la Diversidad para la selección de los materiales representativos que conforman la colección  núcleo, utilizando el programa informático PowerCore ®. El estudio se realizó en la Colección  Boliviana de Quinua conformada por materiales provenientes del altiplano, los valles interandinos  y materiales silvestres que contaban con datos completos de caracterización morfológica y  molecular. Se identificaron dos escenarios de colección núcleo: 1) 31% de la colección total que  representa el 100% de la diversidad genética y 2) 24% de la colección total representando el 80%  de la diversidad genética. La comparación de índices de diversidad, entre la colección total y la  colección núcleo, corroboró la representatividad de diversidad genética de ésta última. Palabras clave: Diversidad genética; Microsatélites; Banco de Germoplasma   Molecular characterization yielded  diversity indices as the Polymorphic  Information Content (PIC) and  heterozygosity (H), for each set of  samples coming from the different  geographic regions.  Quinoas from the  Central Altiplano (CA) and Southern  Altiplano (SA) were the most abundant,  and also the most diverse (tables 2 and 3). For this study, the data of the alleles (in  base pairs) of every microsatellite were  transformed into binary data and arranged  in a matrix representing the presence of an  allele as 1 and the absence as 0. The  morphological information was obtained  from the evaluation of the germplasm  collection. 48 variables were selected that  included data on: stem coloring, plant  architecture, stem, leaf, inflorescence  and/or panicle, grain characteristics,  saponin, yield, phenology and tolerance to  abiotic (frost) and biotic (mildew) factors. Quinoas from every region have an  agromorphological pattern that  distinguishes them from each other. In the  Central Altiplano quinoas grow from 0.5    to 1.2 m, with short branches, the  glomerulate panicle prevails and the  phenological cycle lasts 168.40 ± 14.05  days. Quinoas in the Southern Altiplano have  larger grain (2.20 to 2.67 mm in  diameter), high saponin content; with a  prevailing amaraht-like panicle. In the Northern Altiplano, quinoas have a  height of 0.8 to 1.5 m, the glomerulate  panicle prevailes, the grain is small to  medium in size and white in color, the  growing season is fairly late to late (175  days). In inter-Andean valleys quinoas can reach  up to 2.5 m or more in height, with  branches reaching the second third of the  plant and very toothed leaves. The  phenological cycle is late (188-205 days),  amaranth-like panicles are dominant,  medium grain size (2 ± 0.13 mm) and high  saponin content (Rojas and Pinto 2013,  Bonifacio et al. 2012; Rojas 2003, Rojas   et al. 2001).   For the present study the above  morphological data were arranged in a  matrix where the names of the accessions  and morphological descriptors are  indicated with several levels of  descriptors (3-11). Based on available information about  molecular and morphological  characterization, out of all the accessions  from the quinoa collection, 1672 Bolivian  accessions from five regions were  selected: Northern Altiplano, Central  Altiplano, Southern Altiplano and  inter-Andean valleys and natural habitats  for the wild quinoas (ajaras) (Table 2).   Statistical Analysis: Forming the core  collection of quinoa   To form the core collection, a matrix with  molecular and morphological data was  developed. This information was  introduced in the PowerCore® program,  which enables sampling through the  Strategy M Maximization (van Hintum et  al. 2003). This strategy involves the use of  data indicating the magnitude of the  diversity of markers used for the  characterization of germplasm. It ensures  the inclusion of high allelic richness for  loci/markers used and directly takes into  account, in those loci, the magnitude of  the variation and deviation to the model or  pattern. Importantly, the M strategy not  only defines the number of accessions that  should come from different groups, but  also identifies the accessions that need to  be included (Schoen and Brown, 1994;  Schoen and Brown, 1995; Cortez 2011).  Thus, with the accessions selected by the  program, a dendrogram of the core  collection was generated. Using the  program NTSYSpc ® version 2.1.10 the    structure of this dendrogram was  compared with that of the total collection.  Diversity indices between the two  collections were also compared to check  the representativeness of the core  collection (Rohlf 2000; Zambrano et al.  2003).   Achievements   The data from the analysis, with a level of  100% of representation of the genetic  diversity, generated a subset of 486  accessions corresponding to 31% of the  total collection. Applying a level of 80%  of representation of the genetic diversity,  as suggested by the literature (Frankel et  al., 1984; Jaramillo and Baena, 2000;  Ozer  et al., 2004), a subset of 410   accessions was reached, which stands for  24% of the total collection (Table 2). Table 2 shows the number of accessions in  the core collection by region. The  percentage of accessions from each region  is variable; this indicates the degree of  redundancy (duplicated or genetically  very similar material) of accessions within  each region. This is the case of material from the  Northern Altiplano, from where a higher  percentage of accessions has been  considered both at 80% and 100% of  representation (46% and 57%,  respectively), compared with the other  regions. This is because in this region  there is less redundancy, therefore most  accessions are genetically different from  one another. A similar situation of low redundancy is  also observed in the material from the  inter-Andean valleys. It is noteworthy that    the number of accessions identified for the  core collection of this region is greater  than the number of accessions from the  core collection of the Southern Altiplano  and very close to that of the Central  Altiplano. This implies that although the  total number of accessions from the  Central and from the Southern Altiplano  is greater than that of the inter-Andean  valleys, it is likely that in the first two  regions of the Altiplano, several  genetically similar materials were  collected.   Comparison of the core collection with  the total collection, by visualization of the  dendrograms developed with the data  from each collection, shows that the core  collection conserves the structure of the  original collection. Figure 1 shows an example for material  from the Northern Altiplano, where the  genetic structure (arrangement of the  accessions into groups and subgroups) of  both collections (total and core) is the  same.   Table 3 compares PIC data from the total  collection, with PIC data from the core  collection, arranged by region. Diversity  indices of the core collection are slightly  higher than those of the original collection  because redundancies are reduced.  Therefore, the allele frequencies are  higher. The representativeness of the core  collection is consistent, although the  Bolivian Quinoa Collection has such a  diverse and complex structure. Genetic  diversity in the core collection is  maintained and redundancy has been  reduced to a minimum.   Conclusions   •  The methodology used for this study   enabled the identification of the most  representative quinoa accessions,  namely the group of accessions in  which the amplitude of the genetic  diversity found in the total collection    was maintained, based on  microsatellite markers,  agromorphological descriptors and  assessments of mildew and frost  tolerance. The quality and quantity of  information used to form the core  quinoa collection in this study, ensures  the inclusion of a wide range of  accessions that can be considered for  the selection of genetic material in  future assessments, either with  particular agromorphological  characteristics or with mildew and frost  tolerance characteristics.   • is to that   formation of a core collection is  dynamic. Future research could  include variables related to the  demands of the current context, such  as climate change, which requires  early and drought tolerant varieties; or  the market, which demands varieties  with nutritional and agroindustrial  qualities.   Participating agencies   The agromorphological and molecular  information used in this study was  generated within the framework of the  Project “Management, Conservation and   Sustainable Use of High Andean Grains”  as part of the National System of Genetic  Resources for Food and Agriculture  (SINARGEAA) and, the Quinoa Project  supported by the McKnight Foundation. The following people contributed  collecting information of molecular data,  during the implementation of the above  mentioned projects: Jorge Rojas Beltran,  Abel Turumaya, Pilar Gutiérrez, Rocío  Maldonado, Lucia Perez, Lilian Pinto and  Masiel Ovando. The agromorphological information has  been generated by the technical team of  PROINPA Foundation, Altiplano  Regional Office.    Cited references    Bonifacio, A., Aroni G., Villca, M. 2012.   Catálogo Etnobotánico de la Quinua  Real. Cochabamba, Bolivia. 123 p.  Brown, A., Schoen, D. 1994. Optimal sampling   strategies for core collections of plant  genetic resources. In: V. Loeschke, J.  Tomiuk y S. Jain (Eds.). Conservation  genetics. BirkhäuserVerlagBasel, Suiza.  pp. 357-369.  Cortez, F. 2011. Construcción de una   colección núcleo de  Solanum tuberosum   ssp.  andigena conservada en el banco   nacional de tubérculos y raíces andinas  en base a marcadores morfológicos y  moleculares. Master Degree Thesis.  Posgrado FCAP-UMSS. Cochabamba,  Bolivia.  Frankel, O., Brown, A. 1984. Plant genetic   resources today: A critical appraisal. In:  Holden, J., Williams, J. (Eds.). Crop    Genetic Resources: Conservation and  evaluation. Allen and Unwin. London, UK.  Jaramillo, S., Baena, M. 2000. Material de   apoyo a la capacitación en conservación  ex situ de recursos fitogenéticos.  International Plant Genetic Resource  Institute. Cali, Colombia. 210 p.  Kyu-Won, K., Chung, K., Cho, H.,   Chandrabalan, D., Jae-Gyun, G., Kim, T,  Eun G., Yong-Jin, P. 2007. PowerCore: A  program applying the advanced M  strategy with a heuristic search for  establishing core sets. Bioinformatics 23  (16):2155-2162.  Maughan, J., Bonifacio, A., Jellen, E., Stevens,   M., Coleman, C., Ricks, M., Mason, S.,  Jarvis, D., Ardunia, B., Fairbanks, D.  2004. A genetic linkage map of quinoa  (Chenopodium quinoa) based on AFLP,  RAPD, and SSR markers. Theor Appl  Genet 109:1188-1195.  Ozer, A., Suárez, R., Abadie, T. 2004.   Elaboración de una colección núcleo de  germoplasma de maíz de la raza blanco  dentado. Agrociencia Vol. VIII No. 1. pp.  1-10.  PASW. 2009. Predicción de resultados e   identificación de relaciones en los datos  categóricos. PASW® Categories 18 –  Specifications. 8 p.  Rojas, W., Pinto M. 2013. La diversidad   genética de quinua de Bolivia. In: Vargas,  M. (Ed.). Congreso Científico de la  Quinua (Proceedings). La Paz, Bolivia.  pp. 77 - 92.  Rojas, W., Pinto, M., Soto, J. 2010.   Distribución geográfica y variabilidad  genética de los granos andinos. In: Rojas  W., Pinto M., Soto J., Jagger M. y  Padulosi S. (Eds.). Granos Andinos:  Avances, logros y experiencias  desarrolladas en quinua, cañahua y  amaranto en Bolivia. Bioversity  International, Rome, Italy. pp. 11- 23.  Rojas, W. (Ed.). 2008. Manejo, conservación y   uso sostenible de los recursos genéticos  de granos altoandinos, en el marco del  SINARGEAA. Phase Report 2003-2008.  PROINPA Foundation. La Paz, Bolivia.  49 p.  Rojas, W., Cayoja, M., Espindola, G. 2001.   Catálogo de la colección de quinua  conservada en el Banco Nacional de  Granos Altoandinos. PROINPA  Foundation, MAGDER, PPD-PNUD,  SIBTA-UCEPSA, IPGRI, IFAD. La Paz,  Bolivia. 129 p.  Rohlf F. 2000. NTYSYS-pc, Numerical   Taxonomy and Multivariate Analysis  System, Version 2.10e. Appl.  Biostatistics, Inc., New York.  Schoen, D., Brown, A. 1995. Maximising   genetic diversity in core collections of wild  relatives of crop species. pp. 55-76. In:  Core collections of plant genetic    resources (T. Hodgkin, A. Brown, Th. van  Hintum y E. Morales, eds.). John Wiley  and Sons, United Kingdom.  van Hintum, Th., Brown, A., Spillane, C.,   Hodgkin, T. 2003 Colecciones núcleo de  recursos fitogenéticos. IPGRI Technical  Bulletin No. 3. International Plant Genetic  Resource Institute, Rome, Italy.  Zambrano, A., Demey, J., Fuenmayor, F.,   Segovia, V., Gutiérrez, Z. 2003.  Diversidad genética de una colección de  yuca a través de marcadores moleculares  RAPDS. Agronomía Trop. Venezuela 2  (53):155-174.     Revista de Agricultura, Nro. 54 - Julio de 2014   Area: Technology Development 85   Problem description and  Project actions    The Bolivian Quinoa Germplasm  Collection has a wide genetic variability  with over 3,000 accessions of cultivated  and wild materials collected in different  agroecological regions of the country,  corresponding to the departments of La  Paz, Oruro, Potosí, Cochabamba,  Chuquisaca and Tarija. The collection  also features germplasm from Peru,  Ecuador, Colombia, Argentina, among  others (Rojas et al., 2010). When germplasm collections are large in  terms of number of accessions, the use of  genetic material is difficult and therefore  the implementation of core collections is  recommended. According to Jaramillo and Baena (2000),  a core collection is a subset of germplasm  accessions, representing 10% to 15% of  the total number of accessions, while at  the same time the subset must represent at  least 70% to 80% of the genetic  variability. Therefore, core collections are important  for users of genebanks, e.g. breeders, in  order for them to use appropriately and  more frequently the rich variability  conserved in genebanks.  They are  important because they enable users to  find valuable genes and sources of  resistance to abiotic and biotic factors, and  quality traits; in order to incorporate them  into new varieties in the process of  breeding for adaptation to climate change,  and for the selection of materials of higher  quality and/or suitability for  agroindustrial uses.   To initiate this study the availability of the  following elements was previously  verified: • on and   molecular data of quinoa germplasm   accessions. Morphological   information was generated since the  nineties (Rojas 2003, Rojas et al.,  2001). Molecular information and part  of the morphological information were  generated in the first decade of the  twenty first century, when PROINPA  Foundation was in charge of the  administration of the National High  Andean Grains Genebank, by  appointment of the Bolivian  government (Rojas 2008).  •   in the identification of the core  collection, such as the PowerCore ®  program which uses the M  Maximization Technique to search for  representative accessions (van Hintum  et al., 2003;. Kyu - Won et al., 2007,  PASW, 2009).   Methodology    Selection of accessions based on  morphological and molecular data   Molecular information was obtained from  the characterization of the Bolivian  Quinoa Collection with eight  microsatellite markers (Table 1). These  markers are important because they have  advantages such as: codominance,  multiallelism and high heterozygosity.   The markers were selected from a library  of microsatellites (SSR) because of their  high level of polymorphism (Maughan et  al. 2004).   Molecular characterization yielded  diversity indices as the Polymorphic  Information Content (PIC) and  heterozygosity (H), for each set of  samples coming from the different  geographic regions.  Quinoas from the  Central Altiplano (CA) and Southern  Altiplano (SA) were the most abundant,  and also the most diverse (tables 2 and 3). For this study, the data of the alleles (in  base pairs) of every microsatellite were  transformed into binary data and arranged  in a matrix representing the presence of an  allele as 1 and the absence as 0. The  morphological information was obtained  from the evaluation of the germplasm  collection. 48 variables were selected that  included data on: stem coloring, plant  architecture, stem, leaf, inflorescence  and/or panicle, grain characteristics,  saponin, yield, phenology and tolerance to  abiotic (frost) and biotic (mildew) factors. Quinoas from every region have an  agromorphological pattern that  distinguishes them from each other. In the  Central Altiplano quinoas grow from 0.5    to 1.2 m, with short branches, the  glomerulate panicle prevails and the  phenological cycle lasts 168.40 ± 14.05  days. Quinoas in the Southern Altiplano have  larger grain (2.20 to 2.67 mm in  diameter), high saponin content; with a  prevailing amaraht-like panicle. In the Northern Altiplano, quinoas have a  height of 0.8 to 1.5 m, the glomerulate  panicle prevailes, the grain is small to  medium in size and white in color, the  growing season is fairly late to late (175  days). In inter-Andean valleys quinoas can reach  up to 2.5 m or more in height, with  branches reaching the second third of the  plant and very toothed leaves. The  phenological cycle is late (188-205 days),  amaranth-like panicles are dominant,  medium grain size (2 ± 0.13 mm) and high  saponin content (Rojas and Pinto 2013,  Bonifacio et al. 2012; Rojas 2003, Rojas   et al. 2001).   For the present study the above  morphological data were arranged in a  matrix where the names of the accessions  and morphological descriptors are  indicated with several levels of  descriptors (3-11). Based on available information about  molecular and morphological  characterization, out of all the accessions  from the quinoa collection, 1672 Bolivian  accessions from five regions were  selected: Northern Altiplano, Central  Altiplano, Southern Altiplano and  inter-Andean valleys and natural habitats  for the wild quinoas (ajaras) (Table 2).   Statistical Analysis: Forming the core  collection of quinoa   To form the core collection, a matrix with  molecular and morphological data was  developed. This information was  introduced in the PowerCore® program,  which enables sampling through the  Strategy M Maximization (van Hintum et  al. 2003). This strategy involves the use of  data indicating the magnitude of the  diversity of markers used for the  characterization of germplasm. It ensures  the inclusion of high allelic richness for  loci/markers used and directly takes into  account, in those loci, the magnitude of  the variation and deviation to the model or  pattern. Importantly, the M strategy not  only defines the number of accessions that  should come from different groups, but  also identifies the accessions that need to  be included (Schoen and Brown, 1994;  Schoen and Brown, 1995; Cortez 2011).  Thus, with the accessions selected by the  program, a dendrogram of the core  collection was generated. Using the  program NTSYSpc ® version 2.1.10 the    structure of this dendrogram was  compared with that of the total collection.  Diversity indices between the two  collections were also compared to check  the representativeness of the core  collection (Rohlf 2000; Zambrano et al.  2003).   Achievements   The data from the analysis, with a level of  100% of representation of the genetic  diversity, generated a subset of 486  accessions corresponding to 31% of the  total collection. Applying a level of 80%  of representation of the genetic diversity,  as suggested by the literature (Frankel et  al., 1984; Jaramillo and Baena, 2000;  Ozer  et al., 2004), a subset of 410   accessions was reached, which stands for  24% of the total collection (Table 2). Table 2 shows the number of accessions in  the core collection by region. The  percentage of accessions from each region  is variable; this indicates the degree of  redundancy (duplicated or genetically  very similar material) of accessions within  each region. This is the case of material from the  Northern Altiplano, from where a higher  percentage of accessions has been  considered both at 80% and 100% of  representation (46% and 57%,  respectively), compared with the other  regions. This is because in this region  there is less redundancy, therefore most  accessions are genetically different from  one another. A similar situation of low redundancy is  also observed in the material from the  inter-Andean valleys. It is noteworthy that    the number of accessions identified for the  core collection of this region is greater  than the number of accessions from the  core collection of the Southern Altiplano  and very close to that of the Central  Altiplano. This implies that although the  total number of accessions from the  Central and from the Southern Altiplano  is greater than that of the inter-Andean  valleys, it is likely that in the first two  regions of the Altiplano, several  genetically similar materials were  collected.   Comparison of the core collection with  the total collection, by visualization of the  dendrograms developed with the data  from each collection, shows that the core  collection conserves the structure of the  original collection. Figure 1 shows an example for material  from the Northern Altiplano, where the  genetic structure (arrangement of the  accessions into groups and subgroups) of  both collections (total and core) is the  same.   Table 3 compares PIC data from the total  collection, with PIC data from the core  collection, arranged by region. Diversity  indices of the core collection are slightly  higher than those of the original collection  because redundancies are reduced.  Therefore, the allele frequencies are  higher. The representativeness of the core  collection is consistent, although the  Bolivian Quinoa Collection has such a  diverse and complex structure. Genetic  diversity in the core collection is  maintained and redundancy has been  reduced to a minimum.   Conclusions   •  The methodology used for this study   enabled the identification of the most  representative quinoa accessions,  namely the group of accessions in  which the amplitude of the genetic  diversity found in the total collection    was maintained, based on  microsatellite markers,  agromorphological descriptors and  assessments of mildew and frost  tolerance. The quality and quantity of  information used to form the core  quinoa collection in this study, ensures  the inclusion of a wide range of  accessions that can be considered for  the selection of genetic material in  future assessments, either with  particular agromorphological  characteristics or with mildew and frost  tolerance characteristics.   • is to that   formation of a core collection is  dynamic. Future research could  include variables related to the  demands of the current context, such  as climate change, which requires  early and drought tolerant varieties; or  the market, which demands varieties  with nutritional and agroindustrial  qualities.   Participating agencies   The agromorphological and molecular  information used in this study was  generated within the framework of the  Project “Management, Conservation and   Sustainable Use of High Andean Grains”  as part of the National System of Genetic  Resources for Food and Agriculture  (SINARGEAA) and, the Quinoa Project  supported by the McKnight Foundation. The following people contributed  collecting information of molecular data,  during the implementation of the above  mentioned projects: Jorge Rojas Beltran,  Abel Turumaya, Pilar Gutiérrez, Rocío  Maldonado, Lucia Perez, Lilian Pinto and  Masiel Ovando. The agromorphological information has  been generated by the technical team of  PROINPA Foundation, Altiplano  Regional Office.    Cited references    Bonifacio, A., Aroni G., Villca, M. 2012.   Catálogo Etnobotánico de la Quinua  Real. Cochabamba, Bolivia. 123 p.  Brown, A., Schoen, D. 1994. Optimal sampling   strategies for core collections of plant  genetic resources. In: V. Loeschke, J.  Tomiuk y S. Jain (Eds.). Conservation  genetics. BirkhäuserVerlagBasel, Suiza.  pp. 357-369.  Cortez, F. 2011. Construcción de una   colección núcleo de  Solanum tuberosum   ssp.  andigena conservada en el banco   nacional de tubérculos y raíces andinas  en base a marcadores morfológicos y  moleculares. Master Degree Thesis.  Posgrado FCAP-UMSS. Cochabamba,  Bolivia.  Frankel, O., Brown, A. 1984. Plant genetic   resources today: A critical appraisal. In:  Holden, J., Williams, J. (Eds.). Crop    Genetic Resources: Conservation and  evaluation. Allen and Unwin. London, UK.  Jaramillo, S., Baena, M. 2000. Material de   apoyo a la capacitación en conservación  ex situ de recursos fitogenéticos.  International Plant Genetic Resource  Institute. Cali, Colombia. 210 p.  Kyu-Won, K., Chung, K., Cho, H.,   Chandrabalan, D., Jae-Gyun, G., Kim, T,  Eun G., Yong-Jin, P. 2007. PowerCore: A  program applying the advanced M  strategy with a heuristic search for  establishing core sets. Bioinformatics 23  (16):2155-2162.  Maughan, J., Bonifacio, A., Jellen, E., Stevens,   M., Coleman, C., Ricks, M., Mason, S.,  Jarvis, D., Ardunia, B., Fairbanks, D.  2004. A genetic linkage map of quinoa  (Chenopodium quinoa) based on AFLP,  RAPD, and SSR markers. Theor Appl  Genet 109:1188-1195.  Ozer, A., Suárez, R., Abadie, T. 2004.   Elaboración de una colección núcleo de  germoplasma de maíz de la raza blanco  dentado. Agrociencia Vol. VIII No. 1. pp.  1-10.  PASW. 2009. Predicción de resultados e   identificación de relaciones en los datos  categóricos. PASW® Categories 18 –  Specifications. 8 p.  Rojas, W., Pinto M. 2013. La diversidad   genética de quinua de Bolivia. In: Vargas,  M. (Ed.). Congreso Científico de la  Quinua (Proceedings). La Paz, Bolivia.  pp. 77 - 92.  Rojas, W., Pinto, M., Soto, J. 2010.   Distribución geográfica y variabilidad  genética de los granos andinos. In: Rojas  W., Pinto M., Soto J., Jagger M. y  Padulosi S. (Eds.). Granos Andinos:  Avances, logros y experiencias  desarrolladas en quinua, cañahua y  amaranto en Bolivia. Bioversity  International, Rome, Italy. pp. 11- 23.  Rojas, W. (Ed.). 2008. Manejo, conservación y   uso sostenible de los recursos genéticos  de granos altoandinos, en el marco del  SINARGEAA. Phase Report 2003-2008.  PROINPA Foundation. La Paz, Bolivia.  49 p.  Rojas, W., Cayoja, M., Espindola, G. 2001.   Catálogo de la colección de quinua  conservada en el Banco Nacional de  Granos Altoandinos. PROINPA  Foundation, MAGDER, PPD-PNUD,  SIBTA-UCEPSA, IPGRI, IFAD. La Paz,  Bolivia. 129 p.  Rohlf F. 2000. NTYSYS-pc, Numerical   Taxonomy and Multivariate Analysis  System, Version 2.10e. Appl.  Biostatistics, Inc., New York.  Schoen, D., Brown, A. 1995. Maximising   genetic diversity in core collections of wild  relatives of crop species. pp. 55-76. In:  Core collections of plant genetic    resources (T. Hodgkin, A. Brown, Th. van  Hintum y E. Morales, eds.). John Wiley  and Sons, United Kingdom.  van Hintum, Th., Brown, A., Spillane, C.,   Hodgkin, T. 2003 Colecciones núcleo de  recursos fitogenéticos. IPGRI Technical  Bulletin No. 3. International Plant Genetic  Resource Institute, Rome, Italy.  Zambrano, A., Demey, J., Fuenmayor, F.,   Segovia, V., Gutiérrez, Z. 2003.  Diversidad genética de una colección de  yuca a través de marcadores moleculares  RAPDS. Agronomía Trop. Venezuela 2  (53):155-174.     ISSN 1998 - 9652   Area: Technology Development 86   Table 1. Characteristics of microsatellites used for  the molecular characterization of the Bolivian Quinoa Collection   No. Microsa- tellite  Repeat Unit  Sequence of  forward primer (5’-3’)   Sequence of reverse primer (5’-3’)   HT *  (ºC)   1  QCA006  (CA)15CG(CA)4 gctctattaaggaaatgaggttca  gccattcaattcagcaaagg  51  2 QATG019 (ATC)12  ccaaacaaagacaat aag-  gaaacc cgaggttgaaggagattc ca  60  3  QAAT051  (AAT)14  ccttcgacaaggtcccatta  cgtccatagtggaggcattt  53  4 QCA058  (GT)17  ctcgaccagcagggtct g ctagctaggcgttgcctgac 60  5  QAAT050  (AAT)17  ggcacgtgctgctactcata tggcgaatggttaatttgc 51  6 QAAT074 (ATT)14 atggaacacccatc cgataa atgcctatcctcatcctcca 55  7  QAAT076  (ATT)30  gcttcatgtgttataaaatgccaat tctcggcttcccactaatttt 55  8 QAAT022     (TTA)29  tggtcgatatagatgaaccaaa ggagcccagattgtatctca 53   *: HT: Hybridization Temperature     Molecular characterization yielded  diversity indices as the Polymorphic  Information Content (PIC) and  heterozygosity (H), for each set of  samples coming from the different  geographic regions.  Quinoas from the  Central Altiplano (CA) and Southern  Altiplano (SA) were the most abundant,  and also the most diverse (tables 2 and 3). For this study, the data of the alleles (in  base pairs) of every microsatellite were  transformed into binary data and arranged  in a matrix representing the presence of an  allele as 1 and the absence as 0. The  morphological information was obtained  from the evaluation of the germplasm  collection. 48 variables were selected that  included data on: stem coloring, plant  architecture, stem, leaf, inflorescence  and/or panicle, grain characteristics,  saponin, yield, phenology and tolerance to  abiotic (frost) and biotic (mildew) factors. Quinoas from every region have an  agromorphological pattern that  distinguishes them from each other. In the  Central Altiplano quinoas grow from 0.5    to 1.2 m, with short branches, the  glomerulate panicle prevails and the  phenological cycle lasts 168.40 ± 14.05  days. Quinoas in the Southern Altiplano have  larger grain (2.20 to 2.67 mm in  diameter), high saponin content; with a  prevailing amaraht-like panicle. In the Northern Altiplano, quinoas have a  height of 0.8 to 1.5 m, the glomerulate  panicle prevailes, the grain is small to  medium in size and white in color, the  growing season is fairly late to late (175  days). In inter-Andean valleys quinoas can reach  up to 2.5 m or more in height, with  branches reaching the second third of the  plant and very toothed leaves. The  phenological cycle is late (188-205 days),  amaranth-like panicles are dominant,  medium grain size (2 ± 0.13 mm) and high  saponin content (Rojas and Pinto 2013,  Bonifacio et al. 2012; Rojas 2003, Rojas   et al. 2001).   For the present study the above  morphological data were arranged in a  matrix where the names of the accessions  and morphological descriptors are  indicated with several levels of  descriptors (3-11). Based on available information about  molecular and morphological  characterization, out of all the accessions  from the quinoa collection, 1672 Bolivian  accessions from five regions were  selected: Northern Altiplano, Central  Altiplano, Southern Altiplano and  inter-Andean valleys and natural habitats  for the wild quinoas (ajaras) (Table 2).   Statistical Analysis: Forming the core  collection of quinoa   To form the core collection, a matrix with  molecular and morphological data was  developed. This information was  introduced in the PowerCore® program,  which enables sampling through the  Strategy M Maximization (van Hintum et  al. 2003). This strategy involves the use of  data indicating the magnitude of the  diversity of markers used for the  characterization of germplasm. It ensures  the inclusion of high allelic richness for  loci/markers used and directly takes into  account, in those loci, the magnitude of  the variation and deviation to the model or  pattern. Importantly, the M strategy not  only defines the number of accessions that  should come from different groups, but  also identifies the accessions that need to  be included (Schoen and Brown, 1994;  Schoen and Brown, 1995; Cortez 2011).  Thus, with the accessions selected by the  program, a dendrogram of the core  collection was generated. Using the  program NTSYSpc ® version 2.1.10 the    structure of this dendrogram was  compared with that of the total collection.  Diversity indices between the two  collections were also compared to check  the representativeness of the core  collection (Rohlf 2000; Zambrano et al.  2003).   Achievements   The data from the analysis, with a level of  100% of representation of the genetic  diversity, generated a subset of 486  accessions corresponding to 31% of the  total collection. Applying a level of 80%  of representation of the genetic diversity,  as suggested by the literature (Frankel et  al., 1984; Jaramillo and Baena, 2000;  Ozer  et al., 2004), a subset of 410   accessions was reached, which stands for  24% of the total collection (Table 2). Table 2 shows the number of accessions in  the core collection by region. The  percentage of accessions from each region  is variable; this indicates the degree of  redundancy (duplicated or genetically  very similar material) of accessions within  each region. This is the case of material from the  Northern Altiplano, from where a higher  percentage of accessions has been  considered both at 80% and 100% of  representation (46% and 57%,  respectively), compared with the other  regions. This is because in this region  there is less redundancy, therefore most  accessions are genetically different from  one another. A similar situation of low redundancy is  also observed in the material from the  inter-Andean valleys. It is noteworthy that    the number of accessions identified for the  core collection of this region is greater  than the number of accessions from the  core collection of the Southern Altiplano  and very close to that of the Central  Altiplano. This implies that although the  total number of accessions from the  Central and from the Southern Altiplano  is greater than that of the inter-Andean  valleys, it is likely that in the first two  regions of the Altiplano, several  genetically similar materials were  collected.   Comparison of the core collection with  the total collection, by visualization of the  dendrograms developed with the data  from each collection, shows that the core  collection conserves the structure of the  original collection. Figure 1 shows an example for material  from the Northern Altiplano, where the  genetic structure (arrangement of the  accessions into groups and subgroups) of  both collections (total and core) is the  same.   Table 3 compares PIC data from the total  collection, with PIC data from the core  collection, arranged by region. Diversity  indices of the core collection are slightly  higher than those of the original collection  because redundancies are reduced.  Therefore, the allele frequencies are  higher. The representativeness of the core  collection is consistent, although the  Bolivian Quinoa Collection has such a  diverse and complex structure. Genetic  diversity in the core collection is  maintained and redundancy has been  reduced to a minimum.   Conclusions   •  The methodology used for this study   enabled the identification of the most  representative quinoa accessions,  namely the group of accessions in  which the amplitude of the genetic  diversity found in the total collection    was maintained, based on  microsatellite markers,  agromorphological descriptors and  assessments of mildew and frost  tolerance. The quality and quantity of  information used to form the core  quinoa collection in this study, ensures  the inclusion of a wide range of  accessions that can be considered for  the selection of genetic material in  future assessments, either with  particular agromorphological  characteristics or with mildew and frost  tolerance characteristics.   • is to that   formation of a core collection is  dynamic. Future research could  include variables related to the  demands of the current context, such  as climate change, which requires  early and drought tolerant varieties; or  the market, which demands varieties  with nutritional and agroindustrial  qualities.   Participating agencies   The agromorphological and molecular  information used in this study was  generated within the framework of the  Project “Management, Conservation and   Sustainable Use of High Andean Grains”  as part of the National System of Genetic  Resources for Food and Agriculture  (SINARGEAA) and, the Quinoa Project  supported by the McKnight Foundation. The following people contributed  collecting information of molecular data,  during the implementation of the above  mentioned projects: Jorge Rojas Beltran,  Abel Turumaya, Pilar Gutiérrez, Rocío  Maldonado, Lucia Perez, Lilian Pinto and  Masiel Ovando. The agromorphological information has  been generated by the technical team of  PROINPA Foundation, Altiplano  Regional Office.    Cited references    Bonifacio, A., Aroni G., Villca, M. 2012.   Catálogo Etnobotánico de la Quinua  Real. Cochabamba, Bolivia. 123 p.  Brown, A., Schoen, D. 1994. Optimal sampling   strategies for core collections of plant  genetic resources. In: V. Loeschke, J.  Tomiuk y S. Jain (Eds.). Conservation  genetics. BirkhäuserVerlagBasel, Suiza.  pp. 357-369.  Cortez, F. 2011. Construcción de una   colección núcleo de  Solanum tuberosum   ssp.  andigena conservada en el banco   nacional de tubérculos y raíces andinas  en base a marcadores morfológicos y  moleculares. Master Degree Thesis.  Posgrado FCAP-UMSS. Cochabamba,  Bolivia.  Frankel, O., Brown, A. 1984. Plant genetic   resources today: A critical appraisal. In:  Holden, J., Williams, J. (Eds.). Crop    Genetic Resources: Conservation and  evaluation. Allen and Unwin. London, UK.  Jaramillo, S., Baena, M. 2000. Material de   apoyo a la capacitación en conservación  ex situ de recursos fitogenéticos.  International Plant Genetic Resource  Institute. Cali, Colombia. 210 p.  Kyu-Won, K., Chung, K., Cho, H.,   Chandrabalan, D., Jae-Gyun, G., Kim, T,  Eun G., Yong-Jin, P. 2007. PowerCore: A  program applying the advanced M  strategy with a heuristic search for  establishing core sets. Bioinformatics 23  (16):2155-2162.  Maughan, J., Bonifacio, A., Jellen, E., Stevens,   M., Coleman, C., Ricks, M., Mason, S.,  Jarvis, D., Ardunia, B., Fairbanks, D.  2004. A genetic linkage map of quinoa  (Chenopodium quinoa) based on AFLP,  RAPD, and SSR markers. Theor Appl  Genet 109:1188-1195.  Ozer, A., Suárez, R., Abadie, T. 2004.   Elaboración de una colección núcleo de  germoplasma de maíz de la raza blanco  dentado. Agrociencia Vol. VIII No. 1. pp.  1-10.  PASW. 2009. Predicción de resultados e   identificación de relaciones en los datos  categóricos. PASW® Categories 18 –  Specifications. 8 p.  Rojas, W., Pinto M. 2013. La diversidad   genética de quinua de Bolivia. In: Vargas,  M. (Ed.). Congreso Científico de la  Quinua (Proceedings). La Paz, Bolivia.  pp. 77 - 92.  Rojas, W., Pinto, M., Soto, J. 2010.   Distribución geográfica y variabilidad  genética de los granos andinos. In: Rojas  W., Pinto M., Soto J., Jagger M. y  Padulosi S. (Eds.). Granos Andinos:  Avances, logros y experiencias  desarrolladas en quinua, cañahua y  amaranto en Bolivia. Bioversity  International, Rome, Italy. pp. 11- 23.  Rojas, W. (Ed.). 2008. Manejo, conservación y   uso sostenible de los recursos genéticos  de granos altoandinos, en el marco del  SINARGEAA. Phase Report 2003-2008.  PROINPA Foundation. La Paz, Bolivia.  49 p.  Rojas, W., Cayoja, M., Espindola, G. 2001.   Catálogo de la colección de quinua  conservada en el Banco Nacional de  Granos Altoandinos. PROINPA  Foundation, MAGDER, PPD-PNUD,  SIBTA-UCEPSA, IPGRI, IFAD. La Paz,  Bolivia. 129 p.  Rohlf F. 2000. NTYSYS-pc, Numerical   Taxonomy and Multivariate Analysis  System, Version 2.10e. Appl.  Biostatistics, Inc., New York.  Schoen, D., Brown, A. 1995. Maximising   genetic diversity in core collections of wild  relatives of crop species. pp. 55-76. In:  Core collections of plant genetic    resources (T. Hodgkin, A. Brown, Th. van  Hintum y E. Morales, eds.). John Wiley  and Sons, United Kingdom.  van Hintum, Th., Brown, A., Spillane, C.,   Hodgkin, T. 2003 Colecciones núcleo de  recursos fitogenéticos. IPGRI Technical  Bulletin No. 3. International Plant Genetic  Resource Institute, Rome, Italy.  Zambrano, A., Demey, J., Fuenmayor, F.,   Segovia, V., Gutiérrez, Z. 2003.  Diversidad genética de una colección de  yuca a través de marcadores moleculares  RAPDS. Agronomía Trop. Venezuela 2  (53):155-174.     Revista de Agricultura, Nro. 54 - Julio de 2014   Area: Technology Development 87   Molecular characterization yielded  diversity indices as the Polymorphic  Information Content (PIC) and  heterozygosity (H), for each set of  samples coming from the different  geographic regions.  Quinoas from the  Central Altiplano (CA) and Southern  Altiplano (SA) were the most abundant,  and also the most diverse (tables 2 and 3). For this study, the data of the alleles (in  base pairs) of every microsatellite were  transformed into binary data and arranged  in a matrix representing the presence of an  allele as 1 and the absence as 0. The  morphological information was obtained  from the evaluation of the germplasm  collection. 48 variables were selected that  included data on: stem coloring, plant  architecture, stem, leaf, inflorescence  and/or panicle, grain characteristics,  saponin, yield, phenology and tolerance to  abiotic (frost) and biotic (mildew) factors. Quinoas from every region have an  agromorphological pattern that  distinguishes them from each other. In the  Central Altiplano quinoas grow from 0.5    to 1.2 m, with short branches, the  glomerulate panicle prevails and the  phenological cycle lasts 168.40 ± 14.05  days. Quinoas in the Southern Altiplano have  larger grain (2.20 to 2.67 mm in  diameter), high saponin content; with a  prevailing amaraht-like panicle. In the Northern Altiplano, quinoas have a  height of 0.8 to 1.5 m, the glomerulate  panicle prevailes, the grain is small to  medium in size and white in color, the  growing season is fairly late to late (175  days). In inter-Andean valleys quinoas can reach  up to 2.5 m or more in height, with  branches reaching the second third of the  plant and very toothed leaves. The  phenological cycle is late (188-205 days),  amaranth-like panicles are dominant,  medium grain size (2 ± 0.13 mm) and high  saponin content (Rojas and Pinto 2013,  Bonifacio et al. 2012; Rojas 2003, Rojas   et al. 2001).   For the present study the above  morphological data were arranged in a  matrix where the names of the accessions  and morphological descriptors are  indicated with several levels of  descriptors (3-11). Based on available information about  molecular and morphological  characterization, out of all the accessions  from the quinoa collection, 1672 Bolivian  accessions from five regions were  selected: Northern Altiplano, Central  Altiplano, Southern Altiplano and  inter-Andean valleys and natural habitats  for the wild quinoas (ajaras) (Table 2).   Statistical Analysis: Forming the core  collection of quinoa   To form the core collection, a matrix with  molecular and morphological data was  developed. This information was  introduced in the PowerCore® program,  which enables sampling through the  Strategy M Maximization (van Hintum et  al. 2003). This strategy involves the use of  data indicating the magnitude of the  diversity of markers used for the  characterization of germplasm. It ensures  the inclusion of high allelic richness for  loci/markers used and directly takes into  account, in those loci, the magnitude of  the variation and deviation to the model or  pattern. Importantly, the M strategy not  only defines the number of accessions that  should come from different groups, but  also identifies the accessions that need to  be included (Schoen and Brown, 1994;  Schoen and Brown, 1995; Cortez 2011).  Thus, with the accessions selected by the  program, a dendrogram of the core  collection was generated. Using the  program NTSYSpc ® version 2.1.10 the    structure of this dendrogram was  compared with that of the total collection.  Diversity indices between the two  collections were also compared to check  the representativeness of the core  collection (Rohlf 2000; Zambrano et al.  2003).   Achievements   The data from the analysis, with a level of  100% of representation of the genetic  diversity, generated a subset of 486  accessions corresponding to 31% of the  total collection. Applying a level of 80%  of representation of the genetic diversity,  as suggested by the literature (Frankel et  al., 1984; Jaramillo and Baena, 2000;  Ozer  et al., 2004), a subset of 410   accessions was reached, which stands for  24% of the total collection (Table 2). Table 2 shows the number of accessions in  the core collection by region. The  percentage of accessions from each region  is variable; this indicates the degree of  redundancy (duplicated or genetically  very similar material) of accessions within  each region. This is the case of material from the  Northern Altiplano, from where a higher  percentage of accessions has been  considered both at 80% and 100% of  representation (46% and 57%,  respectively), compared with the other  regions. This is because in this region  there is less redundancy, therefore most  accessions are genetically different from  one another. A similar situation of low redundancy is  also observed in the material from the  inter-Andean valleys. It is noteworthy that    the number of accessions identified for the  core collection of this region is greater  than the number of accessions from the  core collection of the Southern Altiplano  and very close to that of the Central  Altiplano. This implies that although the  total number of accessions from the  Central and from the Southern Altiplano  is greater than that of the inter-Andean  valleys, it is likely that in the first two  regions of the Altiplano, several  genetically similar materials were  collected.   Comparison of the core collection with  the total collection, by visualization of the  dendrograms developed with the data  from each collection, shows that the core  collection conserves the structure of the  original collection. Figure 1 shows an example for material  from the Northern Altiplano, where the  genetic structure (arrangement of the  accessions into groups and subgroups) of  both collections (total and core) is the  same.   Table 3 compares PIC data from the total  collection, with PIC data from the core  collection, arranged by region. Diversity  indices of the core collection are slightly  higher than those of the original collection  because redundancies are reduced.  Therefore, the allele frequencies are  higher. The representativeness of the core  collection is consistent, although the  Bolivian Quinoa Collection has such a  diverse and complex structure. Genetic  diversity in the core collection is  maintained and redundancy has been  reduced to a minimum.   Conclusions   •  The methodology used for this study   enabled the identification of the most  representative quinoa accessions,  namely the group of accessions in  which the amplitude of the genetic  diversity found in the total collection    was maintained, based on  microsatellite markers,  agromorphological descriptors and  assessments of mildew and frost  tolerance. The quality and quantity of  information used to form the core  quinoa collection in this study, ensures  the inclusion of a wide range of  accessions that can be considered for  the selection of genetic material in  future assessments, either with  particular agromorphological  characteristics or with mildew and frost  tolerance characteristics.   • is to that   formation of a core collection is  dynamic. Future research could  include variables related to the  demands of the current context, such  as climate change, which requires  early and drought tolerant varieties; or  the market, which demands varieties  with nutritional and agroindustrial  qualities.   Participating agencies   The agromorphological and molecular  information used in this study was  generated within the framework of the  Project “Management, Conservation and   Sustainable Use of High Andean Grains”  as part of the National System of Genetic  Resources for Food and Agriculture  (SINARGEAA) and, the Quinoa Project  supported by the McKnight Foundation. The following people contributed  collecting information of molecular data,  during the implementation of the above  mentioned projects: Jorge Rojas Beltran,  Abel Turumaya, Pilar Gutiérrez, Rocío  Maldonado, Lucia Perez, Lilian Pinto and  Masiel Ovando. The agromorphological information has  been generated by the technical team of  PROINPA Foundation, Altiplano  Regional Office.    Cited references    Bonifacio, A., Aroni G., Villca, M. 2012.   Catálogo Etnobotánico de la Quinua  Real. Cochabamba, Bolivia. 123 p.  Brown, A., Schoen, D. 1994. Optimal sampling   strategies for core collections of plant  genetic resources. In: V. Loeschke, J.  Tomiuk y S. Jain (Eds.). Conservation  genetics. BirkhäuserVerlagBasel, Suiza.  pp. 357-369.  Cortez, F. 2011. Construcción de una   colección núcleo de  Solanum tuberosum   ssp.  andigena conservada en el banco   nacional de tubérculos y raíces andinas  en base a marcadores morfológicos y  moleculares. Master Degree Thesis.  Posgrado FCAP-UMSS. Cochabamba,  Bolivia.  Frankel, O., Brown, A. 1984. Plant genetic   resources today: A critical appraisal. In:  Holden, J., Williams, J. (Eds.). Crop    Genetic Resources: Conservation and  evaluation. Allen and Unwin. London, UK.  Jaramillo, S., Baena, M. 2000. Material de   apoyo a la capacitación en conservación  ex situ de recursos fitogenéticos.  International Plant Genetic Resource  Institute. Cali, Colombia. 210 p.  Kyu-Won, K., Chung, K., Cho, H.,   Chandrabalan, D., Jae-Gyun, G., Kim, T,  Eun G., Yong-Jin, P. 2007. PowerCore: A  program applying the advanced M  strategy with a heuristic search for  establishing core sets. Bioinformatics 23  (16):2155-2162.  Maughan, J., Bonifacio, A., Jellen, E., Stevens,   M., Coleman, C., Ricks, M., Mason, S.,  Jarvis, D., Ardunia, B., Fairbanks, D.  2004. A genetic linkage map of quinoa  (Chenopodium quinoa) based on AFLP,  RAPD, and SSR markers. Theor Appl  Genet 109:1188-1195.  Ozer, A., Suárez, R., Abadie, T. 2004.   Elaboración de una colección núcleo de  germoplasma de maíz de la raza blanco  dentado. Agrociencia Vol. VIII No. 1. pp.  1-10.  PASW. 2009. Predicción de resultados e   identificación de relaciones en los datos  categóricos. PASW® Categories 18 –  Specifications. 8 p.  Rojas, W., Pinto M. 2013. La diversidad   genética de quinua de Bolivia. In: Vargas,  M. (Ed.). Congreso Científico de la  Quinua (Proceedings). La Paz, Bolivia.  pp. 77 - 92.  Rojas, W., Pinto, M., Soto, J. 2010.   Distribución geográfica y variabilidad  genética de los granos andinos. In: Rojas  W., Pinto M., Soto J., Jagger M. y  Padulosi S. (Eds.). Granos Andinos:  Avances, logros y experiencias  desarrolladas en quinua, cañahua y  amaranto en Bolivia. Bioversity  International, Rome, Italy. pp. 11- 23.  Rojas, W. (Ed.). 2008. Manejo, conservación y   uso sostenible de los recursos genéticos  de granos altoandinos, en el marco del  SINARGEAA. Phase Report 2003-2008.  PROINPA Foundation. La Paz, Bolivia.  49 p.  Rojas, W., Cayoja, M., Espindola, G. 2001.   Catálogo de la colección de quinua  conservada en el Banco Nacional de  Granos Altoandinos. PROINPA  Foundation, MAGDER, PPD-PNUD,  SIBTA-UCEPSA, IPGRI, IFAD. La Paz,  Bolivia. 129 p.  Rohlf F. 2000. NTYSYS-pc, Numerical   Taxonomy and Multivariate Analysis  System, Version 2.10e. Appl.  Biostatistics, Inc., New York.  Schoen, D., Brown, A. 1995. Maximising   genetic diversity in core collections of wild  relatives of crop species. pp. 55-76. In:  Core collections of plant genetic    resources (T. Hodgkin, A. Brown, Th. van  Hintum y E. Morales, eds.). John Wiley  and Sons, United Kingdom.  van Hintum, Th., Brown, A., Spillane, C.,   Hodgkin, T. 2003 Colecciones núcleo de  recursos fitogenéticos. IPGRI Technical  Bulletin No. 3. International Plant Genetic  Resource Institute, Rome, Italy.  Zambrano, A., Demey, J., Fuenmayor, F.,   Segovia, V., Gutiérrez, Z. 2003.  Diversidad genética de una colección de  yuca a través de marcadores moleculares  RAPDS. Agronomía Trop. Venezuela 2  (53):155-174.     ISSN 1998 - 9652   Area: Technology Development 88   Table 2: Number of accessions of the core collection by region, selected  through maximizing the total collection to 80% and 100% of representation  80% of genetic   representation  100% of genetic   representation  Region Total  Acces- sions  Core collection % Core collection %  Central Altiplano   791  117  14  146  18   Southern Altiplano    372  108 29 135 36  Northern Altiplano      111    50  46    63  57   Inter-Andean valleys     269  114 42 142 53  Natural Habitats       129    22  17    27  21   Total 1.672 411 25 513 31     ) b   ) a   Coefficient Jaccard 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.55 0.60 0.65 0.70 0.75 0.80 0.85 0.90   BOL0104    BOL0104   BOL0110    BOL0498    BOL0475   BOL0501    BOL0523   BOL0496    BOL0535    BOL0567   BOL0551    BOL0502   BOL0581    BOL0574    BOL0585   BOL0485    BOL0552    BOL0553   BOL0491    BOL0569   BOL0546    BOL0596    BOL0492   BOL0493    BOL0488   BOL0600    BOL0505    BOL0506   BOL0542    BOL0139   BOL0495    BOL0565    BOL0541   BOL2700    BOL2701   BOL0598    BOL0494    BOL0499   BOL0547    BOL0548   BOL0518    BOL0137    BOL0520   BOL0537    BOL05   89    BOL0507   BOL0579    BOL0503   BOL0521    BOL0532    BOL0479   BOL0484    BOL0576   BOL0481    BOL0482    BOL0573   BOL0476    BOL0526   BOL0530    BOL0525    BOL0497   BOL0564    BOL0522   BOL0527    BOL0528    BOL0517   BOL0538    BOL0529   BOL0531    BOL0478    BOL0584   BOL0524    BOL0580    BOL0586   BOL0583    BOL0554   BOL0566    BOL0477    BOL0490   BOL0587    BOL0590   BOL0544    BOL0570    BOL0575   BOL0568    BOL0571   BOL0592    BOL0597    BOL0480      BOL0483    BOL0489   BOL0516    BOL0550    BOL0578   BOL0558    BOL0577   BOL0500    BOL0572    BOL0582   BOL0533    BOL0504    BOL0543   BOL0549    BOL0593   BOL0105    BOL0108    BOL0107   BOL0136    BOL0487   BOL0486    BOL0559    BOL0109    Coefficient Jaccard  0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.55 0.60 0.65 0.70 0.75 0.80 0.85 0.90   BOL0104    BOL0104   BOL0110   BOL0139   BOL0495  BOL0565   BOL0475   BOL0523   BOL0551   BOL0502   BOL0581   BOL0585   BOL0569  BOL0505   BOL0600   BOL0506   BOL0528   BOL0579   BOL0541   BOL2700   BOL2701   BOL0598  BOL0544   BOL0552   BOL0553   BOL0477   BOL0586   BOL0587   BOL0497   BOL0500  BOL0524   BOL0525   BOL0526   BOL0572   BOL0532   BOL0533   BOL0575   BOL0584  BOL0554   BOL0566   BOL0517   BOL0559   BOL0480   BOL0483   BOL0489   BOL0516  BOL0499   BOL0548   BOL0550   BOL0558   BOL0577   BOL0504   BOL0543   BOL0593   BOL0592  BOL0571   BOL0105   BOL0108   BOL0576   BOL0487   BOL0136   BOL0597   BOL0481  BOL0573    Figure 1: Comparison of dendrograms to visualize the genetic structure of:   a) Total Collection of the Northern Altiplano (111 accessions)   b) Core collection from the same region (63 accessions)   Molecular characterization yielded  diversity indices as the Polymorphic  Information Content (PIC) and  heterozygosity (H), for each set of  samples coming from the different  geographic regions.  Quinoas from the  Central Altiplano (CA) and Southern  Altiplano (SA) were the most abundant,  and also the most diverse (tables 2 and 3). For this study, the data of the alleles (in  base pairs) of every microsatellite were  transformed into binary data and arranged  in a matrix representing the presence of an  allele as 1 and the absence as 0. The  morphological information was obtained  from the evaluation of the germplasm  collection. 48 variables were selected that  included data on: stem coloring, plant  architecture, stem, leaf, inflorescence  and/or panicle, grain characteristics,  saponin, yield, phenology and tolerance to  abiotic (frost) and biotic (mildew) factors. Quinoas from every region have an  agromorphological pattern that  distinguishes them from each other. In the  Central Altiplano quinoas grow from 0.5    to 1.2 m, with short branches, the  glomerulate panicle prevails and the  phenological cycle lasts 168.40 ± 14.05  days. Quinoas in the Southern Altiplano have  larger grain (2.20 to 2.67 mm in  diameter), high saponin content; with a  prevailing amaraht-like panicle. In the Northern Altiplano, quinoas have a  height of 0.8 to 1.5 m, the glomerulate  panicle prevailes, the grain is small to  medium in size and white in color, the  growing season is fairly late to late (175  days). In inter-Andean valleys quinoas can reach  up to 2.5 m or more in height, with  branches reaching the second third of the  plant and very toothed leaves. The  phenological cycle is late (188-205 days),  amaranth-like panicles are dominant,  medium grain size (2 ± 0.13 mm) and high  saponin content (Rojas and Pinto 2013,  Bonifacio et al. 2012; Rojas 2003, Rojas   et al. 2001).   For the present study the above  morphological data were arranged in a  matrix where the names of the accessions  and morphological descriptors are  indicated with several levels of  descriptors (3-11). Based on available information about  molecular and morphological  characterization, out of all the accessions  from the quinoa collection, 1672 Bolivian  accessions from five regions were  selected: Northern Altiplano, Central  Altiplano, Southern Altiplano and  inter-Andean valleys and natural habitats  for the wild quinoas (ajaras) (Table 2).   Statistical Analysis: Forming the core  collection of quinoa   To form the core collection, a matrix with  molecular and morphological data was  developed. This information was  introduced in the PowerCore® program,  which enables sampling through the  Strategy M Maximization (van Hintum et  al. 2003). This strategy involves the use of  data indicating the magnitude of the  diversity of markers used for the  characterization of germplasm. It ensures  the inclusion of high allelic richness for  loci/markers used and directly takes into  account, in those loci, the magnitude of  the variation and deviation to the model or  pattern. Importantly, the M strategy not  only defines the number of accessions that  should come from different groups, but  also identifies the accessions that need to  be included (Schoen and Brown, 1994;  Schoen and Brown, 1995; Cortez 2011).  Thus, with the accessions selected by the  program, a dendrogram of the core  collection was generated. Using the  program NTSYSpc ® version 2.1.10 the    structure of this dendrogram was  compared with that of the total collection.  Diversity indices between the two  collections were also compared to check  the representativeness of the core  collection (Rohlf 2000; Zambrano et al.  2003).   Achievements   The data from the analysis, with a level of  100% of representation of the genetic  diversity, generated a subset of 486  accessions corresponding to 31% of the  total collection. Applying a level of 80%  of representation of the genetic diversity,  as suggested by the literature (Frankel et  al., 1984; Jaramillo and Baena, 2000;  Ozer  et al., 2004), a subset of 410   accessions was reached, which stands for  24% of the total collection (Table 2). Table 2 shows the number of accessions in  the core collection by region. The  percentage of accessions from each region  is variable; this indicates the degree of  redundancy (duplicated or genetically  very similar material) of accessions within  each region. This is the case of material from the  Northern Altiplano, from where a higher  percentage of accessions has been  considered both at 80% and 100% of  representation (46% and 57%,  respectively), compared with the other  regions. This is because in this region  there is less redundancy, therefore most  accessions are genetically different from  one another. A similar situation of low redundancy is  also observed in the material from the  inter-Andean valleys. It is noteworthy that    the number of accessions identified for the  core collection of this region is greater  than the number of accessions from the  core collection of the Southern Altiplano  and very close to that of the Central  Altiplano. This implies that although the  total number of accessions from the  Central and from the Southern Altiplano  is greater than that of the inter-Andean  valleys, it is likely that in the first two  regions of the Altiplano, several  genetically similar materials were  collected.   Comparison of the core collection with  the total collection, by visualization of the  dendrograms developed with the data  from each collection, shows that the core  collection conserves the structure of the  original collection. Figure 1 shows an example for material  from the Northern Altiplano, where the  genetic structure (arrangement of the  accessions into groups and subgroups) of  both collections (total and core) is the  same.   Table 3 compares PIC data from the total  collection, with PIC data from the core  collection, arranged by region. Diversity  indices of the core collection are slightly  higher than those of the original collection  because redundancies are reduced.  Therefore, the allele frequencies are  higher. The representativeness of the core  collection is consistent, although the  Bolivian Quinoa Collection has such a  diverse and complex structure. Genetic  diversity in the core collection is  maintained and redundancy has been  reduced to a minimum.   Conclusions   •  The methodology used for this study   enabled the identification of the most  representative quinoa accessions,  namely the group of accessions in  which the amplitude of the genetic  diversity found in the total collection    was maintained, based on  microsatellite markers,  agromorphological descriptors and  assessments of mildew and frost  tolerance. The quality and quantity of  information used to form the core  quinoa collection in this study, ensures  the inclusion of a wide range of  accessions that can be considered for  the selection of genetic material in  future assessments, either with  particular agromorphological  characteristics or with mildew and frost  tolerance characteristics.   • is to that   formation of a core collection is  dynamic. Future research could  include variables related to the  demands of the current context, such  as climate change, which requires  early and drought tolerant varieties; or  the market, which demands varieties  with nutritional and agroindustrial  qualities.   Participating agencies   The agromorphological and molecular  information used in this study was  generated within the framework of the  Project “Management, Conservation and   Sustainable Use of High Andean Grains”  as part of the National System of Genetic  Resources for Food and Agriculture  (SINARGEAA) and, the Quinoa Project  supported by the McKnight Foundation. The following people contributed  collecting information of molecular data,  during the implementation of the above  mentioned projects: Jorge Rojas Beltran,  Abel Turumaya, Pilar Gutiérrez, Rocío  Maldonado, Lucia Perez, Lilian Pinto and  Masiel Ovando. The agromorphological information has  been generated by the technical team of  PROINPA Foundation, Altiplano  Regional Office.    Cited references    Bonifacio, A., Aroni G., Villca, M. 2012.   Catálogo Etnobotánico de la Quinua  Real. Cochabamba, Bolivia. 123 p.  Brown, A., Schoen, D. 1994. Optimal sampling   strategies for core collections of plant  genetic resources. In: V. Loeschke, J.  Tomiuk y S. Jain (Eds.). Conservation  genetics. BirkhäuserVerlagBasel, Suiza.  pp. 357-369.  Cortez, F. 2011. Construcción de una   colección núcleo de  Solanum tuberosum   ssp.  andigena conservada en el banco   nacional de tubérculos y raíces andinas  en base a marcadores morfológicos y  moleculares. Master Degree Thesis.  Posgrado FCAP-UMSS. Cochabamba,  Bolivia.  Frankel, O., Brown, A. 1984. Plant genetic   resources today: A critical appraisal. In:  Holden, J., Williams, J. (Eds.). Crop    Genetic Resources: Conservation and  evaluation. Allen and Unwin. London, UK.  Jaramillo, S., Baena, M. 2000. Material de   apoyo a la capacitación en conservación  ex situ de recursos fitogenéticos.  International Plant Genetic Resource  Institute. Cali, Colombia. 210 p.  Kyu-Won, K., Chung, K., Cho, H.,   Chandrabalan, D., Jae-Gyun, G., Kim, T,  Eun G., Yong-Jin, P. 2007. PowerCore: A  program applying the advanced M  strategy with a heuristic search for  establishing core sets. Bioinformatics 23  (16):2155-2162.  Maughan, J., Bonifacio, A., Jellen, E., Stevens,   M., Coleman, C., Ricks, M., Mason, S.,  Jarvis, D., Ardunia, B., Fairbanks, D.  2004. A genetic linkage map of quinoa  (Chenopodium quinoa) based on AFLP,  RAPD, and SSR markers. Theor Appl  Genet 109:1188-1195.  Ozer, A., Suárez, R., Abadie, T. 2004.   Elaboración de una colección núcleo de  germoplasma de maíz de la raza blanco  dentado. Agrociencia Vol. VIII No. 1. pp.  1-10.  PASW. 2009. Predicción de resultados e   identificación de relaciones en los datos  categóricos. PASW® Categories 18 –  Specifications. 8 p.  Rojas, W., Pinto M. 2013. La diversidad   genética de quinua de Bolivia. In: Vargas,  M. (Ed.). Congreso Científico de la  Quinua (Proceedings). La Paz, Bolivia.  pp. 77 - 92.  Rojas, W., Pinto, M., Soto, J. 2010.   Distribución geográfica y variabilidad  genética de los granos andinos. In: Rojas  W., Pinto M., Soto J., Jagger M. y  Padulosi S. (Eds.). Granos Andinos:  Avances, logros y experiencias  desarrolladas en quinua, cañahua y  amaranto en Bolivia. Bioversity  International, Rome, Italy. pp. 11- 23.  Rojas, W. (Ed.). 2008. Manejo, conservación y   uso sostenible de los recursos genéticos  de granos altoandinos, en el marco del  SINARGEAA. Phase Report 2003-2008.  PROINPA Foundation. La Paz, Bolivia.  49 p.  Rojas, W., Cayoja, M., Espindola, G. 2001.   Catálogo de la colección de quinua  conservada en el Banco Nacional de  Granos Altoandinos. PROINPA  Foundation, MAGDER, PPD-PNUD,  SIBTA-UCEPSA, IPGRI, IFAD. La Paz,  Bolivia. 129 p.  Rohlf F. 2000. NTYSYS-pc, Numerical   Taxonomy and Multivariate Analysis  System, Version 2.10e. Appl.  Biostatistics, Inc., New York.  Schoen, D., Brown, A. 1995. Maximising   genetic diversity in core collections of wild  relatives of crop species. pp. 55-76. In:  Core collections of plant genetic    resources (T. Hodgkin, A. Brown, Th. van  Hintum y E. Morales, eds.). John Wiley  and Sons, United Kingdom.  van Hintum, Th., Brown, A., Spillane, C.,   Hodgkin, T. 2003 Colecciones núcleo de  recursos fitogenéticos. IPGRI Technical  Bulletin No. 3. International Plant Genetic  Resource Institute, Rome, Italy.  Zambrano, A., Demey, J., Fuenmayor, F.,   Segovia, V., Gutiérrez, Z. 2003.  Diversidad genética de una colección de  yuca a través de marcadores moleculares  RAPDS. Agronomía Trop. Venezuela 2  (53):155-174.     Revista de Agricultura, Nro. 54 - Julio de 2014   Area: Technology Development 89   Table 3. PIC values by region for the eight microsatellites used  for the total collection and the core collection  PIC value by region TC PIC value by región CC Locus  CA SA NA IAV NH  CA SA NA IAV NH   QCA006  0.72  0.69  -  -  -  0.74  0.71  -  -  -   QATG019  0.69 0.66 - - - 0.70 0.67 - - -  QAAT051  0.68  0.79  0.52  0.75  0.79  0.69  0.80  0.51  0.75  0.78   QCA058  0.76 0.81 - - - 0.76 0.82 - - -  QAAT050  0.88  0.83  0.75  0.79  0.88  0.89  0.83  0.76  0.79  0.87   QAAT074 0.92 0.92 0.88 0.93 0.91 0.92 0.91 0.88 0.93 0.91  QAAT076  0.88  0.90  0.90  0.86  0.89  0.88  0.90  0.90  0.87  0.89   QAAT022 0.92 0.92 0.87 0.94 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.87 0.94 0.92  Average    0.81  0.82  0.78  0.85  0.88  0.81  0.82  0.78  0.86  0.87    References: CA: Central Altiplano; SA: Southern Altiplano; NA: Northern Altiplano; IAV: inter-Andean Valleys; NH: Natural Habitats; PIC: Polymorphic Information Content; TC: = Total Collection; CC=Core Collection   Molecular characterization yielded  diversity indices as the Polymorphic  Information Content (PIC) and  heterozygosity (H), for each set of  samples coming from the different  geographic regions.  Quinoas from the  Central Altiplano (CA) and Southern  Altiplano (SA) were the most abundant,  and also the most diverse (tables 2 and 3). For this study, the data of the alleles (in  base pairs) of every microsatellite were  transformed into binary data and arranged  in a matrix representing the presence of an  allele as 1 and the absence as 0. The  morphological information was obtained  from the evaluation of the germplasm  collection. 48 variables were selected that  included data on: stem coloring, plant  architecture, stem, leaf, inflorescence  and/or panicle, grain characteristics,  saponin, yield, phenology and tolerance to  abiotic (frost) and biotic (mildew) factors. Quinoas from every region have an  agromorphological pattern that  distinguishes them from each other. In the  Central Altiplano quinoas grow from 0.5    to 1.2 m, with short branches, the  glomerulate panicle prevails and the  phenological cycle lasts 168.40 ± 14.05  days. Quinoas in the Southern Altiplano have  larger grain (2.20 to 2.67 mm in  diameter), high saponin content; with a  prevailing amaraht-like panicle. In the Northern Altiplano, quinoas have a  height of 0.8 to 1.5 m, the glomerulate  panicle prevailes, the grain is small to  medium in size and white in color, the  growing season is fairly late to late (175  days). In inter-Andean valleys quinoas can reach  up to 2.5 m or more in height, with  branches reaching the second third of the  plant and very toothed leaves. The  phenological cycle is late (188-205 days),  amaranth-like panicles are dominant,  medium grain size (2 ± 0.13 mm) and high  saponin content (Rojas and Pinto 2013,  Bonifacio et al. 2012; Rojas 2003, Rojas   et al. 2001).   For the present study the above  morphological data were arranged in a  matrix where the names of the accessions  and morphological descriptors are  indicated with several levels of  descriptors (3-11). Based on available information about  molecular and morphological  characterization, out of all the accessions  from the quinoa collection, 1672 Bolivian  accessions from five regions were  selected: Northern Altiplano, Central  Altiplano, Southern Altiplano and  inter-Andean valleys and natural habitats  for the wild quinoas (ajaras) (Table 2).   Statistical Analysis: Forming the core  collection of quinoa   To form the core collection, a matrix with  molecular and morphological data was  developed. This information was  introduced in the PowerCore® program,  which enables sampling through the  Strategy M Maximization (van Hintum et  al. 2003). This strategy involves the use of  data indicating the magnitude of the  diversity of markers used for the  characterization of germplasm. It ensures  the inclusion of high allelic richness for  loci/markers used and directly takes into  account, in those loci, the magnitude of  the variation and deviation to the model or  pattern. Importantly, the M strategy not  only defines the number of accessions that  should come from different groups, but  also identifies the accessions that need to  be included (Schoen and Brown, 1994;  Schoen and Brown, 1995; Cortez 2011).  Thus, with the accessions selected by the  program, a dendrogram of the core  collection was generated. Using the  program NTSYSpc ® version 2.1.10 the    structure of this dendrogram was  compared with that of the total collection.  Diversity indices between the two  collections were also compared to check  the representativeness of the core  collection (Rohlf 2000; Zambrano et al.  2003).   Achievements   The data from the analysis, with a level of  100% of representation of the genetic  diversity, generated a subset of 486  accessions corresponding to 31% of the  total collection. Applying a level of 80%  of representation of the genetic diversity,  as suggested by the literature (Frankel et  al., 1984; Jaramillo and Baena, 2000;  Ozer  et al., 2004), a subset of 410   accessions was reached, which stands for  24% of the total collection (Table 2). Table 2 shows the number of accessions in  the core collection by region. The  percentage of accessions from each region  is variable; this indicates the degree of  redundancy (duplicated or genetically  very similar material) of accessions within  each region. This is the case of material from the  Northern Altiplano, from where a higher  percentage of accessions has been  considered both at 80% and 100% of  representation (46% and 57%,  respectively), compared with the other  regions. This is because in this region  there is less redundancy, therefore most  accessions are genetically different from  one another. A similar situation of low redundancy is  also observed in the material from the  inter-Andean valleys. It is noteworthy that    the number of accessions identified for the  core collection of this region is greater  than the number of accessions from the  core collection of the Southern Altiplano  and very close to that of the Central  Altiplano. This implies that although the  total number of accessions from the  Central and from the Southern Altiplano  is greater than that of the inter-Andean  valleys, it is likely that in the first two  regions of the Altiplano, several  genetically similar materials were  collected.   Comparison of the core collection with  the total collection, by visualization of the  dendrograms developed with the data  from each collection, shows that the core  collection conserves the structure of the  original collection. Figure 1 shows an example for material  from the Northern Altiplano, where the  genetic structure (arrangement of the  accessions into groups and subgroups) of  both collections (total and core) is the  same.   Table 3 compares PIC data from the total  collection, with PIC data from the core  collection, arranged by region. Diversity  indices of the core collection are slightly  higher than those of the original collection  because redundancies are reduced.  Therefore, the allele frequencies are  higher. The representativeness of the core  collection is consistent, although the  Bolivian Quinoa Collection has such a  diverse and complex structure. Genetic  diversity in the core collection is  maintained and redundancy has been  reduced to a minimum.   Conclusions   •  The methodology used for this study   enabled the identification of the most  representative quinoa accessions,  namely the group of accessions in  which the amplitude of the genetic  diversity found in the total collection    was maintained, based on   microsatellite markers,   agromorphological descriptors and  assessments of mildew and frost  tolerance. The quality and quantity of  information used to form the core  quinoa collection in this study, ensures  the inclusion of a wide range of  accessions that can be considered for  the selection of genetic material in  future assessments, either with  particular agromorphological  characteristics or with mildew and frost  tolerance characteristics.   • is to that   formation of a core collection is  dynamic. Future research could  include variables related to the  demands of the current context, such  as climate change, which requires  early and drought tolerant varieties; or  the market, which demands varieties  with nutritional and agroindustrial  qualities.   Participating agencies   The agromorphological and molecular  information used in this study was  generated within the framework of the  Project “Management, Conservation and   Sustainable Use of High Andean Grains”  as part of the National System of Genetic  Resources for Food and Agriculture  (SINARGEAA) and, the Quinoa Project  supported by the McKnight Foundation. The following people contributed  collecting information of molecular data,  during the implementation of the above  mentioned projects: Jorge Rojas Beltran,  Abel Turumaya, Pilar Gutiérrez, Rocío  Maldonado, Lucia Perez, Lilian Pinto and  Masiel Ovando. The agromorphological information has  been generated by the technical team of  PROINPA Foundation, Altiplano  Regional Office.    Cited references    Bonifacio, A., Aroni G., Villca, M. 2012.   Catálogo Etnobotánico de la Quinua  Real. Cochabamba, Bolivia. 123 p.  Brown, A., Schoen, D. 1994. Optimal sampling   strategies for core collections of plant  genetic resources. In: V. Loeschke, J.  Tomiuk y S. Jain (Eds.). Conservation  genetics. BirkhäuserVerlagBasel, Suiza.  pp. 357-369.  Cortez, F. 2011. Construcción de una   colección núcleo de  Solanum tuberosum   ssp.  andigena conservada en el banco   nacional de tubérculos y raíces andinas  en base a marcadores morfológicos y  moleculares. Master Degree Thesis.  Posgrado FCAP-UMSS. Cochabamba,  Bolivia.  Frankel, O., Brown, A. 1984. Plant genetic   resources today: A critical appraisal. In:  Holden, J., Williams, J. (Eds.). Crop    Genetic Resources: Conservation and  evaluation. Allen and Unwin. London, UK.  Jaramillo, S., Baena, M. 2000. Material de   apoyo a la capacitación en conservación  ex situ de recursos fitogenéticos.  International Plant Genetic Resource  Institute. Cali, Colombia. 210 p.  Kyu-Won, K., Chung, K., Cho, H.,   Chandrabalan, D., Jae-Gyun, G., Kim, T,  Eun G., Yong-Jin, P. 2007. PowerCore: A  program applying the advanced M  strategy with a heuristic search for  establishing core sets. Bioinformatics 23  (16):2155-2162.  Maughan, J., Bonifacio, A., Jellen, E., Stevens,   M., Coleman, C., Ricks, M., Mason, S.,  Jarvis, D., Ardunia, B., Fairbanks, D.  2004. A genetic linkage map of quinoa  (Chenopodium quinoa) based on AFLP,  RAPD, and SSR markers. Theor Appl  Genet 109:1188-1195.  Ozer, A., Suárez, R., Abadie, T. 2004.   Elaboración de una colección núcleo de  germoplasma de maíz de la raza blanco  dentado. Agrociencia Vol. VIII No. 1. pp.  1-10.  PASW. 2009. Predicción de resultados e   identificación de relaciones en los datos  categóricos. PASW® Categories 18 –  Specifications. 8 p.  Rojas, W., Pinto M. 2013. La diversidad   genética de quinua de Bolivia. In: Vargas,  M. (Ed.). Congreso Científico de la  Quinua (Proceedings). La Paz, Bolivia.  pp. 77 - 92.  Rojas, W., Pinto, M., Soto, J. 2010.   Distribución geográfica y variabilidad  genética de los granos andinos. In: Rojas  W., Pinto M., Soto J., Jagger M. y  Padulosi S. (Eds.). Granos Andinos:  Avances, logros y experiencias  desarrolladas en quinua, cañahua y  amaranto en Bolivia. Bioversity  International, Rome, Italy. pp. 11- 23.  Rojas, W. (Ed.). 2008. Manejo, conservación y   uso sostenible de los recursos genéticos  de granos altoandinos, en el marco del  SINARGEAA. Phase Report 2003-2008.  PROINPA Foundation. La Paz, Bolivia.  49 p.  Rojas, W., Cayoja, M., Espindola, G. 2001.   Catálogo de la colección de quinua  conservada en el Banco Nacional de  Granos Altoandinos. PROINPA  Foundation, MAGDER, PPD-PNUD,  SIBTA-UCEPSA, IPGRI, IFAD. La Paz,  Bolivia. 129 p.  Rohlf F. 2000. NTYSYS-pc, Numerical   Taxonomy and Multivariate Analysis  System, Version 2.10e. Appl.  Biostatistics, Inc., New York.  Schoen, D., Brown, A. 1995. Maximising   genetic diversity in core collections of wild  relatives of crop species. pp. 55-76. In:  Core collections of plant genetic    resources (T. Hodgkin, A. Brown, Th. van  Hintum y E. Morales, eds.). John Wiley  and Sons, United Kingdom.  van Hintum, Th., Brown, A., Spillane, C.,   Hodgkin, T. 2003 Colecciones núcleo de  recursos fitogenéticos. IPGRI Technical  Bulletin No. 3. International Plant Genetic  Resource Institute, Rome, Italy.  Zambrano, A., Demey, J., Fuenmayor, F.,   Segovia, V., Gutiérrez, Z. 2003.  Diversidad genética de una colección de  yuca a través de marcadores moleculares  RAPDS. Agronomía Trop. Venezuela 2  (53):155-174.     ISSN 1998 - 9652   Area: Technology Development 90   Molecular characterization yielded  diversity indices as the Polymorphic  Information Content (PIC) and  heterozygosity (H), for each set of  samples coming from the different  geographic regions.  Quinoas from the  Central Altiplano (CA) and Southern  Altiplano (SA) were the most abundant,  and also the most diverse (tables 2 and 3). For this study, the data of the alleles (in  base pairs) of every microsatellite were  transformed into binary data and arranged  in a matrix representing the presence of an  allele as 1 and the absence as 0. The  morphological information was obtained  from the evaluation of the germplasm  collection. 48 variables were selected that  included data on: stem coloring, plant  architecture, stem, leaf, inflorescence  and/or panicle, grain characteristics,  saponin, yield, phenology and tolerance to  abiotic (frost) and biotic (mildew) factors. Quinoas from every region have an  agromorphological pattern that  distinguishes them from each other. In the  Central Altiplano quinoas grow from 0.5    to 1.2 m, with short branches, the  glomerulate panicle prevails and the  phenological cycle lasts 168.40 ± 14.05  days. Quinoas in the Southern Altiplano have  larger grain (2.20 to 2.67 mm in  diameter), high saponin content; with a  prevailing amaraht-like panicle. In the Northern Altiplano, quinoas have a  height of 0.8 to 1.5 m, the glomerulate  panicle prevailes, the grain is small to  medium in size and white in color, the  growing season is fairly late to late (175  days). In inter-Andean valleys quinoas can reach  up to 2.5 m or more in height, with  branches reaching the second third of the  plant and very toothed leaves. The  phenological cycle is late (188-205 days),  amaranth-like panicles are dominant,  medium grain size (2 ± 0.13 mm) and high  saponin content (Rojas and Pinto 2013,  Bonifacio et al. 2012; Rojas 2003, Rojas   et al. 2001).   For the present study the above  morphological data were arranged in a  matrix where the names of the accessions  and morphological descriptors are  indicated with several levels of  descriptors (3-11). Based on available information about  molecular and morphological  characterization, out of all the accessions  from the quinoa collection, 1672 Bolivian  accessions from five regions were  selected: Northern Altiplano, Central  Altiplano, Southern Altiplano and  inter-Andean valleys and natural habitats  for the wild quinoas (ajaras) (Table 2).   Statistical Analysis: Forming the core  collection of quinoa   To form the core collection, a matrix with  molecular and morphological data was  developed. This information was  introduced in the PowerCore® program,  which enables sampling through the  Strategy M Maximization (van Hintum et  al. 2003). This strategy involves the use of  data indicating the magnitude of the  diversity of markers used for the  characterization of germplasm. It ensures  the inclusion of high allelic richness for  loci/markers used and directly takes into  account, in those loci, the magnitude of  the variation and deviation to the model or  pattern. Importantly, the M strategy not  only defines the number of accessions that  should come from different groups, but  also identifies the accessions that need to  be included (Schoen and Brown, 1994;  Schoen and Brown, 1995; Cortez 2011).  Thus, with the accessions selected by the  program, a dendrogram of the core  collection was generated. Using the  program NTSYSpc ® version 2.1.10 the    structure of this dendrogram was  compared with that of the total collection.  Diversity indices between the two  collections were also compared to check  the representativeness of the core  collection (Rohlf 2000; Zambrano et al.  2003).   Achievements   The data from the analysis, with a level of  100% of representation of the genetic  diversity, generated a subset of 486  accessions corresponding to 31% of the  total collection. Applying a level of 80%  of representation of the genetic diversity,  as suggested by the literature (Frankel et  al., 1984; Jaramillo and Baena, 2000;  Ozer  et al., 2004), a subset of 410   accessions was reached, which stands for  24% of the total collection (Table 2). Table 2 shows the number of accessions in  the core collection by region. The  percentage of accessions from each region  is variable; this indicates the degree of  redundancy (duplicated or genetically  very similar material) of accessions within  each region. This is the case of material from the  Northern Altiplano, from where a higher  percentage of accessions has been  considered both at 80% and 100% of  representation (46% and 57%,  respectively), compared with the other  regions. This is because in this region  there is less redundancy, therefore most  accessions are genetically different from  one another. A similar situation of low redundancy is  also observed in the material from the  inter-Andean valleys. It is noteworthy that    the number of accessions identified for the  core collection of this region is greater  than the number of accessions from the  core collection of the Southern Altiplano  and very close to that of the Central  Altiplano. This implies that although the  total number of accessions from the  Central and from the Southern Altiplano  is greater than that of the inter-Andean  valleys, it is likely that in the first two  regions of the Altiplano, several  genetically similar materials were  collected.   Comparison of the core collection with  the total collection, by visualization of the  dendrograms developed with the data  from each collection, shows that the core  collection conserves the structure of the  original collection. Figure 1 shows an example for material  from the Northern Altiplano, where the  genetic structure (arrangement of the  accessions into groups and subgroups) of  both collections (total and core) is the  same.   Table 3 compares PIC data from the total  collection, with PIC data from the core  collection, arranged by region. Diversity  indices of the core collection are slightly  higher than those of the original collection  because redundancies are reduced.  Therefore, the allele frequencies are  higher. The representativeness of the core  collection is consistent, although the  Bolivian Quinoa Collection has such a  diverse and complex structure. Genetic  diversity in the core collection is  maintained and redundancy has been  reduced to a minimum.   Conclusions   •  The methodology used for this study   enabled the identification of the most  representative quinoa accessions,  namely the group of accessions in  which the amplitude of the genetic  diversity found in the total collection    was maintained, based on  microsatellite markers,  agromorphological descriptors and  assessments of mildew and frost  tolerance. The quality and quantity of  information used to form the core  quinoa collection in this study, ensures  the inclusion of a wide range of  accessions that can be considered for  the selection of genetic material in  future assessments, either with  particular agromorphological  characteristics or with mildew and frost  tolerance characteristics.   • is to that   formation of a core collection is  dynamic. Future research could  include variables related to the  demands of the current context, such  as climate change, which requires  early and drought tolerant varieties; or  the market, which demands varieties  with nutritional and agroindustrial  qualities.   Participating agencies   The agromorphological and molecular  information used in this study was  generated within the framework of the  Project “Management, Conservation and   Sustainable Use of High Andean Grains”  as part of the National System of Genetic  Resources for Food and Agriculture  (SINARGEAA) and, the Quinoa Project  supported by the McKnight Foundation. The following people contributed  collecting information of molecular data,  during the implementation of the above  mentioned projects: Jorge Rojas Beltran,  Abel Turumaya, Pilar Gutiérrez, Rocío  Maldonado, Lucia Perez, Lilian Pinto and  Masiel Ovando. The agromorphological information has  been generated by the technical team of  PROINPA Foundation, Altiplano  Regional Office.    Cited references    Bonifacio, A., Aroni G., Villca, M. 2012.   Catálogo Etnobotánico de la Quinua  Real. Cochabamba, Bolivia. 123 p.  Brown, A., Schoen, D. 1994. Optimal sampling   strategies for core collections of plant  genetic resources. In: V. Loeschke, J.  Tomiuk y S. Jain (Eds.). Conservation  genetics. BirkhäuserVerlagBasel, Suiza.  pp. 357-369.  Cortez, F. 2011. Construcción de una   colección núcleo de  Solanum tuberosum   ssp.  andigena conservada en el banco   nacional de tubérculos y raíces andinas  en base a marcadores morfológicos y  moleculares. Master Degree Thesis.  Posgrado FCAP-UMSS. Cochabamba,  Bolivia.  Frankel, O., Brown, A. 1984. Plant genetic   resources today: A critical appraisal. In:  Holden, J., Williams, J. (Eds.). Crop    Genetic Resources: Conservation and  evaluation. Allen and Unwin. London, UK.  Jaramillo, S., Baena, M. 2000. Material de   apoyo a la capacitación en conservación  ex situ de recursos fitogenéticos.  International Plant Genetic Resource  Institute. Cali, Colombia. 210 p.  Kyu-Won, K., Chung, K., Cho, H.,   Chandrabalan, D., Jae-Gyun, G., Kim, T,  Eun G., Yong-Jin, P. 2007. PowerCore: A  program applying the advanced M  strategy with a heuristic search for  establishing core sets. Bioinformatics 23  (16):2155-2162.  Maughan, J., Bonifacio, A., Jellen, E., Stevens,   M., Coleman, C., Ricks, M., Mason, S.,  Jarvis, D., Ardunia, B., Fairbanks, D.  2004. A genetic linkage map of quinoa  (Chenopodium quinoa) based on AFLP,  RAPD, and SSR markers. Theor Appl  Genet 109:1188-1195.  Ozer, A., Suárez, R., Abadie, T. 2004.   Elaboración de una colección núcleo de  germoplasma de maíz de la raza blanco  dentado. Agrociencia Vol. VIII No. 1. pp.  1-10.  PASW. 2009. Predicción de resultados e   identificación de relaciones en los datos  categóricos. PASW® Categories 18 –  Specifications. 8 p.  Rojas, W., Pinto M. 2013. La diversidad   genética de quinua de Bolivia. In: Vargas,  M. (Ed.). Congreso Científico de la  Quinua (Proceedings). La Paz, Bolivia.  pp. 77 - 92.  Rojas, W., Pinto, M., Soto, J. 2010.   Distribución geográfica y variabilidad  genética de los granos andinos. In: Rojas  W., Pinto M., Soto J., Jagger M. y  Padulosi S. (Eds.). Granos Andinos:  Avances, logros y experiencias  desarrolladas en quinua, cañahua y  amaranto en Bolivia. Bioversity  International, Rome, Italy. pp. 11- 23.  Rojas, W. (Ed.). 2008. Manejo, conservación y   uso sostenible de los recursos genéticos  de granos altoandinos, en el marco del  SINARGEAA. Phase Report 2003-2008.  PROINPA Foundation. La Paz, Bolivia.  49 p.   Rojas, W., Cayoja, M., Espindola, G. 2001.   Catálogo de la colección de quinua  conservada en el Banco Nacional de  Granos Altoandinos. PROINPA  Foundation, MAGDER, PPD-PNUD,  SIBTA-UCEPSA, IPGRI, IFAD. La Paz,  Bolivia. 129 p.  Rohlf F. 2000. NTYSYS-pc, Numerical   Taxonomy and Multivariate Analysis  System, Version 2.10e. Appl.  Biostatistics, Inc., New York.  Schoen, D., Brown, A. 1995. Maximising   genetic diversity in core collections of wild  relatives of crop species. pp. 55-76. In:  Core collections of plant genetic    resources (T. Hodgkin, A. Brown, Th. van  Hintum y E. Morales, eds.). John Wiley  and Sons, United Kingdom.  van Hintum, Th., Brown, A., Spillane, C.,   Hodgkin, T. 2003 Colecciones núcleo de  recursos fitogenéticos. IPGRI Technical  Bulletin No. 3. International Plant Genetic  Resource Institute, Rome, Italy.  Zambrano, A., Demey, J., Fuenmayor, F.,   Segovia, V., Gutiérrez, Z. 2003.  Diversidad genética de una colección de  yuca a través de marcadores moleculares  RAPDS. Agronomía Trop. Venezuela 2  (53):155-174.     Revista de Agricultura, Nro. 54 - Julio de 2014   Area: Technology Development 91   Article received on June 12, 2014 – Article accepted on June 19, 2014   Editor: Centro de Investigación en Forrajes “La Violeta”  CIF-UMSS Año de publicación: 2014 Memoria electrónica del Primer Encuentro  Internacional de la Tuna para Forraje como una  Medida de Adaptación al Cambio Climático en  Bolivia. Documento que presenta todos los  trabajos expuestos y enviados para la reunión  realizada en Cochabamba, en el mes de mayo de  2014. Además de los textos académicos, presenta  videos ilustrativos sobre la utilización de la tuna  con fines forrajeros. También presenta libros  completos de la FAO, SEBRAE e ICARDA, sobre  la tuna en especial y las zonas áridas en general.  La publicación de la Memoria fue realizada con el  apoyo de GIZ PROAGRO y el auspicio del  Ministerio de Desarrollo Rural y Tierras y el Vice  Ministerio de Desarrollo Rural Agropecuario, a  través del Instituto de Innovación Agropecuaria y  Forestal.   Mayor información:  Centro de Investigación en Forraje “La Violeta” www.agr.umss.edu.bo Telf. 4316856, Fax 4315706 (Cochabamba, Bolivia)   Molecular characterization yielded  diversity indices as the Polymorphic  Information Content (PIC) and  heterozygosity (H), for each set of  samples coming from the different  geographic regions.  Quinoas from the  Central Altiplano (CA) and Southern  Altiplano (SA) were the most abundant,  and also the most diverse (tables 2 and 3). For this study, the data of the alleles (in  base pairs) of every microsatellite were  transformed into binary data and arranged  in a matrix representing the presence of an  allele as 1 and the absence as 0. The  morphological information was obtained  from the evaluation of the germplasm  collection. 48 variables were selected that  included data on: stem coloring, plant  architecture, stem, leaf, inflorescence  and/or panicle, grain characteristics,  saponin, yield, phenology and tolerance to  abiotic (frost) and biotic (mildew) factors. Quinoas from every region have an  agromorphological pattern that  distinguishes them from each other. In the  Central Altiplano quinoas grow from 0.5    to 1.2 m, with short branches, the  glomerulate panicle prevails and the  phenological cycle lasts 168.40 ± 14.05  days. Quinoas in the Southern Altiplano have  larger grain (2.20 to 2.67 mm in  diameter), high saponin content; with a  prevailing amaraht-like panicle. In the Northern Altiplano, quinoas have a  height of 0.8 to 1.5 m, the glomerulate  panicle prevailes, the grain is small to  medium in size and white in color, the  growing season is fairly late to late (175  days). In inter-Andean valleys quinoas can reach  up to 2.5 m or more in height, with  branches reaching the second third of the  plant and very toothed leaves. The  phenological cycle is late (188-205 days),  amaranth-like panicles are dominant,  medium grain size (2 ± 0.13 mm) and high  saponin content (Rojas and Pinto 2013,  Bonifacio et al. 2012; Rojas 2003, Rojas   et al. 2001).   For the present study the above  morphological data were arranged in a  matrix where the names of the accessions  and morphological descriptors are  indicated with several levels of  descriptors (3-11). Based on available information about  molecular and morphological  characterization, out of all the accessions  from the quinoa collection, 1672 Bolivian  accessions from five regions were  selected: Northern Altiplano, Central  Altiplano, Southern Altiplano and  inter-Andean valleys and natural habitats  for the wild quinoas (ajaras) (Table 2).   Statistical Analysis: Forming the core  collection of quinoa   To form the core collection, a matrix with  molecular and morphological data was  developed. This information was  introduced in the PowerCore® program,  which enables sampling through the  Strategy M Maximization (van Hintum et  al. 2003). This strategy involves the use of  data indicating the magnitude of the  diversity of markers used for the  characterization of germplasm. It ensures  the inclusion of high allelic richness for  loci/markers used and directly takes into  account, in those loci, the magnitude of  the variation and deviation to the model or  pattern. Importantly, the M strategy not  only defines the number of accessions that  should come from different groups, but  also identifies the accessions that need to  be included (Schoen and Brown, 1994;  Schoen and Brown, 1995; Cortez 2011).  Thus, with the accessions selected by the  program, a dendrogram of the core  collection was generated. Using the  program NTSYSpc ® version 2.1.10 the    structure of this dendrogram was  compared with that of the total collection.  Diversity indices between the two  collections were also compared to check  the representativeness of the core  collection (Rohlf 2000; Zambrano et al.  2003).   Achievements   The data from the analysis, with a level of  100% of representation of the genetic  diversity, generated a subset of 486  accessions corresponding to 31% of the  total collection. Applying a level of 80%  of representation of the genetic diversity,  as suggested by the literature (Frankel et  al., 1984; Jaramillo and Baena, 2000;  Ozer  et al., 2004), a subset of 410   accessions was reached, which stands for  24% of the total collection (Table 2). Table 2 shows the number of accessions in  the core collection by region. The  percentage of accessions from each region  is variable; this indicates the degree of  redundancy (duplicated or genetically  very similar material) of accessions within  each region. This is the case of material from the  Northern Altiplano, from where a higher  percentage of accessions has been  considered both at 80% and 100% of  representation (46% and 57%,  respectively), compared with the other  regions. This is because in this region  there is less redundancy, therefore most  accessions are genetically different from  one another. A similar situation of low redundancy is  also observed in the material from the  inter-Andean valleys. It is noteworthy that    the number of accessions identified for the  core collection of this region is greater  than the number of accessions from the  core collection of the Southern Altiplano  and very close to that of the Central  Altiplano. This implies that although the  total number of accessions from the  Central and from the Southern Altiplano  is greater than that of the inter-Andean  valleys, it is likely that in the first two  regions of the Altiplano, several  genetically similar materials were  collected.   Comparison of the core collection with  the total collection, by visualization of the  dendrograms developed with the data  from each collection, shows that the core  collection conserves the structure of the  original collection. Figure 1 shows an example for material  from the Northern Altiplano, where the  genetic structure (arrangement of the  accessions into groups and subgroups) of  both collections (total and core) is the  same.   Table 3 compares PIC data from the total  collection, with PIC data from the core  collection, arranged by region. Diversity  indices of the core collection are slightly  higher than those of the original collection  because redundancies are reduced.  Therefore, the allele frequencies are  higher. The representativeness of the core  collection is consistent, although the  Bolivian Quinoa Collection has such a  diverse and complex structure. Genetic  diversity in the core collection is  maintained and redundancy has been  reduced to a minimum.   Conclusions   •  The methodology used for this study   enabled the identification of the most  representative quinoa accessions,  namely the group of accessions in  which the amplitude of the genetic  diversity found in the total collection    was maintained, based on  microsatellite markers,  agromorphological descriptors and  assessments of mildew and frost  tolerance. The quality and quantity of  information used to form the core  quinoa collection in this study, ensures  the inclusion of a wide range of  accessions that can be considered for  the selection of genetic material in  future assessments, either with  particular agromorphological  characteristics or with mildew and frost  tolerance characteristics.   • is to that   formation of a core collection is  dynamic. Future research could  include variables related to the  demands of the current context, such  as climate change, which requires  early and drought tolerant varieties; or  the market, which demands varieties  with nutritional and agroindustrial  qualities.   Participating agencies   The agromorphological and molecular  information used in this study was  generated within the framework of the  Project “Management, Conservation and   Sustainable Use of High Andean Grains”  as part of the National System of Genetic  Resources for Food and Agriculture  (SINARGEAA) and, the Quinoa Project  supported by the McKnight Foundation. The following people contributed  collecting information of molecular data,  during the implementation of the above  mentioned projects: Jorge Rojas Beltran,  Abel Turumaya, Pilar Gutiérrez, Rocío  Maldonado, Lucia Perez, Lilian Pinto and  Masiel Ovando. The agromorphological information has  been generated by the technical team of  PROINPA Foundation, Altiplano  Regional Office.    Cited references    Bonifacio, A., Aroni G., Villca, M. 2012.   Catálogo Etnobotánico de la Quinua  Real. Cochabamba, Bolivia. 123 p.  Brown, A., Schoen, D. 1994. Optimal sampling   strategies for core collections of plant  genetic resources. In: V. Loeschke, J.  Tomiuk y S. Jain (Eds.). Conservation  genetics. BirkhäuserVerlagBasel, Suiza.  pp. 357-369.  Cortez, F. 2011. Construcción de una   colección núcleo de  Solanum tuberosum   ssp.  andigena conservada en el banco   nacional de tubérculos y raíces andinas  en base a marcadores morfológicos y  moleculares. Master Degree Thesis.  Posgrado FCAP-UMSS. Cochabamba,  Bolivia.  Frankel, O., Brown, A. 1984. Plant genetic   resources today: A critical appraisal. In:  Holden, J., Williams, J. (Eds.). Crop    Genetic Resources: Conservation and  evaluation. Allen and Unwin. London, UK.  Jaramillo, S., Baena, M. 2000. Material de   apoyo a la capacitación en conservación  ex situ de recursos fitogenéticos.  International Plant Genetic Resource  Institute. Cali, Colombia. 210 p.  Kyu-Won, K., Chung, K., Cho, H.,   Chandrabalan, D., Jae-Gyun, G., Kim, T,  Eun G., Yong-Jin, P. 2007. PowerCore: A  program applying the advanced M  strategy with a heuristic search for  establishing core sets. Bioinformatics 23  (16):2155-2162.  Maughan, J., Bonifacio, A., Jellen, E., Stevens,   M., Coleman, C., Ricks, M., Mason, S.,  Jarvis, D., Ardunia, B., Fairbanks, D.  2004. A genetic linkage map of quinoa  (Chenopodium quinoa) based on AFLP,  RAPD, and SSR markers. Theor Appl  Genet 109:1188-1195.  Ozer, A., Suárez, R., Abadie, T. 2004.   Elaboración de una colección núcleo de  germoplasma de maíz de la raza blanco  dentado. Agrociencia Vol. VIII No. 1. pp.  1-10.  PASW. 2009. Predicción de resultados e   identificación de relaciones en los datos  categóricos. PASW® Categories 18 –  Specifications. 8 p.  Rojas, W., Pinto M. 2013. La diversidad   genética de quinua de Bolivia. In: Vargas,  M. (Ed.). Congreso Científico de la  Quinua (Proceedings). La Paz, Bolivia.  pp. 77 - 92.  Rojas, W., Pinto, M., Soto, J. 2010.   Distribución geográfica y variabilidad  genética de los granos andinos. In: Rojas  W., Pinto M., Soto J., Jagger M. y  Padulosi S. (Eds.). Granos Andinos:  Avances, logros y experiencias  desarrolladas en quinua, cañahua y  amaranto en Bolivia. Bioversity  International, Rome, Italy. pp. 11- 23.  Rojas, W. (Ed.). 2008. Manejo, conservación y   uso sostenible de los recursos genéticos  de granos altoandinos, en el marco del  SINARGEAA. Phase Report 2003-2008.  PROINPA Foundation. La Paz, Bolivia.  49 p.   Rojas, W., Cayoja, M., Espindola, G. 2001.   Catálogo de la colección de quinua  conservada en el Banco Nacional de  Granos Altoandinos. PROINPA  Foundation, MAGDER, PPD-PNUD,  SIBTA-UCEPSA, IPGRI, IFAD. La Paz,  Bolivia. 129 p.  Rohlf F. 2000. NTYSYS-pc, Numerical   Taxonomy and Multivariate Analysis  System, Version 2.10e. Appl.  Biostatistics, Inc., New York.  Schoen, D., Brown, A. 1995. Maximising   genetic diversity in core collections of wild  relatives of crop species. pp. 55-76. In:  Core collections of plant genetic    resources (T. Hodgkin, A. Brown, Th. van  Hintum y E. Morales, eds.). John Wiley  and Sons, United Kingdom.  van Hintum, Th., Brown, A., Spillane, C.,   Hodgkin, T. 2003 Colecciones núcleo de  recursos fitogenéticos. IPGRI Technical  Bulletin No. 3. International Plant Genetic  Resource Institute, Rome, Italy.  Zambrano, A., Demey, J., Fuenmayor, F.,   Segovia, V., Gutiérrez, Z. 2003.  Diversidad genética de una colección de  yuca a través de marcadores moleculares  RAPDS. Agronomía Trop. Venezuela 2  (53):155-174.     ISSN 1998 - 9652   Area: Technology Development 92   Potential uses of the genetic diversity of quinoa   in agroindustry: Opportunities and Challenges   Wilfredo Rojas; Milton Pinto; Amalia Vargas    Work funded by: SINARGEAA; McKnight Foundation;  UNEP/GEF Project; NUS/IFAD Project; PROINPA Foundation  E mail: w.rojas@proinpa.org    Summary. In addition to its nutritional and health benefits, quinoa has an extraordinary genetic   diversity that is expressed in the variability of its plant colors, inflorescence and seed. These  qualities make it a potential crop to produce quality food. Since the eighties, quinoa has  experienced a significant growth in demand, and it is from 2005 on-wards that a real boom sets  forth export volumes of this grain and its subproducts. Bolivia is the world leader in quinoa  production and export. Companies and/or associations operating in this sector have turned their  efforts to the export of raw material, which currently dominates sales outside Bolivia. Several  others have also begun transforming products and byproducts based on quinoa. However,  processed products are made with raw material from mixed quinoa (different varieties) and thus, at  agroindustrial level, they do not reach the desired market quality.  In this context, it is important to  address the opportunities of "quinoa genetic diversity" for the development of better processed  products, and in this way strengthen the quinoa agroindustry and the country’s economy. Keywords: Nutritional Value; Added Value; Export Resumen. Potenciales usos de la diversidad genética de la quinua en la agroindustria:  Oportunidades y desafíos.  La quinua, además de sus beneficios para la nutrición y salud, posee  una extraordinaria diversidad genética que se expresa en la variabilidad de colores de la planta,  inflorescencia y semilla. Estas cualidades la convierten en un cultivo con potencial para producir  alimentos de calidad. Desde los años ochenta, la quinua ha experimentado un notable incremento  de la demanda y a partir del año 2005, se presenta un verdadero boom en los volúmenes de  exportación del grano y sus productos derivados. Bolivia es líder a nivel mundial en la producción  y exportación de quinua, las empresas y/o asociaciones que operan en el rubro, han volcado sus  esfuerzos a la exportación de materia prima, que es lo que actualmente predomina en las ventas  al exterior y varias de ellas han iniciado la transformación de productos y derivados a base de  quinua. Sin embargo, estos productos transformados son elaborados con materia prima que viene  de quinua mezclada (diferentes variedades) y por ello a nivel agroindustrial, no alcanzan la calidad  requerida por el mercado. En este marco es importante direccionar las oportunidades que brinda  la “diversidad genética de quinua”, para la elaboración de productos transformados y de esta  forma fortalecer la agroindustria de quinua y la economía del país. Palabras clave: Valor Nutritivo; Valor Agregado; Exportación   Molecular characterization yielded  diversity indices as the Polymorphic  Information Content (PIC) and  heterozygosity (H), for each set of  samples coming from the different  geographic regions.  Quinoas from the  Central Altiplano (CA) and Southern  Altiplano (SA) were the most abundant,  and also the most diverse (tables 2 and 3). For this study, the data of the alleles (in  base pairs) of every microsatellite were  transformed into binary data and arranged  in a matrix representing the presence of an  allele as 1 and the absence as 0. The  morphological information was obtained  from the evaluation of the germplasm  collection. 48 variables were selected that  included data on: stem coloring, plant  architecture, stem, leaf, inflorescence  and/or panicle, grain characteristics,  saponin, yield, phenology and tolerance to  abiotic (frost) and biotic (mildew) factors. Quinoas from every region have an  agromorphological pattern that  distinguishes them from each other. In the  Central Altiplano quinoas grow from 0.5    to 1.2 m, with short branches, the  glomerulate panicle prevails and the  phenological cycle lasts 168.40 ± 14.05  days. Quinoas in the Southern Altiplano have  larger grain (2.20 to 2.67 mm in  diameter), high saponin content; with a  prevailing amaraht-like panicle. In the Northern Altiplano, quinoas have a  height of 0.8 to 1.5 m, the glomerulate  panicle prevailes, the grain is small to  medium in size and white in color, the  growing season is fairly late to late (175  days). In inter-Andean valleys quinoas can reach  up to 2.5 m or more in height, with  branches reaching the second third of the  plant and very toothed leaves. The  phenological cycle is late (188-205 days),  amaranth-like panicles are dominant,  medium grain size (2 ± 0.13 mm) and high  saponin content (Rojas and Pinto 2013,  Bonifacio et al. 2012; Rojas 2003, Rojas   et al. 2001).   For the present study the above  morphological data were arranged in a  matrix where the names of the accessions  and morphological descriptors are  indicated with several levels of  descriptors (3-11). Based on available information about  molecular and morphological  characterization, out of all the accessions  from the quinoa collection, 1672 Bolivian  accessions from five regions were  selected: Northern Altiplano, Central  Altiplano, Southern Altiplano and  inter-Andean valleys and natural habitats  for the wild quinoas (ajaras) (Table 2).   Statistical Analysis: Forming the core  collection of quinoa   To form the core collection, a matrix with  molecular and morphological data was  developed. This information was  introduced in the PowerCore® program,  which enables sampling through the  Strategy M Maximization (van Hintum et  al. 2003). This strategy involves the use of  data indicating the magnitude of the  diversity of markers used for the  characterization of germplasm. It ensures  the inclusion of high allelic richness for  loci/markers used and directly takes into  account, in those loci, the magnitude of  the variation and deviation to the model or  pattern. Importantly, the M strategy not  only defines the number of accessions that  should come from different groups, but  also identifies the accessions that need to  be included (Schoen and Brown, 1994;  Schoen and Brown, 1995; Cortez 2011).  Thus, with the accessions selected by the  program, a dendrogram of the core  collection was generated. Using the  program NTSYSpc ® version 2.1.10 the    structure of this dendrogram was  compared with that of the total collection.  Diversity indices between the two  collections were also compared to check  the representativeness of the core  collection (Rohlf 2000; Zambrano et al.  2003).   Achievements   The data from the analysis, with a level of  100% of representation of the genetic  diversity, generated a subset of 486  accessions corresponding to 31% of the  total collection. Applying a level of 80%  of representation of the genetic diversity,  as suggested by the literature (Frankel et  al., 1984; Jaramillo and Baena, 2000;  Ozer  et al., 2004), a subset of 410   accessions was reached, which stands for  24% of the total collection (Table 2). Table 2 shows the number of accessions in  the core collection by region. The  percentage of accessions from each region  is variable; this indicates the degree of  redundancy (duplicated or genetically  very similar material) of accessions within  each region. This is the case of material from the  Northern Altiplano, from where a higher  percentage of accessions has been  considered both at 80% and 100% of  representation (46% and 57%,  respectively), compared with the other  regions. This is because in this region  there is less redundancy, therefore most  accessions are genetically different from  one another. A similar situation of low redundancy is  also observed in the material from the  inter-Andean valleys. It is noteworthy that    the number of accessions identified for the  core collection of this region is greater  than the number of accessions from the  core collection of the Southern Altiplano  and very close to that of the Central  Altiplano. This implies that although the  total number of accessions from the  Central and from the Southern Altiplano  is greater than that of the inter-Andean  valleys, it is likely that in the first two  regions of the Altiplano, several  genetically similar materials were  collected.   Comparison of the core collection with  the total collection, by visualization of the  dendrograms developed with the data  from each collection, shows that the core  collection conserves the structure of the  original collection. Figure 1 shows an example for material  from the Northern Altiplano, where the  genetic structure (arrangement of the  accessions into groups and subgroups) of  both collections (total and core) is the  same.   Table 3 compares PIC data from the total  collection, with PIC data from the core  collection, arranged by region. Diversity  indices of the core collection are slightly  higher than those of the original collection  because redundancies are reduced.  Therefore, the allele frequencies are  higher. The representativeness of the core  collection is consistent, although the  Bolivian Quinoa Collection has such a  diverse and complex structure. Genetic  diversity in the core collection is  maintained and redundancy has been  reduced to a minimum.   Conclusions   •  The methodology used for this study   enabled the identification of the most  representative quinoa accessions,  namely the group of accessions in  which the amplitude of the genetic  diversity found in the total collection    was maintained, based on  microsatellite markers,  agromorphological descriptors and  assessments of mildew and frost  tolerance. The quality and quantity of  information used to form the core  quinoa collection in this study, ensures  the inclusion of a wide range of  accessions that can be considered for  the selection of genetic material in  future assessments, either with  particular agromorphological  characteristics or with mildew and frost  tolerance characteristics.   • is to that   formation of a core collection is  dynamic. Future research could  include variables related to the  demands of the current context, such  as climate change, which requires  early and drought tolerant varieties; or  the market, which demands varieties  with nutritional and agroindustrial  qualities.   Participating agencies   The agromorphological and molecular  information used in this study was  generated within the framework of the  Project “Management, Conservation and   Sustainable Use of High Andean Grains”  as part of the National System of Genetic  Resources for Food and Agriculture  (SINARGEAA) and, the Quinoa Project  supported by the McKnight Foundation. The following people contributed  collecting information of molecular data,  during the implementation of the above  mentioned projects: Jorge Rojas Beltran,  Abel Turumaya, Pilar Gutiérrez, Rocío  Maldonado, Lucia Perez, Lilian Pinto and  Masiel Ovando. The agromorphological information has  been generated by the technical team of  PROINPA Foundation, Altiplano  Regional Office.    Cited references    Bonifacio, A., Aroni G., Villca, M. 2012.   Catálogo Etnobotánico de la Quinua  Real. Cochabamba, Bolivia. 123 p.  Brown, A., Schoen, D. 1994. Optimal sampling   strategies for core collections of plant  genetic resources. In: V. Loeschke, J.  Tomiuk y S. Jain (Eds.). Conservation  genetics. BirkhäuserVerlagBasel, Suiza.  pp. 357-369.  Cortez, F. 2011. Construcción de una   colección núcleo de  Solanum tuberosum   ssp.  andigena conservada en el banco   nacional de tubérculos y raíces andinas  en base a marcadores morfológicos y  moleculares. Master Degree Thesis.  Posgrado FCAP-UMSS. Cochabamba,  Bolivia.  Frankel, O., Brown, A. 1984. Plant genetic   resources today: A critical appraisal. In:  Holden, J., Williams, J. (Eds.). Crop    Genetic Resources: Conservation and  evaluation. Allen and Unwin. London, UK.  Jaramillo, S., Baena, M. 2000. Material de   apoyo a la capacitación en conservación  ex situ de recursos fitogenéticos.  International Plant Genetic Resource  Institute. Cali, Colombia. 210 p.  Kyu-Won, K., Chung, K., Cho, H.,   Chandrabalan, D., Jae-Gyun, G., Kim, T,  Eun G., Yong-Jin, P. 2007. PowerCore: A  program applying the advanced M  strategy with a heuristic search for  establishing core sets. Bioinformatics 23  (16):2155-2162.  Maughan, J., Bonifacio, A., Jellen, E., Stevens,   M., Coleman, C., Ricks, M., Mason, S.,  Jarvis, D., Ardunia, B., Fairbanks, D.  2004. A genetic linkage map of quinoa  (Chenopodium quinoa) based on AFLP,  RAPD, and SSR markers. Theor Appl  Genet 109:1188-1195.  Ozer, A., Suárez, R., Abadie, T. 2004.   Elaboración de una colección núcleo de  germoplasma de maíz de la raza blanco  dentado. Agrociencia Vol. VIII No. 1. pp.  1-10.  PASW. 2009. Predicción de resultados e   identificación de relaciones en los datos  categóricos. PASW® Categories 18 –  Specifications. 8 p.  Rojas, W., Pinto M. 2013. La diversidad   genética de quinua de Bolivia. In: Vargas,  M. (Ed.). Congreso Científico de la  Quinua (Proceedings). La Paz, Bolivia.  pp. 77 - 92.  Rojas, W., Pinto, M., Soto, J. 2010.   Distribución geográfica y variabilidad  genética de los granos andinos. In: Rojas  W., Pinto M., Soto J., Jagger M. y  Padulosi S. (Eds.). Granos Andinos:  Avances, logros y experiencias  desarrolladas en quinua, cañahua y  amaranto en Bolivia. Bioversity  International, Rome, Italy. pp. 11- 23.  Rojas, W. (Ed.). 2008. Manejo, conservación y   uso sostenible de los recursos genéticos  de granos altoandinos, en el marco del  SINARGEAA. Phase Report 2003-2008.  PROINPA Foundation. La Paz, Bolivia.  49 p.  Rojas, W., Cayoja, M., Espindola, G. 2001.   Catálogo de la colección de quinua  conservada en el Banco Nacional de  Granos Altoandinos. PROINPA  Foundation, MAGDER, PPD-PNUD,  SIBTA-UCEPSA, IPGRI, IFAD. La Paz,  Bolivia. 129 p.  Rohlf F. 2000. NTYSYS-pc, Numerical   Taxonomy and Multivariate Analysis  System, Version 2.10e. Appl.  Biostatistics, Inc., New York.  Schoen, D., Brown, A. 1995. Maximising   genetic diversity in core collections of wild  relatives of crop species. pp. 55-76. In:  Core collections of plant genetic    resources (T. Hodgkin, A. Brown, Th. van  Hintum y E. Morales, eds.). John Wiley  and Sons, United Kingdom.  van Hintum, Th., Brown, A., Spillane, C.,   Hodgkin, T. 2003 Colecciones núcleo de  recursos fitogenéticos. IPGRI Technical  Bulletin No. 3. International Plant Genetic  Resource Institute, Rome, Italy.  Zambrano, A., Demey, J., Fuenmayor, F.,   Segovia, V., Gutiérrez, Z. 2003.  Diversidad genética de una colección de  yuca a través de marcadores moleculares  RAPDS. Agronomía Trop. Venezuela 2  (53):155-174.     Revista de Agricultura, Nro. 54 - Julio de 2014   Area: Technology Development 93   Molecular characterization yielded  diversity indices as the Polymorphic  Information Content (PIC) and  heterozygosity (H), for each set of  samples coming from the different  geographic regions.  Quinoas from the  Central Altiplano (CA) and Southern  Altiplano (SA) were the most abundant,  and also the most diverse (tables 2 and 3). For this study, the data of the alleles (in  base pairs) of every microsatellite were  transformed into binary data and arranged  in a matrix representing the presence of an  allele as 1 and the absence as 0. The  morphological information was obtained  from the evaluation of the germplasm  collection. 48 variables were selected that  included data on: stem coloring, plant  architecture, stem, leaf, inflorescence  and/or panicle, grain characteristics,  saponin, yield, phenology and tolerance to  abiotic (frost) and biotic (mildew) factors. Quinoas from every region have an  agromorphological pattern that  distinguishes them from each other. In the  Central Altiplano quinoas grow from 0.5    to 1.2 m, with short branches, the  glomerulate panicle prevails and the  phenological cycle lasts 168.40 ± 14.05  days. Quinoas in the Southern Altiplano have  larger grain (2.20 to 2.67 mm in  diameter), high saponin content; with a  prevailing amaraht-like panicle. In the Northern Altiplano, quinoas have a  height of 0.8 to 1.5 m, the glomerulate  panicle prevailes, the grain is small to  medium in size and white in color, the  growing season is fairly late to late (175  days). In inter-Andean valleys quinoas can reach  up to 2.5 m or more in height, with  branches reaching the second third of the  plant and very toothed leaves. The  phenological cycle is late (188-205 days),  amaranth-like panicles are dominant,  medium grain size (2 ± 0.13 mm) and high  saponin content (Rojas and Pinto 2013,  Bonifacio et al. 2012; Rojas 2003, Rojas   et al. 2001).   For the present study the above  morphological data were arranged in a  matrix where the names of the accessions  and morphological descriptors are  indicated with several levels of  descriptors (3-11). Based on available information about  molecular and morphological  characterization, out of all the accessions  from the quinoa collection, 1672 Bolivian  accessions from five regions were  selected: Northern Altiplano, Central  Altiplano, Southern Altiplano and  inter-Andean valleys and natural habitats  for the wild quinoas (ajaras) (Table 2).   Statistical Analysis: Forming the core  collection of quinoa   To form the core collection, a matrix with  molecular and morphological data was  developed. This information was  introduced in the PowerCore® program,  which enables sampling through the  Strategy M Maximization (van Hintum et  al. 2003). This strategy involves the use of  data indicating the magnitude of the  diversity of markers used for the  characterization of germplasm. It ensures  the inclusion of high allelic richness for  loci/markers used and directly takes into  account, in those loci, the magnitude of  the variation and deviation to the model or  pattern. Importantly, the M strategy not  only defines the number of accessions that  should come from different groups, but  also identifies the accessions that need to  be included (Schoen and Brown, 1994;  Schoen and Brown, 1995; Cortez 2011).  Thus, with the accessions selected by the  program, a dendrogram of the core  collection was generated. Using the  program NTSYSpc ® version 2.1.10 the    structure of this dendrogram was  compared with that of the total collection.  Diversity indices between the two  collections were also compared to check  the representativeness of the core  collection (Rohlf 2000; Zambrano et al.  2003).   Achievements   The data from the analysis, with a level of  100% of representation of the genetic  diversity, generated a subset of 486  accessions corresponding to 31% of the  total collection. Applying a level of 80%  of representation of the genetic diversity,  as suggested by the literature (Frankel et  al., 1984; Jaramillo and Baena, 2000;  Ozer  et al., 2004), a subset of 410   accessions was reached, which stands for  24% of the total collection (Table 2). Table 2 shows the number of accessions in  the core collection by region. The  percentage of accessions from each region  is variable; this indicates the degree of  redundancy (duplicated or genetically  very similar material) of accessions within  each region. This is the case of material from the  Northern Altiplano, from where a higher  percentage of accessions has been  considered both at 80% and 100% of  representation (46% and 57%,  respectively), compared with the other  regions. This is because in this region  there is less redundancy, therefore most  accessions are genetically different from  one another. A similar situation of low redundancy is  also observed in the material from the  inter-Andean valleys. It is noteworthy that    the number of accessions identified for the  core collection of this region is greater  than the number of accessions from the  core collection of the Southern Altiplano  and very close to that of the Central  Altiplano. This implies that although the  total number of accessions from the  Central and from the Southern Altiplano  is greater than that of the inter-Andean  valleys, it is likely that in the first two  regions of the Altiplano, several  genetically similar materials were  collected.   Comparison of the core collection with  the total collection, by visualization of the  dendrograms developed with the data  from each collection, shows that the core  collection conserves the structure of the  original collection. Figure 1 shows an example for material  from the Northern Altiplano, where the  genetic structure (arrangement of the  accessions into groups and subgroups) of  both collections (total and core) is the  same.   Table 3 compares PIC data from the total  collection, with PIC data from the core  collection, arranged by region. Diversity  indices of the core collection are slightly  higher than those of the original collection  because redundancies are reduced.  Therefore, the allele frequencies are  higher. The representativeness of the core  collection is consistent, although the  Bolivian Quinoa Collection has such a  diverse and complex structure. Genetic  diversity in the core collection is  maintained and redundancy has been  reduced to a minimum.   Conclusions   •  The methodology used for this study   enabled the identification of the most  representative quinoa accessions,  namely the group of accessions in  which the amplitude of the genetic  diversity found in the total collection    was maintained, based on  microsatellite markers,  agromorphological descriptors and  assessments of mildew and frost  tolerance. The quality and quantity of  information used to form the core  quinoa collection in this study, ensures  the inclusion of a wide range of  accessions that can be considered for  the selection of genetic material in  future assessments, either with  particular agromorphological  characteristics or with mildew and frost  tolerance characteristics.   • is to that   formation of a core collection is  dynamic. Future research could  include variables related to the  demands of the current context, such  as climate change, which requires  early and drought tolerant varieties; or  the market, which demands varieties  with nutritional and agroindustrial  qualities.   Participating agencies   The agromorphological and molecular  information used in this study was  generated within the framework of the  Project “Management, Conservation and   Sustainable Use of High Andean Grains”  as part of the National System of Genetic  Resources for Food and Agriculture  (SINARGEAA) and, the Quinoa Project  supported by the McKnight Foundation. The following people contributed  collecting information of molecular data,  during the implementation of the above  mentioned projects: Jorge Rojas Beltran,  Abel Turumaya, Pilar Gutiérrez, Rocío  Maldonado, Lucia Perez, Lilian Pinto and  Masiel Ovando. The agromorphological information has  been generated by the technical team of  PROINPA Foundation, Altiplano  Regional Office.    Cited references    Bonifacio, A., Aroni G., Villca, M. 2012.   Catálogo Etnobotánico de la Quinua  Real. Cochabamba, Bolivia. 123 p.  Brown, A., Schoen, D. 1994. Optimal sampling   strategies for core collections of plant  genetic resources. In: V. Loeschke, J.  Tomiuk y S. Jain (Eds.). Conservation  genetics. BirkhäuserVerlagBasel, Suiza.  pp. 357-369.  Cortez, F. 2011. Construcción de una   colección núcleo de  Solanum tuberosum   ssp.  andigena conservada en el banco   nacional de tubérculos y raíces andinas  en base a marcadores morfológicos y  moleculares. Master Degree Thesis.  Posgrado FCAP-UMSS. Cochabamba,  Bolivia.  Frankel, O., Brown, A. 1984. Plant genetic   resources today: A critical appraisal. In:  Holden, J., Williams, J. (Eds.). Crop    Genetic Resources: Conservation and  evaluation. Allen and Unwin. London, UK.  Jaramillo, S., Baena, M. 2000. Material de   apoyo a la capacitación en conservación  ex situ de recursos fitogenéticos.  International Plant Genetic Resource  Institute. Cali, Colombia. 210 p.  Kyu-Won, K., Chung, K., Cho, H.,   Chandrabalan, D., Jae-Gyun, G., Kim, T,  Eun G., Yong-Jin, P. 2007. PowerCore: A  program applying the advanced M  strategy with a heuristic search for  establishing core sets. Bioinformatics 23  (16):2155-2162.  Maughan, J., Bonifacio, A., Jellen, E., Stevens,   M., Coleman, C., Ricks, M., Mason, S.,  Jarvis, D., Ardunia, B., Fairbanks, D.  2004. A genetic linkage map of quinoa  (Chenopodium quinoa) based on AFLP,  RAPD, and SSR markers. Theor Appl  Genet 109:1188-1195.  Ozer, A., Suárez, R., Abadie, T. 2004.   Elaboración de una colección núcleo de  germoplasma de maíz de la raza blanco  dentado. Agrociencia Vol. VIII No. 1. pp.  1-10.  PASW. 2009. Predicción de resultados e   identificación de relaciones en los datos  categóricos. PASW® Categories 18 –  Specifications. 8 p.  Rojas, W., Pinto M. 2013. La diversidad   genética de quinua de Bolivia. In: Vargas,  M. (Ed.). Congreso Científico de la  Quinua (Proceedings). La Paz, Bolivia.  pp. 77 - 92.  Rojas, W., Pinto, M., Soto, J. 2010.   Distribución geográfica y variabilidad  genética de los granos andinos. In: Rojas  W., Pinto M., Soto J., Jagger M. y  Padulosi S. (Eds.). Granos Andinos:  Avances, logros y experiencias  desarrolladas en quinua, cañahua y  amaranto en Bolivia. Bioversity  International, Rome, Italy. pp. 11- 23.  Rojas, W. (Ed.). 2008. Manejo, conservación y   uso sostenible de los recursos genéticos  de granos altoandinos, en el marco del  SINARGEAA. Phase Report 2003-2008.  PROINPA Foundation. La Paz, Bolivia.  49 p.  Rojas, W., Cayoja, M., Espindola, G. 2001.   Catálogo de la colección de quinua  conservada en el Banco Nacional de  Granos Altoandinos. PROINPA  Foundation, MAGDER, PPD-PNUD,  SIBTA-UCEPSA, IPGRI, IFAD. La Paz,  Bolivia. 129 p.  Rohlf F. 2000. NTYSYS-pc, Numerical   Taxonomy and Multivariate Analysis  System, Version 2.10e. Appl.  Biostatistics, Inc., New York.  Schoen, D., Brown, A. 1995. Maximising   genetic diversity in core collections of wild  relatives of crop species. pp. 55-76. In:  Core collections of plant genetic    resources (T. Hodgkin, A. Brown, Th. van  Hintum y E. Morales, eds.). John Wiley  and Sons, United Kingdom.  van Hintum, Th., Brown, A., Spillane, C.,   Hodgkin, T. 2003 Colecciones núcleo de  recursos fitogenéticos. IPGRI Technical  Bulletin No. 3. International Plant Genetic  Resource Institute, Rome, Italy.  Zambrano, A., Demey, J., Fuenmayor, F.,   Segovia, V., Gutiérrez, Z. 2003.  Diversidad genética de una colección de  yuca a través de marcadores moleculares  RAPDS. Agronomía Trop. Venezuela 2  (53):155-174.   Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) has  outstanding intrinsic characteristics  including its genetic variability and its  functional properties. Its diversity forms  an extremely valuable gene pool and is  expressed in the variability of plant  colors, inflorescence and seed, plant  shape, nutritional value, productive  performance and length of growing  season. In the last twenty years,  significant scientific information  demonstrating the benefits of quinoa for  health, beyond basic nutrition, was  generated (Rojas et al. 2010a). The  knowledge and information contained in  the genetic diversity of quinoa, must be  used to further leverage the benefits of  quinoa for consumption, and particularly  for the industry. From a nutritional and dietary point of  view, quinoa is a natural source of plant  protein of high nutritional value, because  of its higher proportion of essential amino  acids; giving it a higher biological value  than wheat, rice and maize; and  comparable only with milk, meat and  eggs. As a source of plant protein, quinoa  helps the body develop and grow,  conserves heat and energy, it is easy to  digest and, combined with other foods,  produces a complete and balanced diet  that can replace animal foods (Rojas et al.,  2010a; Ayala et al., 2004). In Bolivia, the research on quinoa  breeding began in the early sixties,  focusing on achieving high performance  varieties, with white large grain, as was  the demand at that time. Since the  eighties, due to export markets  expectations, cultivation has expanded  significantly, and demands have not only  included white, but also red and black  quinoa. Likewise, changes in climate have    generated new demands like earliness, to  adjust planting to delayed rain cycles and  complete harvest within a shorter crop  cycle (Vargas et al., 2013). Traditionally companies and/or  associations have focused their efforts on  the export of raw materials, which is what  currently prevails in terms of foreign  sales. However, in the last decade  companies have begun the processing and  export of quinoa based products and  subproducts. The difficulty to achieve  optimal and competitive products for the  international market is that the products  are made with mixed quinoa (different  varieties in different proportions) and  consequently at agroindustrial level, it is  not possible to obtain the same quality for  the same preparation at different times. Considering the above, it is important to  study and take advantage of the genetic  diversity for the manufacture of processed  quinoa products, using in its true  magnitude the existing genetic potential to  obtain agroindustrial products of higher  quality. It is possible to identify, select  and develop varieties with high protein  content, with small diameters of starch  granule to process homogeneous popped  grain, with stable percentages of amylose  and amylopectin to make puddings,  gelatinized porridge, instant creams,  noodles, etc.   Nutritional value and  agroindustrial capacity of  quinoa’s agromorphologic -  genetic diversity   In Bolivia, the first initiatives to  implement a quinoa germplasm collection    date back to the early sixties, under the  initiative of Ing. Humberto Gandarillas  (Rojas  et al., 2010b). Originally, the   efforts focused on the registration of  agromorphological information. In 1985  and 2001 the first and second quinoa  catalogs were published (Espindola and  Saravia, 1985, Rojas et al., 2001). The 2001 catalog describes the genetic  variability of 2,701 quinoa accessions  through 59 qualitative and quantitative  agromorphologic variables. This  document was prepared during the period  of time when PROINPA Foundation was  in charge of the administration of the  quinoa germplasm collection, as  custodian appointed by mandate from the  Bolivian government (Rojas et al.,  2010b). When quinoas reach physiological  maturity they express a wide variety of  plant and grain colors, including white,  cream, yellow, orange, pink, red, purple,    light brown, brown and black. In the  Bolivian collection 66 grain colors and  four shapes, have been characterized, by  the appearance of the endosperm. This  gives quinoa, features that can be properly  exploited for the manufacture of  processed products. In order to increase the use of diversity in  the manufacture of quinoa processed  products, interaction with exporters of this  species was promoted. Until 2010,  nutritional information of 555 accessions  of the Bolivian Quinoa Collection was  registered, along with information on  agroindustrial characteristics of 260  accessions (Rojas and Pinto, 2013). Table 1 presents a summary of the  statistical parameters registered for each  feature of the nutritional value and  agroindustrial characteristics of quinoa,  expressed on a dry basis (Rojas et al.,  2007; Rojas et al., 2010a).   Quinoa accessions show a wide variability  for most of the studied traits, which is an  indicator of the genetic potential of this  germplasm. Figure 1 shows the variation in the  frequency distribution of protein content  for 555 accessions of the Bolivian quinoa  collection. In the majority of accessions  the protein content varies from 12.0% to  16.9%, while there are a small number of  accessions (42) with contents that range  from 17% to 18.9%. The latter group is an  important source of genes to promote  development of products with high  protein content (Rojas et al., 2010a). This  information was corroborated by other  similar studies by Reynaga et al., 2013. The fat content ranges from 2.05% to  10.88%, with an average of 6.39% (Table  1).  βo (1991) and Moron (1999) cited by  Jacobsen and Sherwood (2002), indicate  that the fat content of quinoa has a high  value, due to its high percentage of  non-saturated fatty acids. Accessions with    these values can be used for the  production of fine vegetable oils for  culinary and cosmetic use. Genetic variation on size of starch granule  ranged from 1 μ to 28 μ (Table 1, Figure  2). It is very important that the starch  granule be small, to facilitate the process  of texturing and expansion, because  spaces between granules allow more air to  enter for exchange and formation of air  bubbles (Rojas et al., 2007). This feature  is important for the agroindustry because  it enables the use of various cereal and  legume mixes, to take advantage of the  functional characteristics of quinoa. The content of inverted sugars varies from  10% to 35% (Table 1). This variable  expresses the amount of sugar that begins  fermentation by splitting or inversion.  It  is the parameter used to determine the  quality of carbohydrates. It is also an  important parameter by which quinoa can  be classified as a food fit for diabetics.   The optimum content of inverted sugar is  ≥ 25%. Quinoa accessions analyzed from  the germplasm meet this condition and  have potential to be used in mixtures with  flour to process breads, cereals, etc. The variable of “water filling” shows a  range of variation from 16% to 66%  (Table 1). This variable measures the  water absorption capacity of starch,  important parameter for processing of  pasta, bread and pastries. The ideal value  for this parameter, in industrial  applications, ≥ Considering  variability within quinoa in relation to this  characteristic, there is an important gene  pool that can be used for the development  of such processed products. Recently PROINPA Foundation, through  its quinoa breeding program is prioritizing  the inclusion of criteria related to  nutritional value and agroindustrial  characteristics for the development of  quinoa varieties, while seeking at the  same time that they comply with market  parameters, productivity and adaptation to  climate change.   Table 2 shows results of quinoa materials  that are in the process of generation of  new varieties. According to Table 2, the Kurmi variety  has 16.11% protein. Through selection  techniques applied to deviants of this  variety, the line K-Chullpi has been  obtained. The K-Chullpi line has a protein  content of 18.20% which is higher than  that of Kurmi.  It also has a starch granule  diameter 1.5 being than  Kurmi variety that has a diameter of 2.1 μ.  However, both varieties have excellent  aptitude for the development of expanded  products and popped grain. Similarly, the iron content increased  significantly in the K-Chullpi line,  reaching 4.8 mg/100 g of dry matter, in  comparison to the Kurmi variety that has  1.2 mg/100 g of dry matter. Varieties with  these characteristics may be an alternative  for programs conducted by the Bolivian  Government, that focus on maternal and  child malnutrition and, breastfeeding.   In addition, although the 11Cf line comes  from the variety Aynoka, there is an  increase in protein content from 13.65%  to 16.85%, and an increase in fiber from  4.25% to 6.10%. The diameter of the  starch granule remains 2.8 which  means that, both have potential  characteristics for the elaboration of  expanded products and popped grain.  However, the iron content went down  from 4.5 mg/100 to 2.7 mg/100 g of dry  matter.  On the other hand, in the particular case of  the “Real Blanca” variety, it has  significant protein content (14.49%), but  its value of starch granule diameter is of  5.2 thus not for  production of expanded products and  popped grain.   Challenges and opportunities   The strategic lines of research for quinoa  cultivation need to consider the genetic  diversity available in the country, that is  also the most important worldwide.  This  genetic diversity, if properly used, offers  enormous potential for diverse fields of  application. Otherwise, it will continue to  be underutilized, as it has been so far, with  the export of raw material from mixed  varieties. There are 66 colors of quinoa grain,  whose antioxidant properties, that can  help develop nutraceutical products, have  not yet been studied. Despite the wide  diversity of shapes, sizes and colors of  quinoa grain, the consumer at the time of  purchasing the product in different  markets and fairs, differentiates only three  colors of quinoa: white, brown and black.   It is necessary to strengthen the  development of agroindustrial products  using the genetic diversity of quinoa  properly, thus generating high quality and  standardized products, which can offer the  same quality over time. The genetic base  available for quinoa also allows the  country to take the lead in the  development and export of processed  products with standard quality. It is important to take into account that the  varieties with potential for agroindustrial  processing should also reach the  necessary standards for production and  adaptation to climate change. Varieties  should have early cultivation cycles to  adapt to climate variability and to the  specific characteristics of every  productive region of the country. Initiatives that promote the use of native  and improved seed varieties are required,  because quality standards need to be met  from sowing to harvest. The production  process needs to be improved and  volumes demanded by the agroindustry  need to be met. But overall, the process  needs to contribute to the sustainability of  the quinoa business in production areas. In this challenge, each actor involved in  the production and marketing of quinoa,  plays an important role. However, this  role will be best matched if worked  through a country strategy that guides the  actions of all actors involved in the quinoa  sector. Acknowledgement:  The work on the   assessment of the nutritional and  agroindustrial value was financially  supported by the Project "Management,  Conservation and Sustainable Use of  Genetic Resources of High Andean    Grain", the McKnight Foundation, the  UNEP/GEF Project on "In situ  Conservation of Crop Wild relatives  through Strengthening Information  Management and its Application in the  Field - Bolivian Component" and the  NUS/IFAD Project on "Neglected and  Underutilized Species".   Cited references    Ayala, G., Ortega, L., Morón, C. 2004. Valor   nutritivo y usos de la quinua. In: A. Mujica,  S. Jacobsen, J. Izquierdo y J. Marathee  (Eds.). Quinua: Ancestral cultivo andino,  alimento del presente y futuro.  FAO-UNA-CIP. Santiago, Chile. pp.  215-253.  CEDLA. 2013. Cultivo de la quinua y   producción capitalista en las  comunidades del Altiplano Sur de Bolivia.  Boletín de Seguimiento a Políticas  Públicas Año X – N° 22. Centro de  Estudios para el Desarrollo Laboral y  Agrario (CEDLA). Julio 2013. La Paz,  Bolivia.  Espíndola, G., Saravia, R. 1985. Catálogo de   quinua del banco de germoplasma en la  Estación Experimental de Patacamaya.  La Paz, Bolivia, MACA-IBTA pp. 2-11.  Jacobsen, S., Sherwood, S. 2002. Cultivo de   Granos Andinos en Ecuador. Informe  sobre los rubros quinua, chocho y  amaranto. Organización de las Naciones  Unidas para la Agricultura y la  Alimentación (FAO), Centro Internacional  de la Papa (CIP) y Catholic Relief  Services (CRS). Quito, Ecuador. 89 p  Reynaga, A., Quispe, M., Calderón, I.   Huarachi, A., Soto, J. 2013.  Caracterización físico - química y  nutricional de los 13 ecotipos de quinua  real (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) del  altiplano sur de Bolivia con fines  agroindustriales y exportación. pp.  517-524. In: Congreso Científico de la  Quinua (Proceedings). June 14 and 15,  2013. Vargas, M. (Ed.). MDRyT, VDRA,  INIAF, IICA. La Paz, Bolivia. 682 p.   Rojas, W., Cayoja, M., Espíndola, G. 2001.   Catálogo de colección de quinua  conservada en el Banco Nacional de  Granos Altoandinos. Fundación  PROINPA, MAGDER, PPD–PNUD,  SIBTA, UCEPSA, IPGRI, IFAD. La Paz,  Bolivia. 129 p.  Rojas, W., Pinto, M., Alcocer, E. 2007.   Diversidad genética del valor nutritivo y  agroindustrial del germoplasma de  quinua. Revista de Agricultura. Year 59,  41:33-37. Cochabamba, Bolivia.  Rojas, W., Pinto, M., Soto, J., Alcocer, E.   2010a. Valor nutricional, agroindustrial y  funcional de los granos andinos. In: W.  Rojas, M. Pinto, J. Soto, M. Jagger y S.  Padulosi (Eds.). Granos Andinos:  Avances, logros y experiencias  desarrolladas en quinua, cañahua y  amaranto en Bolivia. Bioversity  International, Roma, Italia. pp. 151-164.   Rojas, W., Pinto, M., Bonifacio, A.,   Gandarillas, A. 2010b. Banco de  germoplasma de granos andinos. In: W.  Rojas, M. Pinto, J. Soto, M. Jagger y S.  Padulosi (Eds.). Granos Andinos:  Avances, logros y experiencias  desarrolladas en quinua, cañahua y  amaranto en Bolivia. Bioversity  International, Roma, Italia. pp. 24-38.  Rojas, W., Pinto, M. 2013. La diversidad   genética de quinua de Bolivia. In: Vargas,  M. (Editor). Congreso Científico de la  Quinua (Proceedings). June 14 and 15,  2013. La Paz, Bolivia. pp. 77-92.  Vargas, A., Bonifacio, A., Rojas, W. 2013.   Mejoramiento para calidad industrial de la  quinua. In: Vargas, M. (Editor). Congreso  Científico de la Quinua (Proceedings).  June 14 and 15, 2013. La Paz, Bolivia. pp  497-507.     ISSN 1998 - 9652   Area: Technology Development 94     Table 1. Characteristics of nutritional - agroindustrial value of quinoa germplasm  accessions from Bolivia, and simple statistical parameters (n = 555 accessions)       Component Minimum Maximum Average SD  Protein (%)    10.21  18.39  14.33  1.69   Fat (%)  2.05 10.88 6.46 1.05  Fiber (%)  3.46  9.68  7.01  1.19   Ash (%)  2.12 5.21 3.63 0.50  Carbohydrates (%)  52.31  72.98  58.96  3.40   Energy (Kcal/100 g)  312.92 401.27 353.36 13.11  Starch granule  (µ)*   1  28  4.47  3.25   Inverted sugar  (%)*  10 35 16.89 3.69  Water filling  (%)*           16  66  28.92  7.34    Molecular characterization yielded  diversity indices as the Polymorphic  Information Content (PIC) and  heterozygosity (H), for each set of  samples coming from the different  geographic regions.  Quinoas from the  Central Altiplano (CA) and Southern  Altiplano (SA) were the most abundant,  and also the most diverse (tables 2 and 3). For this study, the data of the alleles (in  base pairs) of every microsatellite were  transformed into binary data and arranged  in a matrix representing the presence of an  allele as 1 and the absence as 0. The  morphological information was obtained  from the evaluation of the germplasm  collection. 48 variables were selected that  included data on: stem coloring, plant  architecture, stem, leaf, inflorescence  and/or panicle, grain characteristics,  saponin, yield, phenology and tolerance to  abiotic (frost) and biotic (mildew) factors. Quinoas from every region have an  agromorphological pattern that  distinguishes them from each other. In the  Central Altiplano quinoas grow from 0.5    to 1.2 m, with short branches, the  glomerulate panicle prevails and the  phenological cycle lasts 168.40 ± 14.05  days. Quinoas in the Southern Altiplano have  larger grain (2.20 to 2.67 mm in  diameter), high saponin content; with a  prevailing amaraht-like panicle. In the Northern Altiplano, quinoas have a  height of 0.8 to 1.5 m, the glomerulate  panicle prevailes, the grain is small to  medium in size and white in color, the  growing season is fairly late to late (175  days). In inter-Andean valleys quinoas can reach  up to 2.5 m or more in height, with  branches reaching the second third of the  plant and very toothed leaves. The  phenological cycle is late (188-205 days),  amaranth-like panicles are dominant,  medium grain size (2 ± 0.13 mm) and high  saponin content (Rojas and Pinto 2013,  Bonifacio et al. 2012; Rojas 2003, Rojas   et al. 2001).   For the present study the above  morphological data were arranged in a  matrix where the names of the accessions  and morphological descriptors are  indicated with several levels of  descriptors (3-11). Based on available information about  molecular and morphological  characterization, out of all the accessions  from the quinoa collection, 1672 Bolivian  accessions from five regions were  selected: Northern Altiplano, Central  Altiplano, Southern Altiplano and  inter-Andean valleys and natural habitats  for the wild quinoas (ajaras) (Table 2).   Statistical Analysis: Forming the core  collection of quinoa   To form the core collection, a matrix with  molecular and morphological data was  developed. This information was  introduced in the PowerCore® program,  which enables sampling through the  Strategy M Maximization (van Hintum et  al. 2003). This strategy involves the use of  data indicating the magnitude of the  diversity of markers used for the  characterization of germplasm. It ensures  the inclusion of high allelic richness for  loci/markers used and directly takes into  account, in those loci, the magnitude of  the variation and deviation to the model or  pattern. Importantly, the M strategy not  only defines the number of accessions that  should come from different groups, but  also identifies the accessions that need to  be included (Schoen and Brown, 1994;  Schoen and Brown, 1995; Cortez 2011).  Thus, with the accessions selected by the  program, a dendrogram of the core  collection was generated. Using the  program NTSYSpc ® version 2.1.10 the    structure of this dendrogram was  compared with that of the total collection.  Diversity indices between the two  collections were also compared to check  the representativeness of the core  collection (Rohlf 2000; Zambrano et al.  2003).   Achievements   The data from the analysis, with a level of  100% of representation of the genetic  diversity, generated a subset of 486  accessions corresponding to 31% of the  total collection. Applying a level of 80%  of representation of the genetic diversity,  as suggested by the literature (Frankel et  al., 1984; Jaramillo and Baena, 2000;  Ozer  et al., 2004), a subset of 410   accessions was reached, which stands for  24% of the total collection (Table 2). Table 2 shows the number of accessions in  the core collection by region. The  percentage of accessions from each region  is variable; this indicates the degree of  redundancy (duplicated or genetically  very similar material) of accessions within  each region. This is the case of material from the  Northern Altiplano, from where a higher  percentage of accessions has been  considered both at 80% and 100% of  representation (46% and 57%,  respectively), compared with the other  regions. This is because in this region  there is less redundancy, therefore most  accessions are genetically different from  one another. A similar situation of low redundancy is  also observed in the material from the  inter-Andean valleys. It is noteworthy that    the number of accessions identified for the  core collection of this region is greater  than the number of accessions from the  core collection of the Southern Altiplano  and very close to that of the Central  Altiplano. This implies that although the  total number of accessions from the  Central and from the Southern Altiplano  is greater than that of the inter-Andean  valleys, it is likely that in the first two  regions of the Altiplano, several  genetically similar materials were  collected.   Comparison of the core collection with  the total collection, by visualization of the  dendrograms developed with the data  from each collection, shows that the core  collection conserves the structure of the  original collection. Figure 1 shows an example for material  from the Northern Altiplano, where the  genetic structure (arrangement of the  accessions into groups and subgroups) of  both collections (total and core) is the  same.   Table 3 compares PIC data from the total  collection, with PIC data from the core  collection, arranged by region. Diversity  indices of the core collection are slightly  higher than those of the original collection  because redundancies are reduced.  Therefore, the allele frequencies are  higher. The representativeness of the core  collection is consistent, although the  Bolivian Quinoa Collection has such a  diverse and complex structure. Genetic  diversity in the core collection is  maintained and redundancy has been  reduced to a minimum.   Conclusions   •  The methodology used for this study   enabled the identification of the most  representative quinoa accessions,  namely the group of accessions in  which the amplitude of the genetic  diversity found in the total collection    was maintained, based on  microsatellite markers,  agromorphological descriptors and  assessments of mildew and frost  tolerance. The quality and quantity of  information used to form the core  quinoa collection in this study, ensures  the inclusion of a wide range of  accessions that can be considered for  the selection of genetic material in  future assessments, either with  particular agromorphological  characteristics or with mildew and frost  tolerance characteristics.   • is to that   formation of a core collection is  dynamic. Future research could  include variables related to the  demands of the current context, such  as climate change, which requires  early and drought tolerant varieties; or  the market, which demands varieties  with nutritional and agroindustrial  qualities.   Participating agencies   The agromorphological and molecular  information used in this study was  generated within the framework of the  Project “Management, Conservation and   Sustainable Use of High Andean Grains”  as part of the National System of Genetic  Resources for Food and Agriculture  (SINARGEAA) and, the Quinoa Project  supported by the McKnight Foundation. The following people contributed  collecting information of molecular data,  during the implementation of the above  mentioned projects: Jorge Rojas Beltran,  Abel Turumaya, Pilar Gutiérrez, Rocío  Maldonado, Lucia Perez, Lilian Pinto and  Masiel Ovando. The agromorphological information has  been generated by the technical team of  PROINPA Foundation, Altiplano  Regional Office.    Cited references    Bonifacio, A., Aroni G., Villca, M. 2012.   Catálogo Etnobotánico de la Quinua  Real. Cochabamba, Bolivia. 123 p.  Brown, A., Schoen, D. 1994. Optimal sampling   strategies for core collections of plant  genetic resources. In: V. Loeschke, J.  Tomiuk y S. Jain (Eds.). Conservation  genetics. BirkhäuserVerlagBasel, Suiza.  pp. 357-369.  Cortez, F. 2011. Construcción de una   colección núcleo de  Solanum tuberosum   ssp.  andigena conservada en el banco   nacional de tubérculos y raíces andinas  en base a marcadores morfológicos y  moleculares. Master Degree Thesis.  Posgrado FCAP-UMSS. Cochabamba,  Bolivia.  Frankel, O., Brown, A. 1984. Plant genetic   resources today: A critical appraisal. In:  Holden, J., Williams, J. (Eds.). Crop    Genetic Resources: Conservation and  evaluation. Allen and Unwin. London, UK.  Jaramillo, S., Baena, M. 2000. Material de   apoyo a la capacitación en conservación  ex situ de recursos fitogenéticos.  International Plant Genetic Resource  Institute. Cali, Colombia. 210 p.  Kyu-Won, K., Chung, K., Cho, H.,   Chandrabalan, D., Jae-Gyun, G., Kim, T,  Eun G., Yong-Jin, P. 2007. PowerCore: A  program applying the advanced M  strategy with a heuristic search for  establishing core sets. Bioinformatics 23  (16):2155-2162.  Maughan, J., Bonifacio, A., Jellen, E., Stevens,   M., Coleman, C., Ricks, M., Mason, S.,  Jarvis, D., Ardunia, B., Fairbanks, D.  2004. A genetic linkage map of quinoa  (Chenopodium quinoa) based on AFLP,  RAPD, and SSR markers. Theor Appl  Genet 109:1188-1195.  Ozer, A., Suárez, R., Abadie, T. 2004.   Elaboración de una colección núcleo de  germoplasma de maíz de la raza blanco  dentado. Agrociencia Vol. VIII No. 1. pp.  1-10.  PASW. 2009. Predicción de resultados e   identificación de relaciones en los datos  categóricos. PASW® Categories 18 –  Specifications. 8 p.  Rojas, W., Pinto M. 2013. La diversidad   genética de quinua de Bolivia. In: Vargas,  M. (Ed.). Congreso Científico de la  Quinua (Proceedings). La Paz, Bolivia.  pp. 77 - 92.  Rojas, W., Pinto, M., Soto, J. 2010.   Distribución geográfica y variabilidad  genética de los granos andinos. In: Rojas  W., Pinto M., Soto J., Jagger M. y  Padulosi S. (Eds.). Granos Andinos:  Avances, logros y experiencias  desarrolladas en quinua, cañahua y  amaranto en Bolivia. Bioversity  International, Rome, Italy. pp. 11- 23.  Rojas, W. (Ed.). 2008. Manejo, conservación y   uso sostenible de los recursos genéticos  de granos altoandinos, en el marco del  SINARGEAA. Phase Report 2003-2008.  PROINPA Foundation. La Paz, Bolivia.  49 p.  Rojas, W., Cayoja, M., Espindola, G. 2001.   Catálogo de la colección de quinua  conservada en el Banco Nacional de  Granos Altoandinos. PROINPA  Foundation, MAGDER, PPD-PNUD,  SIBTA-UCEPSA, IPGRI, IFAD. La Paz,  Bolivia. 129 p.  Rohlf F. 2000. NTYSYS-pc, Numerical   Taxonomy and Multivariate Analysis  System, Version 2.10e. Appl.  Biostatistics, Inc., New York.  Schoen, D., Brown, A. 1995. Maximising   genetic diversity in core collections of wild  relatives of crop species. pp. 55-76. In:  Core collections of plant genetic    resources (T. Hodgkin, A. Brown, Th. van  Hintum y E. Morales, eds.). John Wiley  and Sons, United Kingdom.  van Hintum, Th., Brown, A., Spillane, C.,   Hodgkin, T. 2003 Colecciones núcleo de  recursos fitogenéticos. IPGRI Technical  Bulletin No. 3. International Plant Genetic  Resource Institute, Rome, Italy.  Zambrano, A., Demey, J., Fuenmayor, F.,   Segovia, V., Gutiérrez, Z. 2003.  Diversidad genética de una colección de  yuca a través de marcadores moleculares  RAPDS. Agronomía Trop. Venezuela 2  (53):155-174.   Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) has  outstanding intrinsic characteristics  including its genetic variability and its  functional properties. Its diversity forms  an extremely valuable gene pool and is  expressed in the variability of plant  colors, inflorescence and seed, plant  shape, nutritional value, productive  performance and length of growing  season. In the last twenty years,  significant scientific information  demonstrating the benefits of quinoa for  health, beyond basic nutrition, was  generated (Rojas et al. 2010a). The  knowledge and information contained in  the genetic diversity of quinoa, must be  used to further leverage the benefits of  quinoa for consumption, and particularly  for the industry. From a nutritional and dietary point of  view, quinoa is a natural source of plant  protein of high nutritional value, because  of its higher proportion of essential amino  acids; giving it a higher biological value  than wheat, rice and maize; and  comparable only with milk, meat and  eggs. As a source of plant protein, quinoa  helps the body develop and grow,  conserves heat and energy, it is easy to  digest and, combined with other foods,  produces a complete and balanced diet  that can replace animal foods (Rojas et al.,  2010a; Ayala et al., 2004). In Bolivia, the research on quinoa  breeding began in the early sixties,  focusing on achieving high performance  varieties, with white large grain, as was  the demand at that time. Since the  eighties, due to export markets  expectations, cultivation has expanded  significantly, and demands have not only  included white, but also red and black  quinoa. Likewise, changes in climate have    generated new demands like earliness, to  adjust planting to delayed rain cycles and  complete harvest within a shorter crop  cycle (Vargas et al., 2013). Traditionally companies and/or   associations have focused their efforts on  the export of raw materials, which is what  currently prevails in terms of foreign  sales. However, in the last decade  companies have begun the processing and  export of quinoa based products and  subproducts. The difficulty to achieve  optimal and competitive products for the  international market is that the products  are made with mixed quinoa (different  varieties in different proportions) and  consequently at agroindustrial level, it is  not possible to obtain the same quality for  the same preparation at different times. Considering the above, it is important to  study and take advantage of the genetic  diversity for the manufacture of processed  quinoa products, using in its true  magnitude the existing genetic potential to  obtain agroindustrial products of higher  quality. It is possible to identify, select  and develop varieties with high protein  content, with small diameters of starch  granule to process homogeneous popped  grain, with stable percentages of amylose  and amylopectin to make puddings,  gelatinized porridge, instant creams,  noodles, etc.   Nutritional value and  agroindustrial capacity of  quinoa’s agromorphologic -  genetic diversity   In Bolivia, the first initiatives to  implement a quinoa germplasm collection    date back to the early sixties, under the  initiative of Ing. Humberto Gandarillas  (Rojas  et al., 2010b). Originally, the   efforts focused on the registration of  agromorphological information. In 1985  and 2001 the first and second quinoa  catalogs were published (Espindola and  Saravia, 1985, Rojas et al., 2001). The 2001 catalog describes the genetic  variability of 2,701 quinoa accessions  through 59 qualitative and quantitative  agromorphologic variables. This  document was prepared during the period  of time when PROINPA Foundation was  in charge of the administration of the  quinoa germplasm collection, as  custodian appointed by mandate from the  Bolivian government (Rojas et al.,  2010b). When quinoas reach physiological  maturity they express a wide variety of  plant and grain colors, including white,  cream, yellow, orange, pink, red, purple,    light brown, brown and black. In the  Bolivian collection 66 grain colors and  four shapes, have been characterized, by  the appearance of the endosperm. This  gives quinoa, features that can be properly  exploited for the manufacture of  processed products. In order to increase the use of diversity in  the manufacture of quinoa processed  products, interaction with exporters of this  species was promoted. Until 2010,  nutritional information of 555 accessions  of the Bolivian Quinoa Collection was  registered, along with information on  agroindustrial characteristics of 260  accessions (Rojas and Pinto, 2013). Table 1 presents a summary of the  statistical parameters registered for each  feature of the nutritional value and  agroindustrial characteristics of quinoa,  expressed on a dry basis (Rojas et al.,  2007; Rojas et al., 2010a).   Analysis delivered by LAYSAA, Cochabamba, Bolivia; SD: Standard Deviation; *: n = 266 (Source: Rojas, Pinto et al., 2010)   Quinoa accessions show a wide variability  for most of the studied traits, which is an  indicator of the genetic potential of this  germplasm. Figure 1 shows the variation in the  frequency distribution of protein content  for 555 accessions of the Bolivian quinoa  collection. In the majority of accessions  the protein content varies from 12.0% to  16.9%, while there are a small number of  accessions (42) with contents that range  from 17% to 18.9%. The latter group is an  important source of genes to promote  development of products with high  protein content (Rojas et al., 2010a). This  information was corroborated by other  similar studies by Reynaga et al., 2013. The fat content ranges from 2.05% to  10.88%, with an average of 6.39% (Table  1).  βo (1991) and Moron (1999) cited by  Jacobsen and Sherwood (2002), indicate  that the fat content of quinoa has a high  value, due to its high percentage of  non-saturated fatty acids. Accessions with    these values can be used for the  production of fine vegetable oils for  culinary and cosmetic use. Genetic variation on size of starch granule  ranged from 1 μ to 28 μ (Table 1, Figure  2). It is very important that the starch  granule be small, to facilitate the process  of texturing and expansion, because  spaces between granules allow more air to  enter for exchange and formation of air  bubbles (Rojas et al., 2007). This feature  is important for the agroindustry because  it enables the use of various cereal and  legume mixes, to take advantage of the  functional characteristics of quinoa. The content of inverted sugars varies from  10% to 35% (Table 1). This variable  expresses the amount of sugar that begins  fermentation by splitting or inversion.  It  is the parameter used to determine the  quality of carbohydrates. It is also an  important parameter by which quinoa can  be classified as a food fit for diabetics.   The optimum content of inverted sugar is  ≥ 25%. Quinoa accessions analyzed from  the germplasm meet this condition and  have potential to be used in mixtures with  flour to process breads, cereals, etc. The variable of “water filling” shows a  range of variation from 16% to 66%  (Table 1). This variable measures the  water absorption capacity of starch,  important parameter for processing of  pasta, bread and pastries. The ideal value  for this parameter, in industrial  applications, ≥ Considering  variability within quinoa in relation to this  characteristic, there is an important gene  pool that can be used for the development  of such processed products. Recently PROINPA Foundation, through  its quinoa breeding program is prioritizing  the inclusion of criteria related to  nutritional value and agroindustrial  characteristics for the development of  quinoa varieties, while seeking at the  same time that they comply with market  parameters, productivity and adaptation to  climate change.   Table 2 shows results of quinoa materials  that are in the process of generation of  new varieties. According to Table 2, the Kurmi variety  has 16.11% protein. Through selection  techniques applied to deviants of this  variety, the line K-Chullpi has been  obtained. The K-Chullpi line has a protein  content of 18.20% which is higher than  that of Kurmi.  It also has a starch granule  diameter 1.5 being than  Kurmi variety that has a diameter of 2.1 μ.  However, both varieties have excellent  aptitude for the development of expanded  products and popped grain. Similarly, the iron content increased  significantly in the K-Chullpi line,  reaching 4.8 mg/100 g of dry matter, in  comparison to the Kurmi variety that has  1.2 mg/100 g of dry matter. Varieties with  these characteristics may be an alternative  for programs conducted by the Bolivian  Government, that focus on maternal and  child malnutrition and, breastfeeding.   In addition, although the 11Cf line comes  from the variety Aynoka, there is an  increase in protein content from 13.65%  to 16.85%, and an increase in fiber from  4.25% to 6.10%. The diameter of the  starch granule remains 2.8 which  means that, both have potential  characteristics for the elaboration of  expanded products and popped grain.  However, the iron content went down  from 4.5 mg/100 to 2.7 mg/100 g of dry  matter.  On the other hand, in the particular case of  the “Real Blanca” variety, it has  significant protein content (14.49%), but  its value of starch granule diameter is of  5.2 thus not for  production of expanded products and  popped grain.   Challenges and opportunities   The strategic lines of research for quinoa  cultivation need to consider the genetic  diversity available in the country, that is  also the most important worldwide.  This  genetic diversity, if properly used, offers  enormous potential for diverse fields of  application. Otherwise, it will continue to  be underutilized, as it has been so far, with  the export of raw material from mixed  varieties. There are 66 colors of quinoa grain,  whose antioxidant properties, that can  help develop nutraceutical products, have  not yet been studied. Despite the wide  diversity of shapes, sizes and colors of  quinoa grain, the consumer at the time of  purchasing the product in different  markets and fairs, differentiates only three  colors of quinoa: white, brown and black.   It is necessary to strengthen the  development of agroindustrial products  using the genetic diversity of quinoa  properly, thus generating high quality and  standardized products, which can offer the  same quality over time. The genetic base  available for quinoa also allows the  country to take the lead in the  development and export of processed  products with standard quality. It is important to take into account that the  varieties with potential for agroindustrial  processing should also reach the  necessary standards for production and  adaptation to climate change. Varieties  should have early cultivation cycles to  adapt to climate variability and to the  specific characteristics of every  productive region of the country. Initiatives that promote the use of native  and improved seed varieties are required,  because quality standards need to be met  from sowing to harvest. The production  process needs to be improved and  volumes demanded by the agroindustry  need to be met. But overall, the process  needs to contribute to the sustainability of  the quinoa business in production areas. In this challenge, each actor involved in  the production and marketing of quinoa,  plays an important role. However, this  role will be best matched if worked  through a country strategy that guides the  actions of all actors involved in the quinoa  sector. Acknowledgement:  The work on the   assessment of the nutritional and  agroindustrial value was financially  supported by the Project "Management,  Conservation and Sustainable Use of  Genetic Resources of High Andean    Grain", the McKnight Foundation, the  UNEP/GEF Project on "In situ  Conservation of Crop Wild relatives  through Strengthening Information  Management and its Application in the  Field - Bolivian Component" and the  NUS/IFAD Project on "Neglected and  Underutilized Species".   Cited references    Ayala, G., Ortega, L., Morón, C. 2004. Valor   nutritivo y usos de la quinua. In: A. Mujica,  S. Jacobsen, J. Izquierdo y J. Marathee  (Eds.). Quinua: Ancestral cultivo andino,  alimento del presente y futuro.  FAO-UNA-CIP. Santiago, Chile. pp.  215-253.  CEDLA. 2013. Cultivo de la quinua y   producción capitalista en las  comunidades del Altiplano Sur de Bolivia.  Boletín de Seguimiento a Políticas  Públicas Año X – N° 22. Centro de  Estudios para el Desarrollo Laboral y  Agrario (CEDLA). Julio 2013. La Paz,  Bolivia.  Espíndola, G., Saravia, R. 1985. Catálogo de   quinua del banco de germoplasma en la  Estación Experimental de Patacamaya.  La Paz, Bolivia, MACA-IBTA pp. 2-11.  Jacobsen, S., Sherwood, S. 2002. Cultivo de   Granos Andinos en Ecuador. Informe  sobre los rubros quinua, chocho y  amaranto. Organización de las Naciones  Unidas para la Agricultura y la  Alimentación (FAO), Centro Internacional  de la Papa (CIP) y Catholic Relief  Services (CRS). Quito, Ecuador. 89 p  Reynaga, A., Quispe, M., Calderón, I.   Huarachi, A., Soto, J. 2013.  Caracterización físico - química y  nutricional de los 13 ecotipos de quinua  real (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) del  altiplano sur de Bolivia con fines  agroindustriales y exportación. pp.  517-524. In: Congreso Científico de la  Quinua (Proceedings). June 14 and 15,  2013. Vargas, M. (Ed.). MDRyT, VDRA,  INIAF, IICA. La Paz, Bolivia. 682 p.   Rojas, W., Cayoja, M., Espíndola, G. 2001.   Catálogo de colección de quinua  conservada en el Banco Nacional de  Granos Altoandinos. Fundación  PROINPA, MAGDER, PPD–PNUD,  SIBTA, UCEPSA, IPGRI, IFAD. La Paz,  Bolivia. 129 p.  Rojas, W., Pinto, M., Alcocer, E. 2007.   Diversidad genética del valor nutritivo y  agroindustrial del germoplasma de  quinua. Revista de Agricultura. Year 59,  41:33-37. Cochabamba, Bolivia.  Rojas, W., Pinto, M., Soto, J., Alcocer, E.   2010a. Valor nutricional, agroindustrial y  funcional de los granos andinos. In: W.  Rojas, M. Pinto, J. Soto, M. Jagger y S.  Padulosi (Eds.). Granos Andinos:  Avances, logros y experiencias  desarrolladas en quinua, cañahua y  amaranto en Bolivia. Bioversity  International, Roma, Italia. pp. 151-164.   Rojas, W., Pinto, M., Bonifacio, A.,   Gandarillas, A. 2010b. Banco de  germoplasma de granos andinos. In: W.  Rojas, M. Pinto, J. Soto, M. Jagger y S.  Padulosi (Eds.). Granos Andinos:  Avances, logros y experiencias  desarrolladas en quinua, cañahua y  amaranto en Bolivia. Bioversity  International, Roma, Italia. pp. 24-38.  Rojas, W., Pinto, M. 2013. La diversidad   genética de quinua de Bolivia. In: Vargas,  M. (Editor). Congreso Científico de la  Quinua (Proceedings). June 14 and 15,  2013. La Paz, Bolivia. pp. 77-92.  Vargas, A., Bonifacio, A., Rojas, W. 2013.   Mejoramiento para calidad industrial de la  quinua. In: Vargas, M. (Editor). Congreso  Científico de la Quinua (Proceedings).  June 14 and 15, 2013. La Paz, Bolivia. pp  497-507.     Revista de Agricultura, Nro. 54 - Julio de 2014   Area: Technology Development 95   12  32   72   115 126  89  67  33  9  0   50   100  150   (10 a  10.9)  (11 a  11.9)  (12 a  12.9)  (13 a  13.9)  (14 a  14.9)  (15 a  15.9)  (16 a  16.9)  (17 a  17.9)  (18 a  18.9)  Protein content ranges in %   Number of accessions   Figure 1. Protein content variation of 555 quinoa accessions     Molecular characterization yielded  diversity indices as the Polymorphic  Information Content (PIC) and  heterozygosity (H), for each set of  samples coming from the different  geographic regions.  Quinoas from the  Central Altiplano (CA) and Southern  Altiplano (SA) were the most abundant,  and also the most diverse (tables 2 and 3). For this study, the data of the alleles (in  base pairs) of every microsatellite were  transformed into binary data and arranged  in a matrix representing the presence of an  allele as 1 and the absence as 0. The  morphological information was obtained  from the evaluation of the germplasm  collection. 48 variables were selected that  included data on: stem coloring, plant  architecture, stem, leaf, inflorescence  and/or panicle, grain characteristics,  saponin, yield, phenology and tolerance to  abiotic (frost) and biotic (mildew) factors. Quinoas from every region have an  agromorphological pattern that  distinguishes them from each other. In the  Central Altiplano quinoas grow from 0.5    to 1.2 m, with short branches, the  glomerulate panicle prevails and the  phenological cycle lasts 168.40 ± 14.05  days. Quinoas in the Southern Altiplano have  larger grain (2.20 to 2.67 mm in  diameter), high saponin content; with a  prevailing amaraht-like panicle. In the Northern Altiplano, quinoas have a  height of 0.8 to 1.5 m, the glomerulate  panicle prevailes, the grain is small to  medium in size and white in color, the  growing season is fairly late to late (175  days). In inter-Andean valleys quinoas can reach  up to 2.5 m or more in height, with  branches reaching the second third of the  plant and very toothed leaves. The  phenological cycle is late (188-205 days),  amaranth-like panicles are dominant,  medium grain size (2 ± 0.13 mm) and high  saponin content (Rojas and Pinto 2013,  Bonifacio et al. 2012; Rojas 2003, Rojas   et al. 2001).   For the present study the above  morphological data were arranged in a  matrix where the names of the accessions  and morphological descriptors are  indicated with several levels of  descriptors (3-11). Based on available information about  molecular and morphological  characterization, out of all the accessions  from the quinoa collection, 1672 Bolivian  accessions from five regions were  selected: Northern Altiplano, Central  Altiplano, Southern Altiplano and  inter-Andean valleys and natural habitats  for the wild quinoas (ajaras) (Table 2).   Statistical Analysis: Forming the core  collection of quinoa   To form the core collection, a matrix with  molecular and morphological data was  developed. This information was  introduced in the PowerCore® program,  which enables sampling through the  Strategy M Maximization (van Hintum et  al. 2003). This strategy involves the use of  data indicating the magnitude of the  diversity of markers used for the  characterization of germplasm. It ensures  the inclusion of high allelic richness for  loci/markers used and directly takes into  account, in those loci, the magnitude of  the variation and deviation to the model or  pattern. Importantly, the M strategy not  only defines the number of accessions that  should come from different groups, but  also identifies the accessions that need to  be included (Schoen and Brown, 1994;  Schoen and Brown, 1995; Cortez 2011).  Thus, with the accessions selected by the  program, a dendrogram of the core  collection was generated. Using the  program NTSYSpc ® version 2.1.10 the    structure of this dendrogram was  compared with that of the total collection.  Diversity indices between the two  collections were also compared to check  the representativeness of the core  collection (Rohlf 2000; Zambrano et al.  2003).   Achievements   The data from the analysis, with a level of  100% of representation of the genetic  diversity, generated a subset of 486  accessions corresponding to 31% of the  total collection. Applying a level of 80%  of representation of the genetic diversity,  as suggested by the literature (Frankel et  al., 1984; Jaramillo and Baena, 2000;  Ozer  et al., 2004), a subset of 410   accessions was reached, which stands for  24% of the total collection (Table 2). Table 2 shows the number of accessions in  the core collection by region. The  percentage of accessions from each region  is variable; this indicates the degree of  redundancy (duplicated or genetically  very similar material) of accessions within  each region. This is the case of material from the  Northern Altiplano, from where a higher  percentage of accessions has been  considered both at 80% and 100% of  representation (46% and 57%,  respectively), compared with the other  regions. This is because in this region  there is less redundancy, therefore most  accessions are genetically different from  one another. A similar situation of low redundancy is  also observed in the material from the  inter-Andean valleys. It is noteworthy that    the number of accessions identified for the  core collection of this region is greater  than the number of accessions from the  core collection of the Southern Altiplano  and very close to that of the Central  Altiplano. This implies that although the  total number of accessions from the  Central and from the Southern Altiplano  is greater than that of the inter-Andean  valleys, it is likely that in the first two  regions of the Altiplano, several  genetically similar materials were  collected.   Comparison of the core collection with  the total collection, by visualization of the  dendrograms developed with the data  from each collection, shows that the core  collection conserves the structure of the  original collection. Figure 1 shows an example for material  from the Northern Altiplano, where the  genetic structure (arrangement of the  accessions into groups and subgroups) of  both collections (total and core) is the  same.   Table 3 compares PIC data from the total  collection, with PIC data from the core  collection, arranged by region. Diversity  indices of the core collection are slightly  higher than those of the original collection  because redundancies are reduced.  Therefore, the allele frequencies are  higher. The representativeness of the core  collection is consistent, although the  Bolivian Quinoa Collection has such a  diverse and complex structure. Genetic  diversity in the core collection is  maintained and redundancy has been  reduced to a minimum.   Conclusions   •  The methodology used for this study   enabled the identification of the most  representative quinoa accessions,  namely the group of accessions in  which the amplitude of the genetic  diversity found in the total collection    was maintained, based on  microsatellite markers,  agromorphological descriptors and  assessments of mildew and frost  tolerance. The quality and quantity of  information used to form the core  quinoa collection in this study, ensures  the inclusion of a wide range of  accessions that can be considered for  the selection of genetic material in  future assessments, either with  particular agromorphological  characteristics or with mildew and frost  tolerance characteristics.   • is to that   formation of a core collection is  dynamic. Future research could  include variables related to the  demands of the current context, such  as climate change, which requires  early and drought tolerant varieties; or  the market, which demands varieties  with nutritional and agroindustrial  qualities.   Participating agencies   The agromorphological and molecular  information used in this study was  generated within the framework of the  Project “Management, Conservation and   Sustainable Use of High Andean Grains”  as part of the National System of Genetic  Resources for Food and Agriculture  (SINARGEAA) and, the Quinoa Project  supported by the McKnight Foundation. The following people contributed  collecting information of molecular data,  during the implementation of the above  mentioned projects: Jorge Rojas Beltran,  Abel Turumaya, Pilar Gutiérrez, Rocío  Maldonado, Lucia Perez, Lilian Pinto and  Masiel Ovando. The agromorphological information has  been generated by the technical team of  PROINPA Foundation, Altiplano  Regional Office.    Cited references    Bonifacio, A., Aroni G., Villca, M. 2012.   Catálogo Etnobotánico de la Quinua  Real. Cochabamba, Bolivia. 123 p.  Brown, A., Schoen, D. 1994. Optimal sampling   strategies for core collections of plant  genetic resources. In: V. Loeschke, J.  Tomiuk y S. Jain (Eds.). Conservation  genetics. BirkhäuserVerlagBasel, Suiza.  pp. 357-369.  Cortez, F. 2011. Construcción de una   colección núcleo de  Solanum tuberosum   ssp.  andigena conservada en el banco   nacional de tubérculos y raíces andinas  en base a marcadores morfológicos y  moleculares. Master Degree Thesis.  Posgrado FCAP-UMSS. Cochabamba,  Bolivia.  Frankel, O., Brown, A. 1984. Plant genetic   resources today: A critical appraisal. In:  Holden, J., Williams, J. (Eds.). Crop    Genetic Resources: Conservation and  evaluation. Allen and Unwin. London, UK.  Jaramillo, S., Baena, M. 2000. Material de   apoyo a la capacitación en conservación  ex situ de recursos fitogenéticos.  International Plant Genetic Resource  Institute. Cali, Colombia. 210 p.  Kyu-Won, K., Chung, K., Cho, H.,   Chandrabalan, D., Jae-Gyun, G., Kim, T,  Eun G., Yong-Jin, P. 2007. PowerCore: A  program applying the advanced M  strategy with a heuristic search for  establishing core sets. Bioinformatics 23  (16):2155-2162.  Maughan, J., Bonifacio, A., Jellen, E., Stevens,   M., Coleman, C., Ricks, M., Mason, S.,  Jarvis, D., Ardunia, B., Fairbanks, D.  2004. A genetic linkage map of quinoa  (Chenopodium quinoa) based on AFLP,  RAPD, and SSR markers. Theor Appl  Genet 109:1188-1195.  Ozer, A., Suárez, R., Abadie, T. 2004.   Elaboración de una colección núcleo de  germoplasma de maíz de la raza blanco  dentado. Agrociencia Vol. VIII No. 1. pp.  1-10.  PASW. 2009. Predicción de resultados e   identificación de relaciones en los datos  categóricos. PASW® Categories 18 –  Specifications. 8 p.  Rojas, W., Pinto M. 2013. La diversidad   genética de quinua de Bolivia. In: Vargas,  M. (Ed.). Congreso Científico de la  Quinua (Proceedings). La Paz, Bolivia.  pp. 77 - 92.  Rojas, W., Pinto, M., Soto, J. 2010.   Distribución geográfica y variabilidad  genética de los granos andinos. In: Rojas  W., Pinto M., Soto J., Jagger M. y  Padulosi S. (Eds.). Granos Andinos:  Avances, logros y experiencias  desarrolladas en quinua, cañahua y  amaranto en Bolivia. Bioversity  International, Rome, Italy. pp. 11- 23.  Rojas, W. (Ed.). 2008. Manejo, conservación y   uso sostenible de los recursos genéticos  de granos altoandinos, en el marco del  SINARGEAA. Phase Report 2003-2008.  PROINPA Foundation. La Paz, Bolivia.  49 p.  Rojas, W., Cayoja, M., Espindola, G. 2001.   Catálogo de la colección de quinua  conservada en el Banco Nacional de  Granos Altoandinos. PROINPA  Foundation, MAGDER, PPD-PNUD,  SIBTA-UCEPSA, IPGRI, IFAD. La Paz,  Bolivia. 129 p.  Rohlf F. 2000. NTYSYS-pc, Numerical   Taxonomy and Multivariate Analysis  System, Version 2.10e. Appl.  Biostatistics, Inc., New York.  Schoen, D., Brown, A. 1995. Maximising   genetic diversity in core collections of wild  relatives of crop species. pp. 55-76. In:  Core collections of plant genetic    resources (T. Hodgkin, A. Brown, Th. van  Hintum y E. Morales, eds.). John Wiley  and Sons, United Kingdom.  van Hintum, Th., Brown, A., Spillane, C.,   Hodgkin, T. 2003 Colecciones núcleo de  recursos fitogenéticos. IPGRI Technical  Bulletin No. 3. International Plant Genetic  Resource Institute, Rome, Italy.  Zambrano, A., Demey, J., Fuenmayor, F.,   Segovia, V., Gutiérrez, Z. 2003.  Diversidad genética de una colección de  yuca a través de marcadores moleculares  RAPDS. Agronomía Trop. Venezuela 2  (53):155-174.   Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) has  outstanding intrinsic characteristics  including its genetic variability and its  functional properties. Its diversity forms  an extremely valuable gene pool and is  expressed in the variability of plant  colors, inflorescence and seed, plant  shape, nutritional value, productive  performance and length of growing  season. In the last twenty years,  significant scientific information  demonstrating the benefits of quinoa for  health, beyond basic nutrition, was  generated (Rojas et al. 2010a). The  knowledge and information contained in  the genetic diversity of quinoa, must be  used to further leverage the benefits of  quinoa for consumption, and particularly  for the industry. From a nutritional and dietary point of  view, quinoa is a natural source of plant  protein of high nutritional value, because  of its higher proportion of essential amino  acids; giving it a higher biological value  than wheat, rice and maize; and  comparable only with milk, meat and  eggs. As a source of plant protein, quinoa  helps the body develop and grow,  conserves heat and energy, it is easy to  digest and, combined with other foods,  produces a complete and balanced diet  that can replace animal foods (Rojas et al.,  2010a; Ayala et al., 2004). In Bolivia, the research on quinoa  breeding began in the early sixties,  focusing on achieving high performance  varieties, with white large grain, as was  the demand at that time. Since the  eighties, due to export markets  expectations, cultivation has expanded  significantly, and demands have not only  included white, but also red and black  quinoa. Likewise, changes in climate have    generated new demands like earliness, to  adjust planting to delayed rain cycles and  complete harvest within a shorter crop  cycle (Vargas et al., 2013). Traditionally companies and/or   associations have focused their efforts on  the export of raw materials, which is what  currently prevails in terms of foreign  sales. However, in the last decade  companies have begun the processing and  export of quinoa based products and  subproducts. The difficulty to achieve  optimal and competitive products for the  international market is that the products  are made with mixed quinoa (different  varieties in different proportions) and  consequently at agroindustrial level, it is  not possible to obtain the same quality for  the same preparation at different times. Considering the above, it is important to  study and take advantage of the genetic  diversity for the manufacture of processed  quinoa products, using in its true  magnitude the existing genetic potential to  obtain agroindustrial products of higher  quality. It is possible to identify, select  and develop varieties with high protein  content, with small diameters of starch  granule to process homogeneous popped  grain, with stable percentages of amylose  and amylopectin to make puddings,  gelatinized porridge, instant creams,  noodles, etc.   Nutritional value and  agroindustrial capacity of  quinoa’s agromorphologic -  genetic diversity   In Bolivia, the first initiatives to  implement a quinoa germplasm collection    date back to the early sixties, under the  initiative of Ing. Humberto Gandarillas  (Rojas  et al., 2010b). Originally, the   efforts focused on the registration of  agromorphological information. In 1985  and 2001 the first and second quinoa  catalogs were published (Espindola and  Saravia, 1985, Rojas et al., 2001). The 2001 catalog describes the genetic  variability of 2,701 quinoa accessions  through 59 qualitative and quantitative  agromorphologic variables. This  document was prepared during the period  of time when PROINPA Foundation was  in charge of the administration of the  quinoa germplasm collection, as  custodian appointed by mandate from the  Bolivian government (Rojas et al.,  2010b). When quinoas reach physiological  maturity they express a wide variety of  plant and grain colors, including white,  cream, yellow, orange, pink, red, purple,    light brown, brown and black. In the  Bolivian collection 66 grain colors and  four shapes, have been characterized, by  the appearance of the endosperm. This  gives quinoa, features that can be properly  exploited for the manufacture of  processed products. In order to increase the use of diversity in  the manufacture of quinoa processed  products, interaction with exporters of this  species was promoted. Until 2010,  nutritional information of 555 accessions  of the Bolivian Quinoa Collection was  registered, along with information on  agroindustrial characteristics of 260  accessions (Rojas and Pinto, 2013). Table 1 presents a summary of the  statistical parameters registered for each  feature of the nutritional value and  agroindustrial characteristics of quinoa,  expressed on a dry basis (Rojas et al.,  2007; Rojas et al., 2010a).   Quinoa accessions show a wide variability  for most of the studied traits, which is an  indicator of the genetic potential of this  germplasm. Figure 1 shows the variation in the  frequency distribution of protein content  for 555 accessions of the Bolivian quinoa  collection. In the majority of accessions  the protein content varies from 12.0% to  16.9%, while there are a small number of  accessions (42) with contents that range  from 17% to 18.9%. The latter group is an  important source of genes to promote  development of products with high  protein content (Rojas et al., 2010a). This  information was corroborated by other  similar studies by Reynaga et al., 2013. The fat content ranges from 2.05% to  10.88%, with an average of 6.39% (Table  1).  βo (1991) and Moron (1999) cited by  Jacobsen and Sherwood (2002), indicate  that the fat content of quinoa has a high  value, due to its high percentage of  non-saturated fatty acids. Accessions with    these values can be used for the  production of fine vegetable oils for  culinary and cosmetic use. Genetic variation on size of starch granule  ranged from 1 μ to 28 μ (Table 1, Figure  2). It is very important that the starch  granule be small, to facilitate the process  of texturing and expansion, because  spaces between granules allow more air to  enter for exchange and formation of air  bubbles (Rojas et al., 2007). This feature  is important for the agroindustry because  it enables the use of various cereal and  legume mixes, to take advantage of the  functional characteristics of quinoa. The content of inverted sugars varies from  10% to 35% (Table 1). This variable  expresses the amount of sugar that begins  fermentation by splitting or inversion.  It  is the parameter used to determine the  quality of carbohydrates. It is also an  important parameter by which quinoa can  be classified as a food fit for diabetics.   The optimum content of inverted sugar is  ≥ 25%. Quinoa accessions analyzed from  the germplasm meet this condition and  have potential to be used in mixtures with  flour to process breads, cereals, etc. The variable of “water filling” shows a  range of variation from 16% to 66%  (Table 1). This variable measures the  water absorption capacity of starch,  important parameter for processing of  pasta, bread and pastries. The ideal value  for this parameter, in industrial  applications, ≥ Considering  variability within quinoa in relation to this  characteristic, there is an important gene  pool that can be used for the development  of such processed products. Recently PROINPA Foundation, through  its quinoa breeding program is prioritizing  the inclusion of criteria related to  nutritional value and agroindustrial  characteristics for the development of  quinoa varieties, while seeking at the  same time that they comply with market  parameters, productivity and adaptation to  climate change.   Table 2 shows results of quinoa materials  that are in the process of generation of  new varieties. According to Table 2, the Kurmi variety  has 16.11% protein. Through selection  techniques applied to deviants of this  variety, the line K-Chullpi has been  obtained. The K-Chullpi line has a protein  content of 18.20% which is higher than  that of Kurmi.  It also has a starch granule  diameter 1.5 being than  Kurmi variety that has a diameter of 2.1 μ.  However, both varieties have excellent  aptitude for the development of expanded  products and popped grain. Similarly, the iron content increased  significantly in the K-Chullpi line,  reaching 4.8 mg/100 g of dry matter, in  comparison to the Kurmi variety that has  1.2 mg/100 g of dry matter. Varieties with  these characteristics may be an alternative  for programs conducted by the Bolivian  Government, that focus on maternal and  child malnutrition and, breastfeeding.   In addition, although the 11Cf line comes  from the variety Aynoka, there is an  increase in protein content from 13.65%  to 16.85%, and an increase in fiber from  4.25% to 6.10%. The diameter of the  starch granule remains 2.8 which  means that, both have potential  characteristics for the elaboration of  expanded products and popped grain.  However, the iron content went down  from 4.5 mg/100 to 2.7 mg/100 g of dry  matter.  On the other hand, in the particular case of  the “Real Blanca” variety, it has  significant protein content (14.49%), but  its value of starch granule diameter is of  5.2 thus not for  production of expanded products and  popped grain.   Challenges and opportunities   The strategic lines of research for quinoa  cultivation need to consider the genetic  diversity available in the country, that is  also the most important worldwide.  This  genetic diversity, if properly used, offers  enormous potential for diverse fields of  application. Otherwise, it will continue to  be underutilized, as it has been so far, with  the export of raw material from mixed  varieties. There are 66 colors of quinoa grain,  whose antioxidant properties, that can  help develop nutraceutical products, have  not yet been studied. Despite the wide  diversity of shapes, sizes and colors of  quinoa grain, the consumer at the time of  purchasing the product in different  markets and fairs, differentiates only three  colors of quinoa: white, brown and black.   It is necessary to strengthen the  development of agroindustrial products  using the genetic diversity of quinoa  properly, thus generating high quality and  standardized products, which can offer the  same quality over time. The genetic base  available for quinoa also allows the  country to take the lead in the  development and export of processed  products with standard quality. It is important to take into account that the  varieties with potential for agroindustrial  processing should also reach the  necessary standards for production and  adaptation to climate change. Varieties  should have early cultivation cycles to  adapt to climate variability and to the  specific characteristics of every  productive region of the country. Initiatives that promote the use of native  and improved seed varieties are required,  because quality standards need to be met  from sowing to harvest. The production  process needs to be improved and  volumes demanded by the agroindustry  need to be met. But overall, the process  needs to contribute to the sustainability of  the quinoa business in production areas. In this challenge, each actor involved in  the production and marketing of quinoa,  plays an important role. However, this  role will be best matched if worked  through a country strategy that guides the  actions of all actors involved in the quinoa  sector. Acknowledgement:  The work on the   assessment of the nutritional and  agroindustrial value was financially  supported by the Project "Management,  Conservation and Sustainable Use of  Genetic Resources of High Andean    Grain", the McKnight Foundation, the  UNEP/GEF Project on "In situ  Conservation of Crop Wild relatives  through Strengthening Information  Management and its Application in the  Field - Bolivian Component" and the  NUS/IFAD Project on "Neglected and  Underutilized Species".   Cited references    Ayala, G., Ortega, L., Morón, C. 2004. Valor   nutritivo y usos de la quinua. In: A. Mujica,  S. Jacobsen, J. Izquierdo y J. Marathee  (Eds.). Quinua: Ancestral cultivo andino,  alimento del presente y futuro.  FAO-UNA-CIP. Santiago, Chile. pp.  215-253.  CEDLA. 2013. Cultivo de la quinua y   producción capitalista en las  comunidades del Altiplano Sur de Bolivia.  Boletín de Seguimiento a Políticas  Públicas Año X – N° 22. Centro de  Estudios para el Desarrollo Laboral y  Agrario (CEDLA). Julio 2013. La Paz,  Bolivia.  Espíndola, G., Saravia, R. 1985. Catálogo de   quinua del banco de germoplasma en la  Estación Experimental de Patacamaya.  La Paz, Bolivia, MACA-IBTA pp. 2-11.  Jacobsen, S., Sherwood, S. 2002. Cultivo de   Granos Andinos en Ecuador. Informe  sobre los rubros quinua, chocho y  amaranto. Organización de las Naciones  Unidas para la Agricultura y la  Alimentación (FAO), Centro Internacional  de la Papa (CIP) y Catholic Relief  Services (CRS). Quito, Ecuador. 89 p  Reynaga, A., Quispe, M., Calderón, I.   Huarachi, A., Soto, J. 2013.  Caracterización físico - química y  nutricional de los 13 ecotipos de quinua  real (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) del  altiplano sur de Bolivia con fines  agroindustriales y exportación. pp.  517-524. In: Congreso Científico de la  Quinua (Proceedings). June 14 and 15,  2013. Vargas, M. (Ed.). MDRyT, VDRA,  INIAF, IICA. La Paz, Bolivia. 682 p.   Rojas, W., Cayoja, M., Espíndola, G. 2001.   Catálogo de colección de quinua  conservada en el Banco Nacional de  Granos Altoandinos. Fundación  PROINPA, MAGDER, PPD–PNUD,  SIBTA, UCEPSA, IPGRI, IFAD. La Paz,  Bolivia. 129 p.  Rojas, W., Pinto, M., Alcocer, E. 2007.   Diversidad genética del valor nutritivo y  agroindustrial del germoplasma de  quinua. Revista de Agricultura. Year 59,  41:33-37. Cochabamba, Bolivia.  Rojas, W., Pinto, M., Soto, J., Alcocer, E.   2010a. Valor nutricional, agroindustrial y  funcional de los granos andinos. In: W.  Rojas, M. Pinto, J. Soto, M. Jagger y S.  Padulosi (Eds.). Granos Andinos:  Avances, logros y experiencias  desarrolladas en quinua, cañahua y  amaranto en Bolivia. Bioversity  International, Roma, Italia. pp. 151-164.   Rojas, W., Pinto, M., Bonifacio, A.,   Gandarillas, A. 2010b. Banco de  germoplasma de granos andinos. In: W.  Rojas, M. Pinto, J. Soto, M. Jagger y S.  Padulosi (Eds.). Granos Andinos:  Avances, logros y experiencias  desarrolladas en quinua, cañahua y  amaranto en Bolivia. Bioversity  International, Roma, Italia. pp. 24-38.  Rojas, W., Pinto, M. 2013. La diversidad   genética de quinua de Bolivia. In: Vargas,  M. (Editor). Congreso Científico de la  Quinua (Proceedings). June 14 and 15,  2013. La Paz, Bolivia. pp. 77-92.  Vargas, A., Bonifacio, A., Rojas, W. 2013.   Mejoramiento para calidad industrial de la  quinua. In: Vargas, M. (Editor). Congreso  Científico de la Quinua (Proceedings).  June 14 and 15, 2013. La Paz, Bolivia. pp  497-507.     ISSN 1998 - 9652   Area: Technology Development 96   78   99  62  14  5 1 2 2 3 0   20   40   60   80   100  120   (1.0 a  2.5)  (2.6 a  5.0)  (5.1 a  7.5)  (7.6 a  10.0)  (10.1 a  12.5)  (12.6 a  15.0)  (15.1 a  17.5)  (17.6 a  20.0)  (20.1 a  28.0)  Starch granule size ranges in (μ)   Number of accessions      Figure 2. Starch granule size variation in 266 accessions of quinoa   Molecular characterization yielded  diversity indices as the Polymorphic  Information Content (PIC) and  heterozygosity (H), for each set of  samples coming from the different  geographic regions.  Quinoas from the  Central Altiplano (CA) and Southern  Altiplano (SA) were the most abundant,  and also the most diverse (tables 2 and 3). For this study, the data of the alleles (in  base pairs) of every microsatellite were  transformed into binary data and arranged  in a matrix representing the presence of an  allele as 1 and the absence as 0. The  morphological information was obtained  from the evaluation of the germplasm  collection. 48 variables were selected that  included data on: stem coloring, plant  architecture, stem, leaf, inflorescence  and/or panicle, grain characteristics,  saponin, yield, phenology and tolerance to  abiotic (frost) and biotic (mildew) factors. Quinoas from every region have an  agromorphological pattern that  distinguishes them from each other. In the  Central Altiplano quinoas grow from 0.5    to 1.2 m, with short branches, the  glomerulate panicle prevails and the  phenological cycle lasts 168.40 ± 14.05  days. Quinoas in the Southern Altiplano have  larger grain (2.20 to 2.67 mm in  diameter), high saponin content; with a  prevailing amaraht-like panicle. In the Northern Altiplano, quinoas have a  height of 0.8 to 1.5 m, the glomerulate  panicle prevailes, the grain is small to  medium in size and white in color, the  growing season is fairly late to late (175  days). In inter-Andean valleys quinoas can reach  up to 2.5 m or more in height, with  branches reaching the second third of the  plant and very toothed leaves. The  phenological cycle is late (188-205 days),  amaranth-like panicles are dominant,  medium grain size (2 ± 0.13 mm) and high  saponin content (Rojas and Pinto 2013,  Bonifacio et al. 2012; Rojas 2003, Rojas   et al. 2001).   For the present study the above  morphological data were arranged in a  matrix where the names of the accessions  and morphological descriptors are  indicated with several levels of  descriptors (3-11). Based on available information about  molecular and morphological  characterization, out of all the accessions  from the quinoa collection, 1672 Bolivian  accessions from five regions were  selected: Northern Altiplano, Central  Altiplano, Southern Altiplano and  inter-Andean valleys and natural habitats  for the wild quinoas (ajaras) (Table 2).   Statistical Analysis: Forming the core  collection of quinoa   To form the core collection, a matrix with  molecular and morphological data was  developed. This information was  introduced in the PowerCore® program,  which enables sampling through the  Strategy M Maximization (van Hintum et  al. 2003). This strategy involves the use of  data indicating the magnitude of the  diversity of markers used for the  characterization of germplasm. It ensures  the inclusion of high allelic richness for  loci/markers used and directly takes into  account, in those loci, the magnitude of  the variation and deviation to the model or  pattern. Importantly, the M strategy not  only defines the number of accessions that  should come from different groups, but  also identifies the accessions that need to  be included (Schoen and Brown, 1994;  Schoen and Brown, 1995; Cortez 2011).  Thus, with the accessions selected by the  program, a dendrogram of the core  collection was generated. Using the  program NTSYSpc ® version 2.1.10 the    structure of this dendrogram was  compared with that of the total collection.  Diversity indices between the two  collections were also compared to check  the representativeness of the core  collection (Rohlf 2000; Zambrano et al.  2003).   Achievements   The data from the analysis, with a level of  100% of representation of the genetic  diversity, generated a subset of 486  accessions corresponding to 31% of the  total collection. Applying a level of 80%  of representation of the genetic diversity,  as suggested by the literature (Frankel et  al., 1984; Jaramillo and Baena, 2000;  Ozer  et al., 2004), a subset of 410   accessions was reached, which stands for  24% of the total collection (Table 2). Table 2 shows the number of accessions in  the core collection by region. The  percentage of accessions from each region  is variable; this indicates the degree of  redundancy (duplicated or genetically  very similar material) of accessions within  each region. This is the case of material from the  Northern Altiplano, from where a higher  percentage of accessions has been  considered both at 80% and 100% of  representation (46% and 57%,  respectively), compared with the other  regions. This is because in this region  there is less redundancy, therefore most  accessions are genetically different from  one another. A similar situation of low redundancy is  also observed in the material from the  inter-Andean valleys. It is noteworthy that    the number of accessions identified for the  core collection of this region is greater  than the number of accessions from the  core collection of the Southern Altiplano  and very close to that of the Central  Altiplano. This implies that although the  total number of accessions from the  Central and from the Southern Altiplano  is greater than that of the inter-Andean  valleys, it is likely that in the first two  regions of the Altiplano, several  genetically similar materials were  collected.   Comparison of the core collection with  the total collection, by visualization of the  dendrograms developed with the data  from each collection, shows that the core  collection conserves the structure of the  original collection. Figure 1 shows an example for material  from the Northern Altiplano, where the  genetic structure (arrangement of the  accessions into groups and subgroups) of  both collections (total and core) is the  same.   Table 3 compares PIC data from the total  collection, with PIC data from the core  collection, arranged by region. Diversity  indices of the core collection are slightly  higher than those of the original collection  because redundancies are reduced.  Therefore, the allele frequencies are  higher. The representativeness of the core  collection is consistent, although the  Bolivian Quinoa Collection has such a  diverse and complex structure. Genetic  diversity in the core collection is  maintained and redundancy has been  reduced to a minimum.   Conclusions   •  The methodology used for this study   enabled the identification of the most  representative quinoa accessions,  namely the group of accessions in  which the amplitude of the genetic  diversity found in the total collection    was maintained, based on  microsatellite markers,  agromorphological descriptors and  assessments of mildew and frost  tolerance. The quality and quantity of  information used to form the core  quinoa collection in this study, ensures  the inclusion of a wide range of  accessions that can be considered for  the selection of genetic material in  future assessments, either with  particular agromorphological  characteristics or with mildew and frost  tolerance characteristics.   • is to that   formation of a core collection is  dynamic. Future research could  include variables related to the  demands of the current context, such  as climate change, which requires  early and drought tolerant varieties; or  the market, which demands varieties  with nutritional and agroindustrial  qualities.   Participating agencies   The agromorphological and molecular  information used in this study was  generated within the framework of the  Project “Management, Conservation and   Sustainable Use of High Andean Grains”  as part of the National System of Genetic  Resources for Food and Agriculture  (SINARGEAA) and, the Quinoa Project  supported by the McKnight Foundation. The following people contributed  collecting information of molecular data,  during the implementation of the above  mentioned projects: Jorge Rojas Beltran,  Abel Turumaya, Pilar Gutiérrez, Rocío  Maldonado, Lucia Perez, Lilian Pinto and  Masiel Ovando. The agromorphological information has  been generated by the technical team of  PROINPA Foundation, Altiplano  Regional Office.    Cited references    Bonifacio, A., Aroni G., Villca, M. 2012.   Catálogo Etnobotánico de la Quinua  Real. Cochabamba, Bolivia. 123 p.  Brown, A., Schoen, D. 1994. Optimal sampling   strategies for core collections of plant  genetic resources. In: V. Loeschke, J.  Tomiuk y S. Jain (Eds.). Conservation  genetics. BirkhäuserVerlagBasel, Suiza.  pp. 357-369.  Cortez, F. 2011. Construcción de una   colección núcleo de  Solanum tuberosum   ssp.  andigena conservada en el banco   nacional de tubérculos y raíces andinas  en base a marcadores morfológicos y  moleculares. Master Degree Thesis.  Posgrado FCAP-UMSS. Cochabamba,  Bolivia.  Frankel, O., Brown, A. 1984. Plant genetic   resources today: A critical appraisal. In:  Holden, J., Williams, J. (Eds.). Crop    Genetic Resources: Conservation and  evaluation. Allen and Unwin. London, UK.  Jaramillo, S., Baena, M. 2000. Material de   apoyo a la capacitación en conservación  ex situ de recursos fitogenéticos.  International Plant Genetic Resource  Institute. Cali, Colombia. 210 p.  Kyu-Won, K., Chung, K., Cho, H.,   Chandrabalan, D., Jae-Gyun, G., Kim, T,  Eun G., Yong-Jin, P. 2007. PowerCore: A  program applying the advanced M  strategy with a heuristic search for  establishing core sets. Bioinformatics 23  (16):2155-2162.  Maughan, J., Bonifacio, A., Jellen, E., Stevens,   M., Coleman, C., Ricks, M., Mason, S.,  Jarvis, D., Ardunia, B., Fairbanks, D.  2004. A genetic linkage map of quinoa  (Chenopodium quinoa) based on AFLP,  RAPD, and SSR markers. Theor Appl  Genet 109:1188-1195.  Ozer, A., Suárez, R., Abadie, T. 2004.   Elaboración de una colección núcleo de  germoplasma de maíz de la raza blanco  dentado. Agrociencia Vol. VIII No. 1. pp.  1-10.  PASW. 2009. Predicción de resultados e   identificación de relaciones en los datos  categóricos. PASW® Categories 18 –  Specifications. 8 p.  Rojas, W., Pinto M. 2013. La diversidad   genética de quinua de Bolivia. In: Vargas,  M. (Ed.). Congreso Científico de la  Quinua (Proceedings). La Paz, Bolivia.  pp. 77 - 92.  Rojas, W., Pinto, M., Soto, J. 2010.   Distribución geográfica y variabilidad  genética de los granos andinos. In: Rojas  W., Pinto M., Soto J., Jagger M. y  Padulosi S. (Eds.). Granos Andinos:  Avances, logros y experiencias  desarrolladas en quinua, cañahua y  amaranto en Bolivia. Bioversity  International, Rome, Italy. pp. 11- 23.  Rojas, W. (Ed.). 2008. Manejo, conservación y   uso sostenible de los recursos genéticos  de granos altoandinos, en el marco del  SINARGEAA. Phase Report 2003-2008.  PROINPA Foundation. La Paz, Bolivia.  49 p.  Rojas, W., Cayoja, M., Espindola, G. 2001.   Catálogo de la colección de quinua  conservada en el Banco Nacional de  Granos Altoandinos. PROINPA  Foundation, MAGDER, PPD-PNUD,  SIBTA-UCEPSA, IPGRI, IFAD. La Paz,  Bolivia. 129 p.  Rohlf F. 2000. NTYSYS-pc, Numerical   Taxonomy and Multivariate Analysis  System, Version 2.10e. Appl.  Biostatistics, Inc., New York.  Schoen, D., Brown, A. 1995. Maximising   genetic diversity in core collections of wild  relatives of crop species. pp. 55-76. In:  Core collections of plant genetic    resources (T. Hodgkin, A. Brown, Th. van  Hintum y E. Morales, eds.). John Wiley  and Sons, United Kingdom.  van Hintum, Th., Brown, A., Spillane, C.,   Hodgkin, T. 2003 Colecciones núcleo de  recursos fitogenéticos. IPGRI Technical  Bulletin No. 3. International Plant Genetic  Resource Institute, Rome, Italy.  Zambrano, A., Demey, J., Fuenmayor, F.,   Segovia, V., Gutiérrez, Z. 2003.  Diversidad genética de una colección de  yuca a través de marcadores moleculares  RAPDS. Agronomía Trop. Venezuela 2  (53):155-174.   Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) has  outstanding intrinsic characteristics  including its genetic variability and its  functional properties. Its diversity forms  an extremely valuable gene pool and is  expressed in the variability of plant  colors, inflorescence and seed, plant  shape, nutritional value, productive  performance and length of growing  season. In the last twenty years,  significant scientific information  demonstrating the benefits of quinoa for  health, beyond basic nutrition, was  generated (Rojas et al. 2010a). The  knowledge and information contained in  the genetic diversity of quinoa, must be  used to further leverage the benefits of  quinoa for consumption, and particularly  for the industry. From a nutritional and dietary point of  view, quinoa is a natural source of plant  protein of high nutritional value, because  of its higher proportion of essential amino  acids; giving it a higher biological value  than wheat, rice and maize; and  comparable only with milk, meat and  eggs. As a source of plant protein, quinoa  helps the body develop and grow,  conserves heat and energy, it is easy to  digest and, combined with other foods,  produces a complete and balanced diet  that can replace animal foods (Rojas et al.,  2010a; Ayala et al., 2004). In Bolivia, the research on quinoa  breeding began in the early sixties,  focusing on achieving high performance  varieties, with white large grain, as was  the demand at that time. Since the  eighties, due to export markets  expectations, cultivation has expanded  significantly, and demands have not only  included white, but also red and black  quinoa. Likewise, changes in climate have    generated new demands like earliness, to  adjust planting to delayed rain cycles and  complete harvest within a shorter crop  cycle (Vargas et al., 2013). Traditionally companies and/or   associations have focused their efforts on  the export of raw materials, which is what  currently prevails in terms of foreign  sales. However, in the last decade  companies have begun the processing and  export of quinoa based products and  subproducts. The difficulty to achieve  optimal and competitive products for the  international market is that the products  are made with mixed quinoa (different  varieties in different proportions) and  consequently at agroindustrial level, it is  not possible to obtain the same quality for  the same preparation at different times. Considering the above, it is important to  study and take advantage of the genetic  diversity for the manufacture of processed  quinoa products, using in its true  magnitude the existing genetic potential to  obtain agroindustrial products of higher  quality. It is possible to identify, select  and develop varieties with high protein  content, with small diameters of starch  granule to process homogeneous popped  grain, with stable percentages of amylose  and amylopectin to make puddings,  gelatinized porridge, instant creams,  noodles, etc.   Nutritional value and  agroindustrial capacity of  quinoa’s agromorphologic -  genetic diversity   In Bolivia, the first initiatives to  implement a quinoa germplasm collection    date back to the early sixties, under the  initiative of Ing. Humberto Gandarillas  (Rojas  et al., 2010b). Originally, the   efforts focused on the registration of  agromorphological information. In 1985  and 2001 the first and second quinoa  catalogs were published (Espindola and  Saravia, 1985, Rojas et al., 2001). The 2001 catalog describes the genetic  variability of 2,701 quinoa accessions  through 59 qualitative and quantitative  agromorphologic variables. This  document was prepared during the period  of time when PROINPA Foundation was  in charge of the administration of the  quinoa germplasm collection, as  custodian appointed by mandate from the  Bolivian government (Rojas et al.,  2010b). When quinoas reach physiological  maturity they express a wide variety of  plant and grain colors, including white,  cream, yellow, orange, pink, red, purple,    light brown, brown and black. In the  Bolivian collection 66 grain colors and  four shapes, have been characterized, by  the appearance of the endosperm. This  gives quinoa, features that can be properly  exploited for the manufacture of  processed products. In order to increase the use of diversity in  the manufacture of quinoa processed  products, interaction with exporters of this  species was promoted. Until 2010,  nutritional information of 555 accessions  of the Bolivian Quinoa Collection was  registered, along with information on  agroindustrial characteristics of 260  accessions (Rojas and Pinto, 2013). Table 1 presents a summary of the  statistical parameters registered for each  feature of the nutritional value and  agroindustrial characteristics of quinoa,  expressed on a dry basis (Rojas et al.,  2007; Rojas et al., 2010a).   Quinoa accessions show a wide variability  for most of the studied traits, which is an  indicator of the genetic potential of this  germplasm. Figure 1 shows the variation in the  frequency distribution of protein content  for 555 accessions of the Bolivian quinoa  collection. In the majority of accessions  the protein content varies from 12.0% to  16.9%, while there are a small number of  accessions (42) with contents that range  from 17% to 18.9%. The latter group is an  important source of genes to promote  development of products with high  protein content (Rojas et al., 2010a). This  information was corroborated by other  similar studies by Reynaga et al., 2013. The fat content ranges from 2.05% to  10.88%, with an average of 6.39% (Table  1).  βo (1991) and Moron (1999) cited by  Jacobsen and Sherwood (2002), indicate  that the fat content of quinoa has a high  value, due to its high percentage of  non-saturated fatty acids. Accessions with    these values can be used for the  production of fine vegetable oils for  culinary and cosmetic use. Genetic variation on size of starch granule  ranged from 1 μ to 28 μ (Table 1, Figure  2). It is very important that the starch  granule be small, to facilitate the process  of texturing and expansion, because  spaces between granules allow more air to  enter for exchange and formation of air  bubbles (Rojas et al., 2007). This feature  is important for the agroindustry because  it enables the use of various cereal and  legume mixes, to take advantage of the  functional characteristics of quinoa. The content of inverted sugars varies from  10% to 35% (Table 1). This variable  expresses the amount of sugar that begins  fermentation by splitting or inversion.  It  is the parameter used to determine the  quality of carbohydrates. It is also an  important parameter by which quinoa can  be classified as a food fit for diabetics.   The optimum content of inverted sugar is  ≥ 25%. Quinoa accessions analyzed from  the germplasm meet this condition and  have potential to be used in mixtures with  flour to process breads, cereals, etc. The variable of “water filling” shows a  range of variation from 16% to 66%  (Table 1). This variable measures the  water absorption capacity of starch,  important parameter for processing of  pasta, bread and pastries. The ideal value  for this parameter, in industrial  applications, ≥ Considering  variability within quinoa in relation to this  characteristic, there is an important gene  pool that can be used for the development  of such processed products. Recently PROINPA Foundation, through  its quinoa breeding program is prioritizing  the inclusion of criteria related to  nutritional value and agroindustrial  characteristics for the development of  quinoa varieties, while seeking at the  same time that they comply with market  parameters, productivity and adaptation to  climate change.   Table 2 shows results of quinoa materials  that are in the process of generation of  new varieties. According to Table 2, the Kurmi variety  has 16.11% protein. Through selection  techniques applied to deviants of this  variety, the line K-Chullpi has been  obtained. The K-Chullpi line has a protein  content of 18.20% which is higher than  that of Kurmi.  It also has a starch granule  diameter 1.5 being than  Kurmi variety that has a diameter of 2.1 μ.  However, both varieties have excellent  aptitude for the development of expanded  products and popped grain. Similarly, the iron content increased  significantly in the K-Chullpi line,  reaching 4.8 mg/100 g of dry matter, in  comparison to the Kurmi variety that has  1.2 mg/100 g of dry matter. Varieties with  these characteristics may be an alternative  for programs conducted by the Bolivian  Government, that focus on maternal and  child malnutrition and, breastfeeding.   In addition, although the 11Cf line comes  from the variety Aynoka, there is an  increase in protein content from 13.65%  to 16.85%, and an increase in fiber from  4.25% to 6.10%. The diameter of the  starch granule remains 2.8 which  means that, both have potential  characteristics for the elaboration of  expanded products and popped grain.  However, the iron content went down  from 4.5 mg/100 to 2.7 mg/100 g of dry  matter.  On the other hand, in the particular case of  the “Real Blanca” variety, it has  significant protein content (14.49%), but  its value of starch granule diameter is of  5.2 thus not for  production of expanded products and  popped grain.   Challenges and opportunities   The strategic lines of research for quinoa  cultivation need to consider the genetic  diversity available in the country, that is  also the most important worldwide.  This  genetic diversity, if properly used, offers  enormous potential for diverse fields of  application. Otherwise, it will continue to  be underutilized, as it has been so far, with  the export of raw material from mixed  varieties. There are 66 colors of quinoa grain,  whose antioxidant properties, that can  help develop nutraceutical products, have  not yet been studied. Despite the wide  diversity of shapes, sizes and colors of  quinoa grain, the consumer at the time of  purchasing the product in different  markets and fairs, differentiates only three  colors of quinoa: white, brown and black.   It is necessary to strengthen the  development of agroindustrial products  using the genetic diversity of quinoa  properly, thus generating high quality and  standardized products, which can offer the  same quality over time. The genetic base  available for quinoa also allows the  country to take the lead in the  development and export of processed  products with standard quality. It is important to take into account that the  varieties with potential for agroindustrial  processing should also reach the  necessary standards for production and  adaptation to climate change. Varieties  should have early cultivation cycles to  adapt to climate variability and to the  specific characteristics of every  productive region of the country. Initiatives that promote the use of native  and improved seed varieties are required,  because quality standards need to be met  from sowing to harvest. The production  process needs to be improved and  volumes demanded by the agroindustry  need to be met. But overall, the process  needs to contribute to the sustainability of  the quinoa business in production areas. In this challenge, each actor involved in  the production and marketing of quinoa,  plays an important role. However, this  role will be best matched if worked  through a country strategy that guides the  actions of all actors involved in the quinoa  sector. Acknowledgement:  The work on the   assessment of the nutritional and  agroindustrial value was financially  supported by the Project "Management,  Conservation and Sustainable Use of  Genetic Resources of High Andean    Grain", the McKnight Foundation, the  UNEP/GEF Project on "In situ  Conservation of Crop Wild relatives  through Strengthening Information  Management and its Application in the  Field - Bolivian Component" and the  NUS/IFAD Project on "Neglected and  Underutilized Species".   Cited references    Ayala, G., Ortega, L., Morón, C. 2004. Valor   nutritivo y usos de la quinua. In: A. Mujica,  S. Jacobsen, J. Izquierdo y J. Marathee  (Eds.). Quinua: Ancestral cultivo andino,  alimento del presente y futuro.  FAO-UNA-CIP. Santiago, Chile. pp.  215-253.  CEDLA. 2013. Cultivo de la quinua y   producción capitalista en las  comunidades del Altiplano Sur de Bolivia.  Boletín de Seguimiento a Políticas  Públicas Año X – N° 22. Centro de  Estudios para el Desarrollo Laboral y  Agrario (CEDLA). Julio 2013. La Paz,  Bolivia.  Espíndola, G., Saravia, R. 1985. Catálogo de   quinua del banco de germoplasma en la  Estación Experimental de Patacamaya.  La Paz, Bolivia, MACA-IBTA pp. 2-11.  Jacobsen, S., Sherwood, S. 2002. Cultivo de   Granos Andinos en Ecuador. Informe  sobre los rubros quinua, chocho y  amaranto. Organización de las Naciones  Unidas para la Agricultura y la  Alimentación (FAO), Centro Internacional  de la Papa (CIP) y Catholic Relief  Services (CRS). Quito, Ecuador. 89 p  Reynaga, A., Quispe, M., Calderón, I.   Huarachi, A., Soto, J. 2013.  Caracterización físico - química y  nutricional de los 13 ecotipos de quinua  real (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) del  altiplano sur de Bolivia con fines  agroindustriales y exportación. pp.  517-524. In: Congreso Científico de la  Quinua (Proceedings). June 14 and 15,  2013. Vargas, M. (Ed.). MDRyT, VDRA,  INIAF, IICA. La Paz, Bolivia. 682 p.   Rojas, W., Cayoja, M., Espíndola, G. 2001.   Catálogo de colección de quinua  conservada en el Banco Nacional de  Granos Altoandinos. Fundación  PROINPA, MAGDER, PPD–PNUD,  SIBTA, UCEPSA, IPGRI, IFAD. La Paz,  Bolivia. 129 p.  Rojas, W., Pinto, M., Alcocer, E. 2007.   Diversidad genética del valor nutritivo y  agroindustrial del germoplasma de  quinua. Revista de Agricultura. Year 59,  41:33-37. Cochabamba, Bolivia.  Rojas, W., Pinto, M., Soto, J., Alcocer, E.   2010a. Valor nutricional, agroindustrial y  funcional de los granos andinos. In: W.  Rojas, M. Pinto, J. Soto, M. Jagger y S.  Padulosi (Eds.). Granos Andinos:  Avances, logros y experiencias  desarrolladas en quinua, cañahua y  amaranto en Bolivia. Bioversity  International, Roma, Italia. pp. 151-164.   Rojas, W., Pinto, M., Bonifacio, A.,   Gandarillas, A. 2010b. Banco de  germoplasma de granos andinos. In: W.  Rojas, M. Pinto, J. Soto, M. Jagger y S.  Padulosi (Eds.). Granos Andinos:  Avances, logros y experiencias  desarrolladas en quinua, cañahua y  amaranto en Bolivia. Bioversity  International, Roma, Italia. pp. 24-38.  Rojas, W., Pinto, M. 2013. La diversidad   genética de quinua de Bolivia. In: Vargas,  M. (Editor). Congreso Científico de la  Quinua (Proceedings). June 14 and 15,  2013. La Paz, Bolivia. pp. 77-92.  Vargas, A., Bonifacio, A., Rojas, W. 2013.   Mejoramiento para calidad industrial de la  quinua. In: Vargas, M. (Editor). Congreso  Científico de la Quinua (Proceedings).  June 14 and 15, 2013. La Paz, Bolivia. pp  497-507.     Revista de Agricultura, Nro. 54 - Julio de 2014   Area: Technology Development 97   Table 2. Agromorphologic characteristics, nutritional value   and agroindustrial potential of quinoa varieties and lines     Average Parameter  Name of  variety / line 1  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9  10  11   Real Blanca  180  125  650  14.5  3.9  60.3  5.2  23  31  12.2  2.1   J’acha Grano  135 120 1400  14.2 3.8 58.3 3.6 21 19 10.5 2.1  Blanquita  170  110  1500  13.8  4.2  39.2  1.1  19  33  16.6  1.8   Kurmi 155 120 1550  16.1 4.3 61.5 2.1 20 26 15.9 1.2  Aynoka 155  110  1200  13.6  4.3  59.3  2.8  21  21  15.1  4.5   Kosuña 155 100 1000  14.8 4.5 49.3 4.8 15 28 15.9 3.5  Línea K-Chullpi 160  115  1250  18.2  3.1  61.4  1.5  18  21  21.5  4.8   Línea 118 Cf  150 115 1250  16.8 6.1 42.1 2.8 15 31 16.5 2.7   References: 1: Physiological maturity (days); 2: Plant height (cm); 3: Grain yield (kg/ha); 4: Protein (%); 5: Fiber (%); 6: Starch content (%); 7: Starch granule (%); 8: Inverted sugar (%); 9: Water filling (%); 10: Amylose (%); 11: Iron (mg/100)  Source: Own elaboration based on analysis by LAYSAA in 2012, Cochabamba   Molecular characterization yielded  diversity indices as the Polymorphic  Information Content (PIC) and  heterozygosity (H), for each set of  samples coming from the different  geographic regions.  Quinoas from the  Central Altiplano (CA) and Southern  Altiplano (SA) were the most abundant,  and also the most diverse (tables 2 and 3). For this study, the data of the alleles (in  base pairs) of every microsatellite were  transformed into binary data and arranged  in a matrix representing the presence of an  allele as 1 and the absence as 0. The  morphological information was obtained  from the evaluation of the germplasm  collection. 48 variables were selected that  included data on: stem coloring, plant  architecture, stem, leaf, inflorescence  and/or panicle, grain characteristics,  saponin, yield, phenology and tolerance to  abiotic (frost) and biotic (mildew) factors. Quinoas from every region have an  agromorphological pattern that  distinguishes them from each other. In the  Central Altiplano quinoas grow from 0.5    to 1.2 m, with short branches, the  glomerulate panicle prevails and the  phenological cycle lasts 168.40 ± 14.05  days. Quinoas in the Southern Altiplano have  larger grain (2.20 to 2.67 mm in  diameter), high saponin content; with a  prevailing amaraht-like panicle. In the Northern Altiplano, quinoas have a  height of 0.8 to 1.5 m, the glomerulate  panicle prevailes, the grain is small to  medium in size and white in color, the  growing season is fairly late to late (175  days). In inter-Andean valleys quinoas can reach  up to 2.5 m or more in height, with  branches reaching the second third of the  plant and very toothed leaves. The  phenological cycle is late (188-205 days),  amaranth-like panicles are dominant,  medium grain size (2 ± 0.13 mm) and high  saponin content (Rojas and Pinto 2013,  Bonifacio et al. 2012; Rojas 2003, Rojas   et al. 2001).   For the present study the above  morphological data were arranged in a  matrix where the names of the accessions  and morphological descriptors are  indicated with several levels of  descriptors (3-11). Based on available information about  molecular and morphological  characterization, out of all the accessions  from the quinoa collection, 1672 Bolivian  accessions from five regions were  selected: Northern Altiplano, Central  Altiplano, Southern Altiplano and  inter-Andean valleys and natural habitats  for the wild quinoas (ajaras) (Table 2).   Statistical Analysis: Forming the core  collection of quinoa   To form the core collection, a matrix with  molecular and morphological data was  developed. This information was  introduced in the PowerCore® program,  which enables sampling through the  Strategy M Maximization (van Hintum et  al. 2003). This strategy involves the use of  data indicating the magnitude of the  diversity of markers used for the  characterization of germplasm. It ensures  the inclusion of high allelic richness for  loci/markers used and directly takes into  account, in those loci, the magnitude of  the variation and deviation to the model or  pattern. Importantly, the M strategy not  only defines the number of accessions that  should come from different groups, but  also identifies the accessions that need to  be included (Schoen and Brown, 1994;  Schoen and Brown, 1995; Cortez 2011).  Thus, with the accessions selected by the  program, a dendrogram of the core  collection was generated. Using the  program NTSYSpc ® version 2.1.10 the    structure of this dendrogram was  compared with that of the total collection.  Diversity indices between the two  collections were also compared to check  the representativeness of the core  collection (Rohlf 2000; Zambrano et al.  2003).   Achievements   The data from the analysis, with a level of  100% of representation of the genetic  diversity, generated a subset of 486  accessions corresponding to 31% of the  total collection. Applying a level of 80%  of representation of the genetic diversity,  as suggested by the literature (Frankel et  al., 1984; Jaramillo and Baena, 2000;  Ozer  et al., 2004), a subset of 410   accessions was reached, which stands for  24% of the total collection (Table 2). Table 2 shows the number of accessions in  the core collection by region. The  percentage of accessions from each region  is variable; this indicates the degree of  redundancy (duplicated or genetically  very similar material) of accessions within  each region. This is the case of material from the  Northern Altiplano, from where a higher  percentage of accessions has been  considered both at 80% and 100% of  representation (46% and 57%,  respectively), compared with the other  regions. This is because in this region  there is less redundancy, therefore most  accessions are genetically different from  one another. A similar situation of low redundancy is  also observed in the material from the  inter-Andean valleys. It is noteworthy that    the number of accessions identified for the  core collection of this region is greater  than the number of accessions from the  core collection of the Southern Altiplano  and very close to that of the Central  Altiplano. This implies that although the  total number of accessions from the  Central and from the Southern Altiplano  is greater than that of the inter-Andean  valleys, it is likely that in the first two  regions of the Altiplano, several  genetically similar materials were  collected.   Comparison of the core collection with  the total collection, by visualization of the  dendrograms developed with the data  from each collection, shows that the core  collection conserves the structure of the  original collection. Figure 1 shows an example for material  from the Northern Altiplano, where the  genetic structure (arrangement of the  accessions into groups and subgroups) of  both collections (total and core) is the  same.   Table 3 compares PIC data from the total  collection, with PIC data from the core  collection, arranged by region. Diversity  indices of the core collection are slightly  higher than those of the original collection  because redundancies are reduced.  Therefore, the allele frequencies are  higher. The representativeness of the core  collection is consistent, although the  Bolivian Quinoa Collection has such a  diverse and complex structure. Genetic  diversity in the core collection is  maintained and redundancy has been  reduced to a minimum.   Conclusions   •  The methodology used for this study   enabled the identification of the most  representative quinoa accessions,  namely the group of accessions in  which the amplitude of the genetic  diversity found in the total collection    was maintained, based on  microsatellite markers,  agromorphological descriptors and  assessments of mildew and frost  tolerance. The quality and quantity of  information used to form the core  quinoa collection in this study, ensures  the inclusion of a wide range of  accessions that can be considered for  the selection of genetic material in  future assessments, either with  particular agromorphological  characteristics or with mildew and frost  tolerance characteristics.   • is to that   formation of a core collection is  dynamic. Future research could  include variables related to the  demands of the current context, such  as climate change, which requires  early and drought tolerant varieties; or  the market, which demands varieties  with nutritional and agroindustrial  qualities.   Participating agencies   The agromorphological and molecular  information used in this study was  generated within the framework of the  Project “Management, Conservation and   Sustainable Use of High Andean Grains”  as part of the National System of Genetic  Resources for Food and Agriculture  (SINARGEAA) and, the Quinoa Project  supported by the McKnight Foundation. The following people contributed  collecting information of molecular data,  during the implementation of the above  mentioned projects: Jorge Rojas Beltran,  Abel Turumaya, Pilar Gutiérrez, Rocío  Maldonado, Lucia Perez, Lilian Pinto and  Masiel Ovando. The agromorphological information has  been generated by the technical team of  PROINPA Foundation, Altiplano  Regional Office.    Cited references    Bonifacio, A., Aroni G., Villca, M. 2012.   Catálogo Etnobotánico de la Quinua  Real. Cochabamba, Bolivia. 123 p.  Brown, A., Schoen, D. 1994. Optimal sampling   strategies for core collections of plant  genetic resources. In: V. Loeschke, J.  Tomiuk y S. Jain (Eds.). Conservation  genetics. BirkhäuserVerlagBasel, Suiza.  pp. 357-369.  Cortez, F. 2011. Construcción de una   colección núcleo de  Solanum tuberosum   ssp.  andigena conservada en el banco   nacional de tubérculos y raíces andinas  en base a marcadores morfológicos y  moleculares. Master Degree Thesis.  Posgrado FCAP-UMSS. Cochabamba,  Bolivia.  Frankel, O., Brown, A. 1984. Plant genetic   resources today: A critical appraisal. In:  Holden, J., Williams, J. (Eds.). Crop    Genetic Resources: Conservation and  evaluation. Allen and Unwin. London, UK.  Jaramillo, S., Baena, M. 2000. Material de   apoyo a la capacitación en conservación  ex situ de recursos fitogenéticos.  International Plant Genetic Resource  Institute. Cali, Colombia. 210 p.  Kyu-Won, K., Chung, K., Cho, H.,   Chandrabalan, D., Jae-Gyun, G., Kim, T,  Eun G., Yong-Jin, P. 2007. PowerCore: A  program applying the advanced M  strategy with a heuristic search for  establishing core sets. Bioinformatics 23  (16):2155-2162.  Maughan, J., Bonifacio, A., Jellen, E., Stevens,   M., Coleman, C., Ricks, M., Mason, S.,  Jarvis, D., Ardunia, B., Fairbanks, D.  2004. A genetic linkage map of quinoa  (Chenopodium quinoa) based on AFLP,  RAPD, and SSR markers. Theor Appl  Genet 109:1188-1195.  Ozer, A., Suárez, R., Abadie, T. 2004.   Elaboración de una colección núcleo de  germoplasma de maíz de la raza blanco  dentado. Agrociencia Vol. VIII No. 1. pp.  1-10.  PASW. 2009. Predicción de resultados e   identificación de relaciones en los datos  categóricos. PASW® Categories 18 –  Specifications. 8 p.  Rojas, W., Pinto M. 2013. La diversidad   genética de quinua de Bolivia. In: Vargas,  M. (Ed.). Congreso Científico de la  Quinua (Proceedings). La Paz, Bolivia.  pp. 77 - 92.  Rojas, W., Pinto, M., Soto, J. 2010.   Distribución geográfica y variabilidad  genética de los granos andinos. In: Rojas  W., Pinto M., Soto J., Jagger M. y  Padulosi S. (Eds.). Granos Andinos:  Avances, logros y experiencias  desarrolladas en quinua, cañahua y  amaranto en Bolivia. Bioversity  International, Rome, Italy. pp. 11- 23.  Rojas, W. (Ed.). 2008. Manejo, conservación y   uso sostenible de los recursos genéticos  de granos altoandinos, en el marco del  SINARGEAA. Phase Report 2003-2008.  PROINPA Foundation. La Paz, Bolivia.  49 p.  Rojas, W., Cayoja, M., Espindola, G. 2001.   Catálogo de la colección de quinua  conservada en el Banco Nacional de  Granos Altoandinos. PROINPA  Foundation, MAGDER, PPD-PNUD,  SIBTA-UCEPSA, IPGRI, IFAD. La Paz,  Bolivia. 129 p.  Rohlf F. 2000. NTYSYS-pc, Numerical   Taxonomy and Multivariate Analysis  System, Version 2.10e. Appl.  Biostatistics, Inc., New York.  Schoen, D., Brown, A. 1995. Maximising   genetic diversity in core collections of wild  relatives of crop species. pp. 55-76. In:  Core collections of plant genetic    resources (T. Hodgkin, A. Brown, Th. van  Hintum y E. Morales, eds.). John Wiley  and Sons, United Kingdom.  van Hintum, Th., Brown, A., Spillane, C.,   Hodgkin, T. 2003 Colecciones núcleo de  recursos fitogenéticos. IPGRI Technical  Bulletin No. 3. International Plant Genetic  Resource Institute, Rome, Italy.  Zambrano, A., Demey, J., Fuenmayor, F.,   Segovia, V., Gutiérrez, Z. 2003.  Diversidad genética de una colección de  yuca a través de marcadores moleculares  RAPDS. Agronomía Trop. Venezuela 2  (53):155-174.   Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) has  outstanding intrinsic characteristics  including its genetic variability and its  functional properties. Its diversity forms  an extremely valuable gene pool and is  expressed in the variability of plant  colors, inflorescence and seed, plant  shape, nutritional value, productive  performance and length of growing  season. In the last twenty years,  significant scientific information  demonstrating the benefits of quinoa for  health, beyond basic nutrition, was  generated (Rojas et al. 2010a). The  knowledge and information contained in  the genetic diversity of quinoa, must be  used to further leverage the benefits of  quinoa for consumption, and particularly  for the industry. From a nutritional and dietary point of  view, quinoa is a natural source of plant  protein of high nutritional value, because  of its higher proportion of essential amino  acids; giving it a higher biological value  than wheat, rice and maize; and  comparable only with milk, meat and  eggs. As a source of plant protein, quinoa  helps the body develop and grow,  conserves heat and energy, it is easy to  digest and, combined with other foods,  produces a complete and balanced diet  that can replace animal foods (Rojas et al.,  2010a; Ayala et al., 2004). In Bolivia, the research on quinoa  breeding began in the early sixties,  focusing on achieving high performance  varieties, with white large grain, as was  the demand at that time. Since the  eighties, due to export markets  expectations, cultivation has expanded  significantly, and demands have not only  included white, but also red and black  quinoa. Likewise, changes in climate have    generated new demands like earliness, to  adjust planting to delayed rain cycles and  complete harvest within a shorter crop  cycle (Vargas et al., 2013). Traditionally companies and/or   associations have focused their efforts on  the export of raw materials, which is what  currently prevails in terms of foreign  sales. However, in the last decade  companies have begun the processing and  export of quinoa based products and  subproducts. The difficulty to achieve  optimal and competitive products for the  international market is that the products  are made with mixed quinoa (different  varieties in different proportions) and  consequently at agroindustrial level, it is  not possible to obtain the same quality for  the same preparation at different times. Considering the above, it is important to  study and take advantage of the genetic  diversity for the manufacture of processed  quinoa products, using in its true  magnitude the existing genetic potential to  obtain agroindustrial products of higher  quality. It is possible to identify, select  and develop varieties with high protein  content, with small diameters of starch  granule to process homogeneous popped  grain, with stable percentages of amylose  and amylopectin to make puddings,  gelatinized porridge, instant creams,  noodles, etc.   Nutritional value and  agroindustrial capacity of  quinoa’s agromorphologic -  genetic diversity   In Bolivia, the first initiatives to  implement a quinoa germplasm collection    date back to the early sixties, under the  initiative of Ing. Humberto Gandarillas  (Rojas  et al., 2010b). Originally, the   efforts focused on the registration of  agromorphological information. In 1985  and 2001 the first and second quinoa  catalogs were published (Espindola and  Saravia, 1985, Rojas et al., 2001). The 2001 catalog describes the genetic  variability of 2,701 quinoa accessions  through 59 qualitative and quantitative  agromorphologic variables. This  document was prepared during the period  of time when PROINPA Foundation was  in charge of the administration of the  quinoa germplasm collection, as  custodian appointed by mandate from the  Bolivian government (Rojas et al.,  2010b). When quinoas reach physiological  maturity they express a wide variety of  plant and grain colors, including white,  cream, yellow, orange, pink, red, purple,    light brown, brown and black. In the  Bolivian collection 66 grain colors and  four shapes, have been characterized, by  the appearance of the endosperm. This  gives quinoa, features that can be properly  exploited for the manufacture of  processed products. In order to increase the use of diversity in  the manufacture of quinoa processed  products, interaction with exporters of this  species was promoted. Until 2010,  nutritional information of 555 accessions  of the Bolivian Quinoa Collection was  registered, along with information on  agroindustrial characteristics of 260  accessions (Rojas and Pinto, 2013). Table 1 presents a summary of the  statistical parameters registered for each  feature of the nutritional value and  agroindustrial characteristics of quinoa,  expressed on a dry basis (Rojas et al.,  2007; Rojas et al., 2010a).   Quinoa accessions show a wide variability  for most of the studied traits, which is an  indicator of the genetic potential of this  germplasm. Figure 1 shows the variation in the  frequency distribution of protein content  for 555 accessions of the Bolivian quinoa  collection. In the majority of accessions  the protein content varies from 12.0% to  16.9%, while there are a small number of  accessions (42) with contents that range  from 17% to 18.9%. The latter group is an  important source of genes to promote  development of products with high  protein content (Rojas et al., 2010a). This  information was corroborated by other  similar studies by Reynaga et al., 2013. The fat content ranges from 2.05% to  10.88%, with an average of 6.39% (Table  1).  βo (1991) and Moron (1999) cited by  Jacobsen and Sherwood (2002), indicate  that the fat content of quinoa has a high  value, due to its high percentage of  non-saturated fatty acids. Accessions with    these values can be used for the  production of fine vegetable oils for  culinary and cosmetic use. Genetic variation on size of starch granule  ranged from 1 μ to 28 μ (Table 1, Figure  2). It is very important that the starch  granule be small, to facilitate the process  of texturing and expansion, because  spaces between granules allow more air to  enter for exchange and formation of air  bubbles (Rojas et al., 2007). This feature  is important for the agroindustry because  it enables the use of various cereal and  legume mixes, to take advantage of the  functional characteristics of quinoa. The content of inverted sugars varies from  10% to 35% (Table 1). This variable  expresses the amount of sugar that begins  fermentation by splitting or inversion.  It  is the parameter used to determine the  quality of carbohydrates. It is also an  important parameter by which quinoa can  be classified as a food fit for diabetics.   The optimum content of inverted sugar is  ≥ 25%. Quinoa accessions analyzed from  the germplasm meet this condition and  have potential to be used in mixtures with  flour to process breads, cereals, etc. The variable of “water filling” shows a  range of variation from 16% to 66%  (Table 1). This variable measures the  water absorption capacity of starch,  important parameter for processing of  pasta, bread and pastries. The ideal value  for this parameter, in industrial  applications, ≥ Considering  variability within quinoa in relation to this  characteristic, there is an important gene  pool that can be used for the development  of such processed products. Recently PROINPA Foundation, through  its quinoa breeding program is prioritizing  the inclusion of criteria related to  nutritional value and agroindustrial  characteristics for the development of  quinoa varieties, while seeking at the  same time that they comply with market  parameters, productivity and adaptation to  climate change.   Table 2 shows results of quinoa materials  that are in the process of generation of  new varieties. According to Table 2, the Kurmi variety  has 16.11% protein. Through selection  techniques applied to deviants of this  variety, the line K-Chullpi has been  obtained. The K-Chullpi line has a protein  content of 18.20% which is higher than  that of Kurmi.  It also has a starch granule  diameter 1.5 being than  Kurmi variety that has a diameter of 2.1 μ.  However, both varieties have excellent  aptitude for the development of expanded  products and popped grain. Similarly, the iron content increased  significantly in the K-Chullpi line,  reaching 4.8 mg/100 g of dry matter, in  comparison to the Kurmi variety that has  1.2 mg/100 g of dry matter. Varieties with  these characteristics may be an alternative  for programs conducted by the Bolivian  Government, that focus on maternal and  child malnutrition and, breastfeeding.   In addition, although the 11Cf line comes  from the variety Aynoka, there is an  increase in protein content from 13.65%  to 16.85%, and an increase in fiber from  4.25% to 6.10%. The diameter of the  starch granule remains 2.8 which  means that, both have potential  characteristics for the elaboration of  expanded products and popped grain.  However, the iron content went down  from 4.5 mg/100 to 2.7 mg/100 g of dry  matter.  On the other hand, in the particular case of  the “Real Blanca” variety, it has  significant protein content (14.49%), but  its value of starch granule diameter is of  5.2 thus not for  production of expanded products and  popped grain.   Challenges and opportunities   The strategic lines of research for quinoa  cultivation need to consider the genetic  diversity available in the country, that is  also the most important worldwide.  This  genetic diversity, if properly used, offers  enormous potential for diverse fields of  application. Otherwise, it will continue to  be underutilized, as it has been so far, with  the export of raw material from mixed  varieties. There are 66 colors of quinoa grain,  whose antioxidant properties, that can  help develop nutraceutical products, have  not yet been studied. Despite the wide  diversity of shapes, sizes and colors of  quinoa grain, the consumer at the time of  purchasing the product in different  markets and fairs, differentiates only three  colors of quinoa: white, brown and black.   It is necessary to strengthen the  development of agroindustrial products  using the genetic diversity of quinoa  properly, thus generating high quality and  standardized products, which can offer the  same quality over time. The genetic base  available for quinoa also allows the  country to take the lead in the  development and export of processed  products with standard quality. It is important to take into account that the  varieties with potential for agroindustrial  processing should also reach the  necessary standards for production and  adaptation to climate change. Varieties  should have early cultivation cycles to  adapt to climate variability and to the  specific characteristics of every  productive region of the country. Initiatives that promote the use of native  and improved seed varieties are required,  because quality standards need to be met  from sowing to harvest. The production  process needs to be improved and  volumes demanded by the agroindustry  need to be met. But overall, the process  needs to contribute to the sustainability of  the quinoa business in production areas. In this challenge, each actor involved in  the production and marketing of quinoa,  plays an important role. However, this  role will be best matched if worked  through a country strategy that guides the  actions of all actors involved in the quinoa  sector. Acknowledgement:  The work on the   assessment of the nutritional and  agroindustrial value was financially  supported by the Project "Management,  Conservation and Sustainable Use of  Genetic Resources of High Andean    Grain", the McKnight Foundation, the  UNEP/GEF Project on "In situ  Conservation of Crop Wild relatives  through Strengthening Information  Management and its Application in the  Field - Bolivian Component" and the  NUS/IFAD Project on "Neglected and  Underutilized Species".   Cited references    Ayala, G., Ortega, L., Morón, C. 2004. Valor   nutritivo y usos de la quinua. In: A. Mujica,  S. Jacobsen, J. Izquierdo y J. Marathee  (Eds.). Quinua: Ancestral cultivo andino,  alimento del presente y futuro.  FAO-UNA-CIP. Santiago, Chile. pp.  215-253.  CEDLA. 2013. Cultivo de la quinua y   producción capitalista en las  comunidades del Altiplano Sur de Bolivia.  Boletín de Seguimiento a Políticas  Públicas Año X – N° 22. Centro de  Estudios para el Desarrollo Laboral y  Agrario (CEDLA). Julio 2013. La Paz,  Bolivia.  Espíndola, G., Saravia, R. 1985. Catálogo de   quinua del banco de germoplasma en la  Estación Experimental de Patacamaya.  La Paz, Bolivia, MACA-IBTA pp. 2-11.  Jacobsen, S., Sherwood, S. 2002. Cultivo de   Granos Andinos en Ecuador. Informe  sobre los rubros quinua, chocho y  amaranto. Organización de las Naciones  Unidas para la Agricultura y la  Alimentación (FAO), Centro Internacional  de la Papa (CIP) y Catholic Relief  Services (CRS). Quito, Ecuador. 89 p  Reynaga, A., Quispe, M., Calderón, I.   Huarachi, A., Soto, J. 2013.  Caracterización físico - química y  nutricional de los 13 ecotipos de quinua  real (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) del  altiplano sur de Bolivia con fines  agroindustriales y exportación. pp.  517-524. In: Congreso Científico de la  Quinua (Proceedings). June 14 and 15,  2013. Vargas, M. (Ed.). MDRyT, VDRA,  INIAF, IICA. La Paz, Bolivia. 682 p.   Rojas, W., Cayoja, M., Espíndola, G. 2001.   Catálogo de colección de quinua  conservada en el Banco Nacional de  Granos Altoandinos. Fundación  PROINPA, MAGDER, PPD–PNUD,  SIBTA, UCEPSA, IPGRI, IFAD. La Paz,  Bolivia. 129 p.  Rojas, W., Pinto, M., Alcocer, E. 2007.   Diversidad genética del valor nutritivo y  agroindustrial del germoplasma de  quinua. Revista de Agricultura. Year 59,  41:33-37. Cochabamba, Bolivia.  Rojas, W., Pinto, M., Soto, J., Alcocer, E.   2010a. Valor nutricional, agroindustrial y  funcional de los granos andinos. In: W.  Rojas, M. Pinto, J. Soto, M. Jagger y S.  Padulosi (Eds.). Granos Andinos:  Avances, logros y experiencias  desarrolladas en quinua, cañahua y  amaranto en Bolivia. Bioversity  International, Roma, Italia. pp. 151-164.   Rojas, W., Pinto, M., Bonifacio, A.,   Gandarillas, A. 2010b. Banco de  germoplasma de granos andinos. In: W.  Rojas, M. Pinto, J. Soto, M. Jagger y S.  Padulosi (Eds.). Granos Andinos:  Avances, logros y experiencias  desarrolladas en quinua, cañahua y  amaranto en Bolivia. Bioversity  International, Roma, Italia. pp. 24-38.  Rojas, W., Pinto, M. 2013. La diversidad   genética de quinua de Bolivia. In: Vargas,  M. (Editor). Congreso Científico de la  Quinua (Proceedings). June 14 and 15,  2013. La Paz, Bolivia. pp. 77-92.  Vargas, A., Bonifacio, A., Rojas, W. 2013.   Mejoramiento para calidad industrial de la  quinua. In: Vargas, M. (Editor). Congreso  Científico de la Quinua (Proceedings).  June 14 and 15, 2013. La Paz, Bolivia. pp  497-507.     ISSN 1998 - 9652   Area: Technology Development 98   Molecular characterization yielded  diversity indices as the Polymorphic  Information Content (PIC) and  heterozygosity (H), for each set of  samples coming from the different  geographic regions.  Quinoas from the  Central Altiplano (CA) and Southern  Altiplano (SA) were the most abundant,  and also the most diverse (tables 2 and 3). For this study, the data of the alleles (in  base pairs) of every microsatellite were  transformed into binary data and arranged  in a matrix representing the presence of an  allele as 1 and the absence as 0. The  morphological information was obtained  from the evaluation of the germplasm  collection. 48 variables were selected that  included data on: stem coloring, plant  architecture, stem, leaf, inflorescence  and/or panicle, grain characteristics,  saponin, yield, phenology and tolerance to  abiotic (frost) and biotic (mildew) factors. Quinoas from every region have an  agromorphological pattern that  distinguishes them from each other. In the  Central Altiplano quinoas grow from 0.5    to 1.2 m, with short branches, the  glomerulate panicle prevails and the  phenological cycle lasts 168.40 ± 14.05  days. Quinoas in the Southern Altiplano have  larger grain (2.20 to 2.67 mm in  diameter), high saponin content; with a  prevailing amaraht-like panicle. In the Northern Altiplano, quinoas have a  height of 0.8 to 1.5 m, the glomerulate  panicle prevailes, the grain is small to  medium in size and white in color, the  growing season is fairly late to late (175  days). In inter-Andean valleys quinoas can reach  up to 2.5 m or more in height, with  branches reaching the second third of the  plant and very toothed leaves. The  phenological cycle is late (188-205 days),  amaranth-like panicles are dominant,  medium grain size (2 ± 0.13 mm) and high  saponin content (Rojas and Pinto 2013,  Bonifacio et al. 2012; Rojas 2003, Rojas   et al. 2001).   For the present study the above  morphological data were arranged in a  matrix where the names of the accessions  and morphological descriptors are  indicated with several levels of  descriptors (3-11). Based on available information about  molecular and morphological  characterization, out of all the accessions  from the quinoa collection, 1672 Bolivian  accessions from five regions were  selected: Northern Altiplano, Central  Altiplano, Southern Altiplano and  inter-Andean valleys and natural habitats  for the wild quinoas (ajaras) (Table 2).   Statistical Analysis: Forming the core  collection of quinoa   To form the core collection, a matrix with  molecular and morphological data was  developed. This information was  introduced in the PowerCore® program,  which enables sampling through the  Strategy M Maximization (van Hintum et  al. 2003). This strategy involves the use of  data indicating the magnitude of the  diversity of markers used for the  characterization of germplasm. It ensures  the inclusion of high allelic richness for  loci/markers used and directly takes into  account, in those loci, the magnitude of  the variation and deviation to the model or  pattern. Importantly, the M strategy not  only defines the number of accessions that  should come from different groups, but  also identifies the accessions that need to  be included (Schoen and Brown, 1994;  Schoen and Brown, 1995; Cortez 2011).  Thus, with the accessions selected by the  program, a dendrogram of the core  collection was generated. Using the  program NTSYSpc ® version 2.1.10 the    structure of this dendrogram was  compared with that of the total collection.  Diversity indices between the two  collections were also compared to check  the representativeness of the core  collection (Rohlf 2000; Zambrano et al.  2003).   Achievements   The data from the analysis, with a level of  100% of representation of the genetic  diversity, generated a subset of 486  accessions corresponding to 31% of the  total collection. Applying a level of 80%  of representation of the genetic diversity,  as suggested by the literature (Frankel et  al., 1984; Jaramillo and Baena, 2000;  Ozer  et al., 2004), a subset of 410   accessions was reached, which stands for  24% of the total collection (Table 2). Table 2 shows the number of accessions in  the core collection by region. The  percentage of accessions from each region  is variable; this indicates the degree of  redundancy (duplicated or genetically  very similar material) of accessions within  each region. This is the case of material from the  Northern Altiplano, from where a higher  percentage of accessions has been  considered both at 80% and 100% of  representation (46% and 57%,  respectively), compared with the other  regions. This is because in this region  there is less redundancy, therefore most  accessions are genetically different from  one another. A similar situation of low redundancy is  also observed in the material from the  inter-Andean valleys. It is noteworthy that    the number of accessions identified for the  core collection of this region is greater  than the number of accessions from the  core collection of the Southern Altiplano  and very close to that of the Central  Altiplano. This implies that although the  total number of accessions from the  Central and from the Southern Altiplano  is greater than that of the inter-Andean  valleys, it is likely that in the first two  regions of the Altiplano, several  genetically similar materials were  collected.   Comparison of the core collection with  the total collection, by visualization of the  dendrograms developed with the data  from each collection, shows that the core  collection conserves the structure of the  original collection. Figure 1 shows an example for material  from the Northern Altiplano, where the  genetic structure (arrangement of the  accessions into groups and subgroups) of  both collections (total and core) is the  same.   Table 3 compares PIC data from the total  collection, with PIC data from the core  collection, arranged by region. Diversity  indices of the core collection are slightly  higher than those of the original collection  because redundancies are reduced.  Therefore, the allele frequencies are  higher. The representativeness of the core  collection is consistent, although the  Bolivian Quinoa Collection has such a  diverse and complex structure. Genetic  diversity in the core collection is  maintained and redundancy has been  reduced to a minimum.   Conclusions   •  The methodology used for this study   enabled the identification of the most  representative quinoa accessions,  namely the group of accessions in  which the amplitude of the genetic  diversity found in the total collection    was maintained, based on  microsatellite markers,  agromorphological descriptors and  assessments of mildew and frost  tolerance. The quality and quantity of  information used to form the core  quinoa collection in this study, ensures  the inclusion of a wide range of  accessions that can be considered for  the selection of genetic material in  future assessments, either with  particular agromorphological  characteristics or with mildew and frost  tolerance characteristics.   • is to that   formation of a core collection is  dynamic. Future research could  include variables related to the  demands of the current context, such  as climate change, which requires  early and drought tolerant varieties; or  the market, which demands varieties  with nutritional and agroindustrial  qualities.   Participating agencies   The agromorphological and molecular  information used in this study was  generated within the framework of the  Project “Management, Conservation and   Sustainable Use of High Andean Grains”  as part of the National System of Genetic  Resources for Food and Agriculture  (SINARGEAA) and, the Quinoa Project  supported by the McKnight Foundation. The following people contributed  collecting information of molecular data,  during the implementation of the above  mentioned projects: Jorge Rojas Beltran,  Abel Turumaya, Pilar Gutiérrez, Rocío  Maldonado, Lucia Perez, Lilian Pinto and  Masiel Ovando. The agromorphological information has  been generated by the technical team of  PROINPA Foundation, Altiplano  Regional Office.    Cited references    Bonifacio, A., Aroni G., Villca, M. 2012.   Catálogo Etnobotánico de la Quinua  Real. Cochabamba, Bolivia. 123 p.  Brown, A., Schoen, D. 1994. Optimal sampling   strategies for core collections of plant  genetic resources. In: V. Loeschke, J.  Tomiuk y S. Jain (Eds.). Conservation  genetics. BirkhäuserVerlagBasel, Suiza.  pp. 357-369.  Cortez, F. 2011. Construcción de una   colección núcleo de  Solanum tuberosum   ssp.  andigena conservada en el banco   nacional de tubérculos y raíces andinas  en base a marcadores morfológicos y  moleculares. Master Degree Thesis.  Posgrado FCAP-UMSS. Cochabamba,  Bolivia.  Frankel, O., Brown, A. 1984. Plant genetic   resources today: A critical appraisal. In:  Holden, J., Williams, J. (Eds.). Crop    Genetic Resources: Conservation and  evaluation. Allen and Unwin. London, UK.  Jaramillo, S., Baena, M. 2000. Material de   apoyo a la capacitación en conservación  ex situ de recursos fitogenéticos.  International Plant Genetic Resource  Institute. Cali, Colombia. 210 p.  Kyu-Won, K., Chung, K., Cho, H.,   Chandrabalan, D., Jae-Gyun, G., Kim, T,  Eun G., Yong-Jin, P. 2007. PowerCore: A  program applying the advanced M  strategy with a heuristic search for  establishing core sets. Bioinformatics 23  (16):2155-2162.  Maughan, J., Bonifacio, A., Jellen, E., Stevens,   M., Coleman, C., Ricks, M., Mason, S.,  Jarvis, D., Ardunia, B., Fairbanks, D.  2004. A genetic linkage map of quinoa  (Chenopodium quinoa) based on AFLP,  RAPD, and SSR markers. Theor Appl  Genet 109:1188-1195.  Ozer, A., Suárez, R., Abadie, T. 2004.   Elaboración de una colección núcleo de  germoplasma de maíz de la raza blanco  dentado. Agrociencia Vol. VIII No. 1. pp.  1-10.  PASW. 2009. Predicción de resultados e   identificación de relaciones en los datos  categóricos. PASW® Categories 18 –  Specifications. 8 p.  Rojas, W., Pinto M. 2013. La diversidad   genética de quinua de Bolivia. In: Vargas,  M. (Ed.). Congreso Científico de la  Quinua (Proceedings). La Paz, Bolivia.  pp. 77 - 92.  Rojas, W., Pinto, M., Soto, J. 2010.   Distribución geográfica y variabilidad  genética de los granos andinos. In: Rojas  W., Pinto M., Soto J., Jagger M. y  Padulosi S. (Eds.). Granos Andinos:  Avances, logros y experiencias  desarrolladas en quinua, cañahua y  amaranto en Bolivia. Bioversity  International, Rome, Italy. pp. 11- 23.  Rojas, W. (Ed.). 2008. Manejo, conservación y   uso sostenible de los recursos genéticos  de granos altoandinos, en el marco del  SINARGEAA. Phase Report 2003-2008.  PROINPA Foundation. La Paz, Bolivia.  49 p.  Rojas, W., Cayoja, M., Espindola, G. 2001.   Catálogo de la colección de quinua  conservada en el Banco Nacional de  Granos Altoandinos. PROINPA  Foundation, MAGDER, PPD-PNUD,  SIBTA-UCEPSA, IPGRI, IFAD. La Paz,  Bolivia. 129 p.  Rohlf F. 2000. NTYSYS-pc, Numerical   Taxonomy and Multivariate Analysis  System, Version 2.10e. Appl.  Biostatistics, Inc., New York.  Schoen, D., Brown, A. 1995. Maximising   genetic diversity in core collections of wild  relatives of crop species. pp. 55-76. In:  Core collections of plant genetic    resources (T. Hodgkin, A. Brown, Th. van  Hintum y E. Morales, eds.). John Wiley  and Sons, United Kingdom.  van Hintum, Th., Brown, A., Spillane, C.,   Hodgkin, T. 2003 Colecciones núcleo de  recursos fitogenéticos. IPGRI Technical  Bulletin No. 3. International Plant Genetic  Resource Institute, Rome, Italy.  Zambrano, A., Demey, J., Fuenmayor, F.,   Segovia, V., Gutiérrez, Z. 2003.  Diversidad genética de una colección de  yuca a través de marcadores moleculares  RAPDS. Agronomía Trop. Venezuela 2  (53):155-174.   Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) has  outstanding intrinsic characteristics  including its genetic variability and its  functional properties. Its diversity forms  an extremely valuable gene pool and is  expressed in the variability of plant  colors, inflorescence and seed, plant  shape, nutritional value, productive  performance and length of growing  season. In the last twenty years,  significant scientific information  demonstrating the benefits of quinoa for  health, beyond basic nutrition, was  generated (Rojas et al. 2010a). The  knowledge and information contained in  the genetic diversity of quinoa, must be  used to further leverage the benefits of  quinoa for consumption, and particularly  for the industry. From a nutritional and dietary point of  view, quinoa is a natural source of plant  protein of high nutritional value, because  of its higher proportion of essential amino  acids; giving it a higher biological value  than wheat, rice and maize; and  comparable only with milk, meat and  eggs. As a source of plant protein, quinoa  helps the body develop and grow,  conserves heat and energy, it is easy to  digest and, combined with other foods,  produces a complete and balanced diet  that can replace animal foods (Rojas et al.,  2010a; Ayala et al., 2004). In Bolivia, the research on quinoa  breeding began in the early sixties,  focusing on achieving high performance  varieties, with white large grain, as was  the demand at that time. Since the  eighties, due to export markets  expectations, cultivation has expanded  significantly, and demands have not only  included white, but also red and black  quinoa. Likewise, changes in climate have    generated new demands like earliness, to  adjust planting to delayed rain cycles and  complete harvest within a shorter crop  cycle (Vargas et al., 2013). Traditionally companies and/or   associations have focused their efforts on  the export of raw materials, which is what  currently prevails in terms of foreign  sales. However, in the last decade  companies have begun the processing and  export of quinoa based products and  subproducts. The difficulty to achieve  optimal and competitive products for the  international market is that the products  are made with mixed quinoa (different  varieties in different proportions) and  consequently at agroindustrial level, it is  not possible to obtain the same quality for  the same preparation at different times. Considering the above, it is important to  study and take advantage of the genetic  diversity for the manufacture of processed  quinoa products, using in its true  magnitude the existing genetic potential to  obtain agroindustrial products of higher  quality. It is possible to identify, select  and develop varieties with high protein  content, with small diameters of starch  granule to process homogeneous popped  grain, with stable percentages of amylose  and amylopectin to make puddings,  gelatinized porridge, instant creams,  noodles, etc.   Nutritional value and  agroindustrial capacity of  quinoa’s agromorphologic -  genetic diversity   In Bolivia, the first initiatives to  implement a quinoa germplasm collection    date back to the early sixties, under the  initiative of Ing. Humberto Gandarillas  (Rojas  et al., 2010b). Originally, the   efforts focused on the registration of  agromorphological information. In 1985  and 2001 the first and second quinoa  catalogs were published (Espindola and  Saravia, 1985, Rojas et al., 2001). The 2001 catalog describes the genetic  variability of 2,701 quinoa accessions  through 59 qualitative and quantitative  agromorphologic variables. This  document was prepared during the period  of time when PROINPA Foundation was  in charge of the administration of the  quinoa germplasm collection, as  custodian appointed by mandate from the  Bolivian government (Rojas et al.,  2010b). When quinoas reach physiological  maturity they express a wide variety of  plant and grain colors, including white,  cream, yellow, orange, pink, red, purple,    light brown, brown and black. In the  Bolivian collection 66 grain colors and  four shapes, have been characterized, by  the appearance of the endosperm. This  gives quinoa, features that can be properly  exploited for the manufacture of  processed products. In order to increase the use of diversity in  the manufacture of quinoa processed  products, interaction with exporters of this  species was promoted. Until 2010,  nutritional information of 555 accessions  of the Bolivian Quinoa Collection was  registered, along with information on  agroindustrial characteristics of 260  accessions (Rojas and Pinto, 2013). Table 1 presents a summary of the  statistical parameters registered for each  feature of the nutritional value and  agroindustrial characteristics of quinoa,  expressed on a dry basis (Rojas et al.,  2007; Rojas et al., 2010a).   Quinoa accessions show a wide variability  for most of the studied traits, which is an  indicator of the genetic potential of this  germplasm. Figure 1 shows the variation in the  frequency distribution of protein content  for 555 accessions of the Bolivian quinoa  collection. In the majority of accessions  the protein content varies from 12.0% to  16.9%, while there are a small number of  accessions (42) with contents that range  from 17% to 18.9%. The latter group is an  important source of genes to promote  development of products with high  protein content (Rojas et al., 2010a). This  information was corroborated by other  similar studies by Reynaga et al., 2013. The fat content ranges from 2.05% to  10.88%, with an average of 6.39% (Table  1).  βo (1991) and Moron (1999) cited by  Jacobsen and Sherwood (2002), indicate  that the fat content of quinoa has a high  value, due to its high percentage of  non-saturated fatty acids. Accessions with    these values can be used for the  production of fine vegetable oils for  culinary and cosmetic use. Genetic variation on size of starch granule  ranged from 1 μ to 28 μ (Table 1, Figure  2). It is very important that the starch  granule be small, to facilitate the process  of texturing and expansion, because  spaces between granules allow more air to  enter for exchange and formation of air  bubbles (Rojas et al., 2007). This feature  is important for the agroindustry because  it enables the use of various cereal and  legume mixes, to take advantage of the  functional characteristics of quinoa. The content of inverted sugars varies from  10% to 35% (Table 1). This variable  expresses the amount of sugar that begins  fermentation by splitting or inversion.  It  is the parameter used to determine the  quality of carbohydrates. It is also an  important parameter by which quinoa can  be classified as a food fit for diabetics.   The optimum content of inverted sugar is  ≥ 25%. Quinoa accessions analyzed from  the germplasm meet this condition and  have potential to be used in mixtures with  flour to process breads, cereals, etc. The variable of “water filling” shows a  range of variation from 16% to 66%  (Table 1). This variable measures the  water absorption capacity of starch,  important parameter for processing of  pasta, bread and pastries. The ideal value  for this parameter, in industrial  applications, ≥ Considering  variability within quinoa in relation to this  characteristic, there is an important gene  pool that can be used for the development  of such processed products. Recently PROINPA Foundation, through  its quinoa breeding program is prioritizing  the inclusion of criteria related to  nutritional value and agroindustrial  characteristics for the development of  quinoa varieties, while seeking at the  same time that they comply with market  parameters, productivity and adaptation to  climate change.   Table 2 shows results of quinoa materials  that are in the process of generation of  new varieties. According to Table 2, the Kurmi variety  has 16.11% protein. Through selection  techniques applied to deviants of this  variety, the line K-Chullpi has been  obtained. The K-Chullpi line has a protein  content of 18.20% which is higher than  that of Kurmi.  It also has a starch granule  diameter 1.5 being than  Kurmi variety that has a diameter of 2.1 μ.  However, both varieties have excellent  aptitude for the development of expanded  products and popped grain. Similarly, the iron content increased  significantly in the K-Chullpi line,  reaching 4.8 mg/100 g of dry matter, in  comparison to the Kurmi variety that has  1.2 mg/100 g of dry matter. Varieties with  these characteristics may be an alternative  for programs conducted by the Bolivian  Government, that focus on maternal and  child malnutrition and, breastfeeding.   In addition, although the 11Cf line comes  from the variety Aynoka, there is an  increase in protein content from 13.65%  to 16.85%, and an increase in fiber from  4.25% to 6.10%. The diameter of the  starch granule remains 2.8 which  means that, both have potential  characteristics for the elaboration of  expanded products and popped grain.  However, the iron content went down  from 4.5 mg/100 to 2.7 mg/100 g of dry  matter.  On the other hand, in the particular case of  the “Real Blanca” variety, it has  significant protein content (14.49%), but  its value of starch granule diameter is of  5.2 thus not for  production of expanded products and  popped grain.   Challenges and opportunities   The strategic lines of research for quinoa  cultivation need to consider the genetic  diversity available in the country, that is  also the most important worldwide.  This  genetic diversity, if properly used, offers  enormous potential for diverse fields of  application. Otherwise, it will continue to  be underutilized, as it has been so far, with  the export of raw material from mixed  varieties. There are 66 colors of quinoa grain,  whose antioxidant properties, that can  help develop nutraceutical products, have  not yet been studied. Despite the wide  diversity of shapes, sizes and colors of  quinoa grain, the consumer at the time of  purchasing the product in different  markets and fairs, differentiates only three  colors of quinoa: white, brown and black.   It is necessary to strengthen the  development of agroindustrial products  using the genetic diversity of quinoa  properly, thus generating high quality and  standardized products, which can offer the  same quality over time. The genetic base  available for quinoa also allows the  country to take the lead in the  development and export of processed  products with standard quality. It is important to take into account that the  varieties with potential for agroindustrial  processing should also reach the  necessary standards for production and  adaptation to climate change. Varieties  should have early cultivation cycles to  adapt to climate variability and to the  specific characteristics of every  productive region of the country. Initiatives that promote the use of native  and improved seed varieties are required,  because quality standards need to be met  from sowing to harvest. The production  process needs to be improved and  volumes demanded by the agroindustry  need to be met. But overall, the process  needs to contribute to the sustainability of  the quinoa business in production areas. In this challenge, each actor involved in  the production and marketing of quinoa,  plays an important role. However, this  role will be best matched if worked  through a country strategy that guides the  actions of all actors involved in the quinoa  sector. Acknowledgement:  The work on the   assessment of the nutritional and  agroindustrial value was financially  supported by the Project "Management,  Conservation and Sustainable Use of  Genetic Resources of High Andean    Grain", the McKnight Foundation, the  UNEP/GEF Project on "In situ  Conservation of Crop Wild relatives  through Strengthening Information  Management and its Application in the  Field - Bolivian Component" and the  NUS/IFAD Project on "Neglected and  Underutilized Species".   Cited references    Ayala, G., Ortega, L., Morón, C. 2004. Valor   nutritivo y usos de la quinua. In: A. Mujica,  S. Jacobsen, J. Izquierdo y J. Marathee  (Eds.). Quinua: Ancestral cultivo andino,  alimento del presente y futuro.  FAO-UNA-CIP. Santiago, Chile. pp.  215-253.  CEDLA. 2013. Cultivo de la quinua y   producción capitalista en las  comunidades del Altiplano Sur de Bolivia.  Boletín de Seguimiento a Políticas  Públicas Año X – N° 22. Centro de  Estudios para el Desarrollo Laboral y  Agrario (CEDLA). Julio 2013. La Paz,  Bolivia.  Espíndola, G., Saravia, R. 1985. Catálogo de   quinua del banco de germoplasma en la  Estación Experimental de Patacamaya.  La Paz, Bolivia, MACA-IBTA pp. 2-11.  Jacobsen, S., Sherwood, S. 2002. Cultivo de   Granos Andinos en Ecuador. Informe  sobre los rubros quinua, chocho y  amaranto. Organización de las Naciones  Unidas para la Agricultura y la  Alimentación (FAO), Centro Internacional  de la Papa (CIP) y Catholic Relief  Services (CRS). Quito, Ecuador. 89 p  Reynaga, A., Quispe, M., Calderón, I.   Huarachi, A., Soto, J. 2013.  Caracterización físico - química y  nutricional de los 13 ecotipos de quinua  real (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) del  altiplano sur de Bolivia con fines  agroindustriales y exportación. pp.  517-524. In: Congreso Científico de la  Quinua (Proceedings). June 14 and 15,  2013. Vargas, M. (Ed.). MDRyT, VDRA,  INIAF, IICA. La Paz, Bolivia. 682 p.   Rojas, W., Cayoja, M., Espíndola, G. 2001.   Catálogo de colección de quinua  conservada en el Banco Nacional de  Granos Altoandinos. Fundación  PROINPA, MAGDER, PPD–PNUD,  SIBTA, UCEPSA, IPGRI, IFAD. La Paz,  Bolivia. 129 p.  Rojas, W., Pinto, M., Alcocer, E. 2007.   Diversidad genética del valor nutritivo y  agroindustrial del germoplasma de  quinua. Revista de Agricultura. Year 59,  41:33-37. Cochabamba, Bolivia.  Rojas, W., Pinto, M., Soto, J., Alcocer, E.   2010a. Valor nutricional, agroindustrial y  funcional de los granos andinos. In: W.  Rojas, M. Pinto, J. Soto, M. Jagger y S.  Padulosi (Eds.). Granos Andinos:  Avances, logros y experiencias  desarrolladas en quinua, cañahua y  amaranto en Bolivia. Bioversity  International, Roma, Italia. pp. 151-164.   Rojas, W., Pinto, M., Bonifacio, A.,   Gandarillas, A. 2010b. Banco de  germoplasma de granos andinos. In: W.  Rojas, M. Pinto, J. Soto, M. Jagger y S.  Padulosi (Eds.). Granos Andinos:  Avances, logros y experiencias  desarrolladas en quinua, cañahua y  amaranto en Bolivia. Bioversity  International, Roma, Italia. pp. 24-38.  Rojas, W., Pinto, M. 2013. La diversidad   genética de quinua de Bolivia. In: Vargas,  M. (Editor). Congreso Científico de la  Quinua (Proceedings). June 14 and 15,  2013. La Paz, Bolivia. pp. 77-92.  Vargas, A., Bonifacio, A., Rojas, W. 2013.   Mejoramiento para calidad industrial de la  quinua. In: Vargas, M. (Editor). Congreso  Científico de la Quinua (Proceedings).  June 14 and 15, 2013. La Paz, Bolivia. pp  497-507.     Revista de Agricultura, Nro. 54 - Julio de 2014   Area: Technology Development 99       Article receive on June 12, 2014 – Article accepted on June 19, 2014       La Fundación PROINPA pone a su disposición  una amplia gama de variedades de semilla de  quinua certificada con pureza varietal superior a  95% y con alto poder germinativo que facilita la  obtención de mejores rendimientos en el cultivo. PROPIEDADES: La oferta de semilla de quinua  tiene los siguientes atributos:  •  •  •   grano negro  •  •   VARIEDADES Se dispone de semilla para diferentes fines  comerciales (harinas, grano de color, grano  tamaño real, etc) en las siguientes variedades:   SEMILLA DE QUINUA  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  •   CONTACTOS Fundación PROINPA:  Av. E. Meneces s/n Km 4   zona El Paso – Cochabamba Telf.: (591-4) 4319595 int 144 Cel: 71709688 Oficina Oruro: C. Rodríguez # 340 Teléfono/Fax: (591-2) 5284490   Molecular characterization yielded  diversity indices as the Polymorphic  Information Content (PIC) and  heterozygosity (H), for each set of  samples coming from the different  geographic regions.  Quinoas from the  Central Altiplano (CA) and Southern  Altiplano (SA) were the most abundant,  and also the most diverse (tables 2 and 3). For this study, the data of the alleles (in  base pairs) of every microsatellite were  transformed into binary data and arranged  in a matrix representing the presence of an  allele as 1 and the absence as 0. The  morphological information was obtained  from the evaluation of the germplasm  collection. 48 variables were selected that  included data on: stem coloring, plant  architecture, stem, leaf, inflorescence  and/or panicle, grain characteristics,  saponin, yield, phenology and tolerance to  abiotic (frost) and biotic (mildew) factors. Quinoas from every region have an  agromorphological pattern that  distinguishes them from each other. In the  Central Altiplano quinoas grow from 0.5    to 1.2 m, with short branches, the  glomerulate panicle prevails and the  phenological cycle lasts 168.40 ± 14.05  days. Quinoas in the Southern Altiplano have  larger grain (2.20 to 2.67 mm in  diameter), high saponin content; with a  prevailing amaraht-like panicle. In the Northern Altiplano, quinoas have a  height of 0.8 to 1.5 m, the glomerulate  panicle prevailes, the grain is small to  medium in size and white in color, the  growing season is fairly late to late (175  days). In inter-Andean valleys quinoas can reach  up to 2.5 m or more in height, with  branches reaching the second third of the  plant and very toothed leaves. The  phenological cycle is late (188-205 days),  amaranth-like panicles are dominant,  medium grain size (2 ± 0.13 mm) and high  saponin content (Rojas and Pinto 2013,  Bonifacio et al. 2012; Rojas 2003, Rojas   et al. 2001).   For the present study the above  morphological data were arranged in a  matrix where the names of the accessions  and morphological descriptors are  indicated with several levels of  descriptors (3-11). Based on available information about  molecular and morphological  characterization, out of all the accessions  from the quinoa collection, 1672 Bolivian  accessions from five regions were  selected: Northern Altiplano, Central  Altiplano, Southern Altiplano and  inter-Andean valleys and natural habitats  for the wild quinoas (ajaras) (Table 2).   Statistical Analysis: Forming the core  collection of quinoa   To form the core collection, a matrix with  molecular and morphological data was  developed. This information was  introduced in the PowerCore® program,  which enables sampling through the  Strategy M Maximization (van Hintum et  al. 2003). This strategy involves the use of  data indicating the magnitude of the  diversity of markers used for the  characterization of germplasm. It ensures  the inclusion of high allelic richness for  loci/markers used and directly takes into  account, in those loci, the magnitude of  the variation and deviation to the model or  pattern. Importantly, the M strategy not  only defines the number of accessions that  should come from different groups, but  also identifies the accessions that need to  be included (Schoen and Brown, 1994;  Schoen and Brown, 1995; Cortez 2011).  Thus, with the accessions selected by the  program, a dendrogram of the core  collection was generated. Using the  program NTSYSpc ® version 2.1.10 the    structure of this dendrogram was  compared with that of the total collection.  Diversity indices between the two  collections were also compared to check  the representativeness of the core  collection (Rohlf 2000; Zambrano et al.  2003).   Achievements   The data from the analysis, with a level of  100% of representation of the genetic  diversity, generated a subset of 486  accessions corresponding to 31% of the  total collection. Applying a level of 80%  of representation of the genetic diversity,  as suggested by the literature (Frankel et  al., 1984; Jaramillo and Baena, 2000;  Ozer  et al., 2004), a subset of 410   accessions was reached, which stands for  24% of the total collection (Table 2). Table 2 shows the number of accessions in  the core collection by region. The  percentage of accessions from each region  is variable; this indicates the degree of  redundancy (duplicated or genetically  very similar material) of accessions within  each region. This is the case of material from the  Northern Altiplano, from where a higher  percentage of accessions has been  considered both at 80% and 100% of  representation (46% and 57%,  respectively), compared with the other  regions. This is because in this region  there is less redundancy, therefore most  accessions are genetically different from  one another. A similar situation of low redundancy is  also observed in the material from the  inter-Andean valleys. It is noteworthy that    the number of accessions identified for the  core collection of this region is greater  than the number of accessions from the  core collection of the Southern Altiplano  and very close to that of the Central  Altiplano. This implies that although the  total number of accessions from the  Central and from the Southern Altiplano  is greater than that of the inter-Andean  valleys, it is likely that in the first two  regions of the Altiplano, several  genetically similar materials were  collected.   Comparison of the core collection with  the total collection, by visualization of the  dendrograms developed with the data  from each collection, shows that the core  collection conserves the structure of the  original collection. Figure 1 shows an example for material  from the Northern Altiplano, where the  genetic structure (arrangement of the  accessions into groups and subgroups) of  both collections (total and core) is the  same.   Table 3 compares PIC data from the total  collection, with PIC data from the core  collection, arranged by region. Diversity  indices of the core collection are slightly  higher than those of the original collection  because redundancies are reduced.  Therefore, the allele frequencies are  higher. The representativeness of the core  collection is consistent, although the  Bolivian Quinoa Collection has such a  diverse and complex structure. Genetic  diversity in the core collection is  maintained and redundancy has been  reduced to a minimum.   Conclusions   •  The methodology used for this study   enabled the identification of the most  representative quinoa accessions,  namely the group of accessions in  which the amplitude of the genetic  diversity found in the total collection    was maintained, based on  microsatellite markers,  agromorphological descriptors and  assessments of mildew and frost  tolerance. The quality and quantity of  information used to form the core  quinoa collection in this study, ensures  the inclusion of a wide range of  accessions that can be considered for  the selection of genetic material in  future assessments, either with  particular agromorphological  characteristics or with mildew and frost  tolerance characteristics.   • is to that   formation of a core collection is  dynamic. Future research could  include variables related to the  demands of the current context, such  as climate change, which requires  early and drought tolerant varieties; or  the market, which demands varieties  with nutritional and agroindustrial  qualities.   Participating agencies   The agromorphological and molecular  information used in this study was  generated within the framework of the  Project “Management, Conservation and   Sustainable Use of High Andean Grains”  as part of the National System of Genetic  Resources for Food and Agriculture  (SINARGEAA) and, the Quinoa Project  supported by the McKnight Foundation. The following people contributed  collecting information of molecular data,  during the implementation of the above  mentioned projects: Jorge Rojas Beltran,  Abel Turumaya, Pilar Gutiérrez, Rocío  Maldonado, Lucia Perez, Lilian Pinto and  Masiel Ovando. The agromorphological information has  been generated by the technical team of  PROINPA Foundation, Altiplano  Regional Office.    Cited references    Bonifacio, A., Aroni G., Villca, M. 2012.   Catálogo Etnobotánico de la Quinua  Real. Cochabamba, Bolivia. 123 p.  Brown, A., Schoen, D. 1994. Optimal sampling   strategies for core collections of plant  genetic resources. In: V. Loeschke, J.  Tomiuk y S. Jain (Eds.). Conservation  genetics. BirkhäuserVerlagBasel, Suiza.  pp. 357-369.  Cortez, F. 2011. Construcción de una   colección núcleo de  Solanum tuberosum   ssp.  andigena conservada en el banco   nacional de tubérculos y raíces andinas  en base a marcadores morfológicos y  moleculares. Master Degree Thesis.  Posgrado FCAP-UMSS. Cochabamba,  Bolivia.  Frankel, O., Brown, A. 1984. Plant genetic   resources today: A critical appraisal. In:  Holden, J., Williams, J. (Eds.). Crop    Genetic Resources: Conservation and  evaluation. Allen and Unwin. London, UK.  Jaramillo, S., Baena, M. 2000. Material de   apoyo a la capacitación en conservación  ex situ de recursos fitogenéticos.  International Plant Genetic Resource  Institute. Cali, Colombia. 210 p.  Kyu-Won, K., Chung, K., Cho, H.,   Chandrabalan, D., Jae-Gyun, G., Kim, T,  Eun G., Yong-Jin, P. 2007. PowerCore: A  program applying the advanced M  strategy with a heuristic search for  establishing core sets. Bioinformatics 23  (16):2155-2162.  Maughan, J., Bonifacio, A., Jellen, E., Stevens,   M., Coleman, C., Ricks, M., Mason, S.,  Jarvis, D., Ardunia, B., Fairbanks, D.  2004. A genetic linkage map of quinoa  (Chenopodium quinoa) based on AFLP,  RAPD, and SSR markers. Theor Appl  Genet 109:1188-1195.  Ozer, A., Suárez, R., Abadie, T. 2004.   Elaboración de una colección núcleo de  germoplasma de maíz de la raza blanco  dentado. Agrociencia Vol. VIII No. 1. pp.  1-10.  PASW. 2009. Predicción de resultados e   identificación de relaciones en los datos  categóricos. PASW® Categories 18 –  Specifications. 8 p.  Rojas, W., Pinto M. 2013. La diversidad   genética de quinua de Bolivia. In: Vargas,  M. (Ed.). Congreso Científico de la  Quinua (Proceedings). La Paz, Bolivia.  pp. 77 - 92.  Rojas, W., Pinto, M., Soto, J. 2010.   Distribución geográfica y variabilidad  genética de los granos andinos. In: Rojas  W., Pinto M., Soto J., Jagger M. y  Padulosi S. (Eds.). Granos Andinos:  Avances, logros y experiencias  desarrolladas en quinua, cañahua y  amaranto en Bolivia. Bioversity  International, Rome, Italy. pp. 11- 23.  Rojas, W. (Ed.). 2008. Manejo, conservación y   uso sostenible de los recursos genéticos  de granos altoandinos, en el marco del  SINARGEAA. Phase Report 2003-2008.  PROINPA Foundation. La Paz, Bolivia.  49 p.  Rojas, W., Cayoja, M., Espindola, G. 2001.   Catálogo de la colección de quinua  conservada en el Banco Nacional de  Granos Altoandinos. PROINPA  Foundation, MAGDER, PPD-PNUD,  SIBTA-UCEPSA, IPGRI, IFAD. La Paz,  Bolivia. 129 p.  Rohlf F. 2000. NTYSYS-pc, Numerical   Taxonomy and Multivariate Analysis  System, Version 2.10e. Appl.  Biostatistics, Inc., New York.  Schoen, D., Brown, A. 1995. Maximising   genetic diversity in core collections of wild  relatives of crop species. pp. 55-76. In:  Core collections of plant genetic    resources (T. Hodgkin, A. Brown, Th. van  Hintum y E. Morales, eds.). John Wiley  and Sons, United Kingdom.  van Hintum, Th., Brown, A., Spillane, C.,   Hodgkin, T. 2003 Colecciones núcleo de  recursos fitogenéticos. IPGRI Technical  Bulletin No. 3. International Plant Genetic  Resource Institute, Rome, Italy.  Zambrano, A., Demey, J., Fuenmayor, F.,   Segovia, V., Gutiérrez, Z. 2003.  Diversidad genética de una colección de  yuca a través de marcadores moleculares  RAPDS. Agronomía Trop. Venezuela 2  (53):155-174.   Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) has  outstanding intrinsic characteristics  including its genetic variability and its  functional properties. Its diversity forms  an extremely valuable gene pool and is  expressed in the variability of plant  colors, inflorescence and seed, plant  shape, nutritional value, productive  performance and length of growing  season. In the last twenty years,  significant scientific information  demonstrating the benefits of quinoa for  health, beyond basic nutrition, was  generated (Rojas et al. 2010a). The  knowledge and information contained in  the genetic diversity of quinoa, must be  used to further leverage the benefits of  quinoa for consumption, and particularly  for the industry. From a nutritional and dietary point of  view, quinoa is a natural source of plant  protein of high nutritional value, because  of its higher proportion of essential amino  acids; giving it a higher biological value  than wheat, rice and maize; and  comparable only with milk, meat and  eggs. As a source of plant protein, quinoa  helps the body develop and grow,  conserves heat and energy, it is easy to  digest and, combined with other foods,  produces a complete and balanced diet  that can replace animal foods (Rojas et al.,  2010a; Ayala et al., 2004). In Bolivia, the research on quinoa  breeding began in the early sixties,  focusing on achieving high performance  varieties, with white large grain, as was  the demand at that time. Since the  eighties, due to export markets  expectations, cultivation has expanded  significantly, and demands have not only  included white, but also red and black  quinoa. Likewise, changes in climate have    generated new demands like earliness, to  adjust planting to delayed rain cycles and  complete harvest within a shorter crop  cycle (Vargas et al., 2013). Traditionally companies and/or   associations have focused their efforts on  the export of raw materials, which is what  currently prevails in terms of foreign  sales. However, in the last decade  companies have begun the processing and  export of quinoa based products and  subproducts. The difficulty to achieve  optimal and competitive products for the  international market is that the products  are made with mixed quinoa (different  varieties in different proportions) and  consequently at agroindustrial level, it is  not possible to obtain the same quality for  the same preparation at different times. Considering the above, it is important to  study and take advantage of the genetic  diversity for the manufacture of processed  quinoa products, using in its true  magnitude the existing genetic potential to  obtain agroindustrial products of higher  quality. It is possible to identify, select  and develop varieties with high protein  content, with small diameters of starch  granule to process homogeneous popped  grain, with stable percentages of amylose  and amylopectin to make puddings,  gelatinized porridge, instant creams,  noodles, etc.   Nutritional value and  agroindustrial capacity of  quinoa’s agromorphologic -  genetic diversity   In Bolivia, the first initiatives to  implement a quinoa germplasm collection    date back to the early sixties, under the  initiative of Ing. Humberto Gandarillas  (Rojas  et al., 2010b). Originally, the   efforts focused on the registration of  agromorphological information. In 1985  and 2001 the first and second quinoa  catalogs were published (Espindola and  Saravia, 1985, Rojas et al., 2001). The 2001 catalog describes the genetic  variability of 2,701 quinoa accessions  through 59 qualitative and quantitative  agromorphologic variables. This  document was prepared during the period  of time when PROINPA Foundation was  in charge of the administration of the  quinoa germplasm collection, as  custodian appointed by mandate from the  Bolivian government (Rojas et al.,  2010b). When quinoas reach physiological  maturity they express a wide variety of  plant and grain colors, including white,  cream, yellow, orange, pink, red, purple,    light brown, brown and black. In the  Bolivian collection 66 grain colors and  four shapes, have been characterized, by  the appearance of the endosperm. This  gives quinoa, features that can be properly  exploited for the manufacture of  processed products. In order to increase the use of diversity in  the manufacture of quinoa processed  products, interaction with exporters of this  species was promoted. Until 2010,  nutritional information of 555 accessions  of the Bolivian Quinoa Collection was  registered, along with information on  agroindustrial characteristics of 260  accessions (Rojas and Pinto, 2013). Table 1 presents a summary of the  statistical parameters registered for each  feature of the nutritional value and  agroindustrial characteristics of quinoa,  expressed on a dry basis (Rojas et al.,  2007; Rojas et al., 2010a).   Quinoa accessions show a wide variability  for most of the studied traits, which is an  indicator of the genetic potential of this  germplasm. Figure 1 shows the variation in the  frequency distribution of protein content  for 555 accessions of the Bolivian quinoa  collection. In the majority of accessions  the protein content varies from 12.0% to  16.9%, while there are a small number of  accessions (42) with contents that range  from 17% to 18.9%. The latter group is an  important source of genes to promote  development of products with high  protein content (Rojas et al., 2010a). This  information was corroborated by other  similar studies by Reynaga et al., 2013. The fat content ranges from 2.05% to  10.88%, with an average of 6.39% (Table  1).  βo (1991) and Moron (1999) cited by  Jacobsen and Sherwood (2002), indicate  that the fat content of quinoa has a high  value, due to its high percentage of  non-saturated fatty acids. Accessions with    these values can be used for the  production of fine vegetable oils for  culinary and cosmetic use. Genetic variation on size of starch granule  ranged from 1 μ to 28 μ (Table 1, Figure  2). It is very important that the starch  granule be small, to facilitate the process  of texturing and expansion, because  spaces between granules allow more air to  enter for exchange and formation of air  bubbles (Rojas et al., 2007). This feature  is important for the agroindustry because  it enables the use of various cereal and  legume mixes, to take advantage of the  functional characteristics of quinoa. The content of inverted sugars varies from  10% to 35% (Table 1). This variable  expresses the amount of sugar that begins  fermentation by splitting or inversion.  It  is the parameter used to determine the  quality of carbohydrates. It is also an  important parameter by which quinoa can  be classified as a food fit for diabetics.   The optimum content of inverted sugar is  ≥ 25%. Quinoa accessions analyzed from  the germplasm meet this condition and  have potential to be used in mixtures with  flour to process breads, cereals, etc. The variable of “water filling” shows a  range of variation from 16% to 66%  (Table 1). This variable measures the  water absorption capacity of starch,  important parameter for processing of  pasta, bread and pastries. The ideal value  for this parameter, in industrial  applications, ≥ Considering  variability within quinoa in relation to this  characteristic, there is an important gene  pool that can be used for the development  of such processed products. Recently PROINPA Foundation, through  its quinoa breeding program is prioritizing  the inclusion of criteria related to  nutritional value and agroindustrial  characteristics for the development of  quinoa varieties, while seeking at the  same time that they comply with market  parameters, productivity and adaptation to  climate change.   Table 2 shows results of quinoa materials  that are in the process of generation of  new varieties. According to Table 2, the Kurmi variety  has 16.11% protein. Through selection  techniques applied to deviants of this  variety, the line K-Chullpi has been  obtained. The K-Chullpi line has a protein  content of 18.20% which is higher than  that of Kurmi.  It also has a starch granule  diameter 1.5 being than  Kurmi variety that has a diameter of 2.1 μ.  However, both varieties have excellent  aptitude for the development of expanded  products and popped grain. Similarly, the iron content increased  significantly in the K-Chullpi line,  reaching 4.8 mg/100 g of dry matter, in  comparison to the Kurmi variety that has  1.2 mg/100 g of dry matter. Varieties with  these characteristics may be an alternative  for programs conducted by the Bolivian  Government, that focus on maternal and  child malnutrition and, breastfeeding.   In addition, although the 11Cf line comes  from the variety Aynoka, there is an  increase in protein content from 13.65%  to 16.85%, and an increase in fiber from  4.25% to 6.10%. The diameter of the  starch granule remains 2.8 which  means that, both have potential  characteristics for the elaboration of  expanded products and popped grain.  However, the iron content went down  from 4.5 mg/100 to 2.7 mg/100 g of dry  matter.  On the other hand, in the particular case of  the “Real Blanca” variety, it has  significant protein content (14.49%), but  its value of starch granule diameter is of  5.2 thus not for  production of expanded products and  popped grain.   Challenges and opportunities   The strategic lines of research for quinoa  cultivation need to consider the genetic  diversity available in the country, that is  also the most important worldwide.  This  genetic diversity, if properly used, offers  enormous potential for diverse fields of  application. Otherwise, it will continue to  be underutilized, as it has been so far, with  the export of raw material from mixed  varieties. There are 66 colors of quinoa grain,  whose antioxidant properties, that can  help develop nutraceutical products, have  not yet been studied. Despite the wide  diversity of shapes, sizes and colors of  quinoa grain, the consumer at the time of  purchasing the product in different  markets and fairs, differentiates only three  colors of quinoa: white, brown and black.   It is necessary to strengthen the  development of agroindustrial products  using the genetic diversity of quinoa  properly, thus generating high quality and  standardized products, which can offer the  same quality over time. The genetic base  available for quinoa also allows the  country to take the lead in the  development and export of processed  products with standard quality. It is important to take into account that the  varieties with potential for agroindustrial  processing should also reach the  necessary standards for production and  adaptation to climate change. Varieties  should have early cultivation cycles to  adapt to climate variability and to the  specific characteristics of every  productive region of the country. Initiatives that promote the use of native  and improved seed varieties are required,  because quality standards need to be met  from sowing to harvest. The production  process needs to be improved and  volumes demanded by the agroindustry  need to be met. But overall, the process  needs to contribute to the sustainability of  the quinoa business in production areas. In this challenge, each actor involved in  the production and marketing of quinoa,  plays an important role. However, this  role will be best matched if worked  through a country strategy that guides the  actions of all actors involved in the quinoa  sector. Acknowledgement:  The work on the   assessment of the nutritional and  agroindustrial value was financially  supported by the Project "Management,  Conservation and Sustainable Use of  Genetic Resources of High Andean    Grain", the McKnight Foundation, the  UNEP/GEF Project on "In situ  Conservation of Crop Wild relatives  through Strengthening Information  Management and its Application in the  Field - Bolivian Component" and the  NUS/IFAD Project on "Neglected and  Underutilized Species".   Cited references    Ayala, G., Ortega, L., Morón, C. 2004. Valor   nutritivo y usos de la quinua. In: A. Mujica,  S. Jacobsen, J. Izquierdo y J. Marathee  (Eds.). Quinua: Ancestral cultivo andino,  alimento del presente y futuro.  FAO-UNA-CIP. Santiago, Chile. pp.  215-253.  CEDLA. 2013. Cultivo de la quinua y   producción capitalista en las  comunidades del Altiplano Sur de Bolivia.  Boletín de Seguimiento a Políticas  Públicas Año X – N° 22. Centro de  Estudios para el Desarrollo Laboral y  Agrario (CEDLA). Julio 2013. La Paz,  Bolivia.  Espíndola, G., Saravia, R. 1985. Catálogo de   quinua del banco de germoplasma en la  Estación Experimental de Patacamaya.  La Paz, Bolivia, MACA-IBTA pp. 2-11.  Jacobsen, S., Sherwood, S. 2002. Cultivo de   Granos Andinos en Ecuador. Informe  sobre los rubros quinua, chocho y  amaranto. Organización de las Naciones  Unidas para la Agricultura y la  Alimentación (FAO), Centro Internacional  de la Papa (CIP) y Catholic Relief  Services (CRS). Quito, Ecuador. 89 p  Reynaga, A., Quispe, M., Calderón, I.   Huarachi, A., Soto, J. 2013.  Caracterización físico - química y  nutricional de los 13 ecotipos de quinua  real (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) del  altiplano sur de Bolivia con fines  agroindustriales y exportación. pp.  517-524. In: Congreso Científico de la  Quinua (Proceedings). June 14 and 15,  2013. Vargas, M. (Ed.). MDRyT, VDRA,  INIAF, IICA. La Paz, Bolivia. 682 p.   Rojas, W., Cayoja, M., Espíndola, G. 2001.   Catálogo de colección de quinua  conservada en el Banco Nacional de  Granos Altoandinos. Fundación  PROINPA, MAGDER, PPD–PNUD,  SIBTA, UCEPSA, IPGRI, IFAD. La Paz,  Bolivia. 129 p.  Rojas, W., Pinto, M., Alcocer, E. 2007.   Diversidad genética del valor nutritivo y  agroindustrial del germoplasma de  quinua. Revista de Agricultura. Year 59,  41:33-37. Cochabamba, Bolivia.  Rojas, W., Pinto, M., Soto, J., Alcocer, E.   2010a. Valor nutricional, agroindustrial y  funcional de los granos andinos. In: W.  Rojas, M. Pinto, J. Soto, M. Jagger y S.  Padulosi (Eds.). Granos Andinos:  Avances, logros y experiencias  desarrolladas en quinua, cañahua y  amaranto en Bolivia. Bioversity  International, Roma, Italia. pp. 151-164.   Rojas, W., Pinto, M., Bonifacio, A.,   Gandarillas, A. 2010b. Banco de  germoplasma de granos andinos. In: W.  Rojas, M. Pinto, J. Soto, M. Jagger y S.  Padulosi (Eds.). Granos Andinos:  Avances, logros y experiencias  desarrolladas en quinua, cañahua y  amaranto en Bolivia. Bioversity  International, Roma, Italia. pp. 24-38.  Rojas, W., Pinto, M. 2013. La diversidad   genética de quinua de Bolivia. In: Vargas,  M. (Editor). Congreso Científico de la  Quinua (Proceedings). June 14 and 15,  2013. La Paz, Bolivia. pp. 77-92.  Vargas, A., Bonifacio, A., Rojas, W. 2013.   Mejoramiento para calidad industrial de la  quinua. In: Vargas, M. (Editor). Congreso  Científico de la Quinua (Proceedings).  June 14 and 15, 2013. La Paz, Bolivia. pp  497-507.     ISSN 1998 - 9652   Area: Technology Development 100   Abreviaciones y siglas utilizadas en el presente número   de la Revista de Agricultura:    ADN    Ácido desoxirribonucleico   ADNr    Ácido desoxirribonucleico ribosómico   AIA    Ácido Indol Acético   ANAPQUI  Asociación Nacional de Productores de Quinua   APQUISA  Asociación de Productores de Quinua de Salinas   ARN    Ácido ribonucleico  BY U Brigham Young University  CABOLQUI  Cámara Boliviana de Exportadores de Quinua y Productos Orgánicos   CG    Cromatografía de Gas   DANIDA   Danish International Development Agency  EAG    Electroantenografía   EM    Espectrometría de Masas   FDTA    Fundación para el Desarrollo Tecnológico y Agropecuario   FOB Free On Board (Libre a Bordo)   FONTAGRO  Fondo Regional de Tecnología Agropecuaria   H    Heterocigosidad   IBCE    Instituto Boliviano de Comercio Exterior   IBTA    Instituto Boliviano de Tecnología Agropecuaria   IDEPRO  Instituto para el Desarrollo de la Pequeña Unidad Productiva   INE    Instituto Nacional de Estadística (Bolivia)   MIP    Manejo Integrado de Plagas   PCR Polymerase Chain Reaction (Reacción en Cadena de la Polimerasa)   PIC    Contenido de Información Polimórfica   PROINPA  Fundación para la Promoción e Investigación de Productos Andinos   SD    Desviación estándar   SINARGEAA  Sistema Nacional de Recursos Genéticos para la Alimentación y la   Agricultura  SINDAN  Sociedad Industrial de Alimentos Naturales y Orgánicos   sp    Especie   spp    Especies   ssp    Sub especie   SSR    Simple Sequence Repeats   TSA    Tripticasa de Soya   TSB    Caldo Tripticasa de Soya   UMSA   Universidad Mayor de San Andrés   USD    Dólar estadounidense   USDA    United States Department of Agricultura  VDRMT  Viceministerio de Desarrollo Rural y Tierras    Molecular characterization yielded  diversity indices as the Polymorphic  Information Content (PIC) and  heterozygosity (H), for each set of  samples coming from the different  geographic regions.  Quinoas from the  Central Altiplano (CA) and Southern  Altiplano (SA) were the most abundant,  and also the most diverse (tables 2 and 3). For this study, the data of the alleles (in  base pairs) of every microsatellite were  transformed into binary data and arranged  in a matrix representing the presence of an  allele as 1 and the absence as 0. The  morphological information was obtained  from the evaluation of the germplasm  collection. 48 variables were selected that  included data on: stem coloring, plant  architecture, stem, leaf, inflorescence  and/or panicle, grain characteristics,  saponin, yield, phenology and tolerance to  abiotic (frost) and biotic (mildew) factors. Quinoas from every region have an  agromorphological pattern that  distinguishes them from each other. In the  Central Altiplano quinoas grow from 0.5    to 1.2 m, with short branches, the  glomerulate panicle prevails and the  phenological cycle lasts 168.40 ± 14.05  days. Quinoas in the Southern Altiplano have  larger grain (2.20 to 2.67 mm in  diameter), high saponin content; with a  prevailing amaraht-like panicle. In the Northern Altiplano, quinoas have a  height of 0.8 to 1.5 m, the glomerulate  panicle prevailes, the grain is small to  medium in size and white in color, the  growing season is fairly late to late (175  days). In inter-Andean valleys quinoas can reach  up to 2.5 m or more in height, with  branches reaching the second third of the  plant and very toothed leaves. The  phenological cycle is late (188-205 days),  amaranth-like panicles are dominant,  medium grain size (2 ± 0.13 mm) and high  saponin content (Rojas and Pinto 2013,  Bonifacio et al. 2012; Rojas 2003, Rojas   et al. 2001).   For the present study the above  morphological data were arranged in a  matrix where the names of the accessions  and morphological descriptors are  indicated with several levels of  descriptors (3-11). Based on available information about  molecular and morphological  characterization, out of all the accessions  from the quinoa collection, 1672 Bolivian  accessions from five regions were  selected: Northern Altiplano, Central  Altiplano, Southern Altiplano and  inter-Andean valleys and natural habitats  for the wild quinoas (ajaras) (Table 2).   Statistical Analysis: Forming the core  collection of quinoa   To form the core collection, a matrix with  molecular and morphological data was  developed. This information was  introduced in the PowerCore® program,  which enables sampling through the  Strategy M Maximization (van Hintum et  al. 2003). This strategy involves the use of  data indicating the magnitude of the  diversity of markers used for the  characterization of germplasm. It ensures  the inclusion of high allelic richness for  loci/markers used and directly takes into  account, in those loci, the magnitude of  the variation and deviation to the model or  pattern. Importantly, the M strategy not  only defines the number of accessions that  should come from different groups, but  also identifies the accessions that need to  be included (Schoen and Brown, 1994;  Schoen and Brown, 1995; Cortez 2011).  Thus, with the accessions selected by the  program, a dendrogram of the core  collection was generated. Using the  program NTSYSpc ® version 2.1.10 the    structure of this dendrogram was  compared with that of the total collection.  Diversity indices between the two  collections were also compared to check  the representativeness of the core  collection (Rohlf 2000; Zambrano et al.  2003).   Achievements   The data from the analysis, with a level of  100% of representation of the genetic  diversity, generated a subset of 486  accessions corresponding to 31% of the  total collection. Applying a level of 80%  of representation of the genetic diversity,  as suggested by the literature (Frankel et  al., 1984; Jaramillo and Baena, 2000;  Ozer  et al., 2004), a subset of 410   accessions was reached, which stands for  24% of the total collection (Table 2). Table 2 shows the number of accessions in  the core collection by region. The  percentage of accessions from each region  is variable; this indicates the degree of  redundancy (duplicated or genetically  very similar material) of accessions within  each region. This is the case of material from the  Northern Altiplano, from where a higher  percentage of accessions has been  considered both at 80% and 100% of  representation (46% and 57%,  respectively), compared with the other  regions. This is because in this region  there is less redundancy, therefore most  accessions are genetically different from  one another. A similar situation of low redundancy is  also observed in the material from the  inter-Andean valleys. It is noteworthy that    the number of accessions identified for the  core collection of this region is greater  than the number of accessions from the  core collection of the Southern Altiplano  and very close to that of the Central  Altiplano. This implies that although the  total number of accessions from the  Central and from the Southern Altiplano  is greater than that of the inter-Andean  valleys, it is likely that in the first two  regions of the Altiplano, several  genetically similar materials were  collected.   Comparison of the core collection with  the total collection, by visualization of the  dendrograms developed with the data  from each collection, shows that the core  collection conserves the structure of the  original collection. Figure 1 shows an example for material  from the Northern Altiplano, where the  genetic structure (arrangement of the  accessions into groups and subgroups) of  both collections (total and core) is the  same.   Table 3 compares PIC data from the total  collection, with PIC data from the core  collection, arranged by region. Diversity  indices of the core collection are slightly  higher than those of the original collection  because redundancies are reduced.  Therefore, the allele frequencies are  higher. The representativeness of the core  collection is consistent, although the  Bolivian Quinoa Collection has such a  diverse and complex structure. Genetic  diversity in the core collection is  maintained and redundancy has been  reduced to a minimum.   Conclusions   •  The methodology used for this study   enabled the identification of the most  representative quinoa accessions,  namely the group of accessions in  which the amplitude of the genetic  diversity found in the total collection    was maintained, based on  microsatellite markers,  agromorphological descriptors and  assessments of mildew and frost  tolerance. The quality and quantity of  information used to form the core  quinoa collection in this study, ensures  the inclusion of a wide range of  accessions that can be considered for  the selection of genetic material in  future assessments, either with  particular agromorphological  characteristics or with mildew and frost  tolerance characteristics.   • is to that   formation of a core collection is  dynamic. Future research could  include variables related to the  demands of the current context, such  as climate change, which requires  early and drought tolerant varieties; or  the market, which demands varieties  with nutritional and agroindustrial  qualities.   Participating agencies   The agromorphological and molecular  information used in this study was  generated within the framework of the  Project “Management, Conservation and   Sustainable Use of High Andean Grains”  as part of the National System of Genetic  Resources for Food and Agriculture  (SINARGEAA) and, the Quinoa Project  supported by the McKnight Foundation. The following people contributed  collecting information of molecular data,  during the implementation of the above  mentioned projects: Jorge Rojas Beltran,  Abel Turumaya, Pilar Gutiérrez, Rocío  Maldonado, Lucia Perez, Lilian Pinto and  Masiel Ovando. The agromorphological information has  been generated by the technical team of  PROINPA Foundation, Altiplano  Regional Office.    Cited references    Bonifacio, A., Aroni G., Villca, M. 2012.   Catálogo Etnobotánico de la Quinua  Real. Cochabamba, Bolivia. 123 p.  Brown, A., Schoen, D. 1994. Optimal sampling   strategies for core collections of plant  genetic resources. In: V. Loeschke, J.  Tomiuk y S. Jain (Eds.). Conservation  genetics. BirkhäuserVerlagBasel, Suiza.  pp. 357-369.  Cortez, F. 2011. Construcción de una   colección núcleo de  Solanum tuberosum   ssp.  andigena conservada en el banco   nacional de tubérculos y raíces andinas  en base a marcadores morfológicos y  moleculares. Master Degree Thesis.  Posgrado FCAP-UMSS. Cochabamba,  Bolivia.  Frankel, O., Brown, A. 1984. Plant genetic   resources today: A critical appraisal. In:  Holden, J., Williams, J. (Eds.). Crop    Genetic Resources: Conservation and  evaluation. Allen and Unwin. London, UK.  Jaramillo, S., Baena, M. 2000. Material de   apoyo a la capacitación en conservación  ex situ de recursos fitogenéticos.  International Plant Genetic Resource  Institute. Cali, Colombia. 210 p.  Kyu-Won, K., Chung, K., Cho, H.,   Chandrabalan, D., Jae-Gyun, G., Kim, T,  Eun G., Yong-Jin, P. 2007. PowerCore: A  program applying the advanced M  strategy with a heuristic search for  establishing core sets. Bioinformatics 23  (16):2155-2162.  Maughan, J., Bonifacio, A., Jellen, E., Stevens,   M., Coleman, C., Ricks, M., Mason, S.,  Jarvis, D., Ardunia, B., Fairbanks, D.  2004. A genetic linkage map of quinoa  (Chenopodium quinoa) based on AFLP,  RAPD, and SSR markers. Theor Appl  Genet 109:1188-1195.  Ozer, A., Suárez, R., Abadie, T. 2004.   Elaboración de una colección núcleo de  germoplasma de maíz de la raza blanco  dentado. Agrociencia Vol. VIII No. 1. pp.  1-10.  PASW. 2009. Predicción de resultados e   identificación de relaciones en los datos  categóricos. PASW® Categories 18 –  Specifications. 8 p.  Rojas, W., Pinto M. 2013. La diversidad   genética de quinua de Bolivia. In: Vargas,  M. (Ed.). Congreso Científico de la  Quinua (Proceedings). La Paz, Bolivia.  pp. 77 - 92.  Rojas, W., Pinto, M., Soto, J. 2010.   Distribución geográfica y variabilidad  genética de los granos andinos. In: Rojas  W., Pinto M., Soto J., Jagger M. y  Padulosi S. (Eds.). Granos Andinos:  Avances, logros y experiencias  desarrolladas en quinua, cañahua y  amaranto en Bolivia. Bioversity  International, Rome, Italy. pp. 11- 23.  Rojas, W. (Ed.). 2008. Manejo, conservación y   uso sostenible de los recursos genéticos  de granos altoandinos, en el marco del  SINARGEAA. Phase Report 2003-2008.  PROINPA Foundation. La Paz, Bolivia.  49 p.  Rojas, W., Cayoja, M., Espindola, G. 2001.   Catálogo de la colección de quinua  conservada en el Banco Nacional de  Granos Altoandinos. PROINPA  Foundation, MAGDER, PPD-PNUD,  SIBTA-UCEPSA, IPGRI, IFAD. La Paz,  Bolivia. 129 p.  Rohlf F. 2000. NTYSYS-pc, Numerical   Taxonomy and Multivariate Analysis  System, Version 2.10e. Appl.  Biostatistics, Inc., New York.  Schoen, D., Brown, A. 1995. Maximising   genetic diversity in core collections of wild  relatives of crop species. pp. 55-76. In:  Core collections of plant genetic    resources (T. Hodgkin, A. Brown, Th. van  Hintum y E. Morales, eds.). John Wiley  and Sons, United Kingdom.  van Hintum, Th., Brown, A., Spillane, C.,   Hodgkin, T. 2003 Colecciones núcleo de  recursos fitogenéticos. IPGRI Technical  Bulletin No. 3. International Plant Genetic  Resource Institute, Rome, Italy.  Zambrano, A., Demey, J., Fuenmayor, F.,   Segovia, V., Gutiérrez, Z. 2003.  Diversidad genética de una colección de  yuca a través de marcadores moleculares  RAPDS. Agronomía Trop. Venezuela 2  (53):155-174.     Dr. Carlos Perez, born in La Paz, sociologist  trained at the College of Oneonta from the State  University of New York and a Ph.D. in  Anthropology from the State University of New  York  at Bringhampton, has a long and fruitful  career as a researcher in and out of Bolivia. For the last six years he has worked for the  McKnight Foundation, an organization that  invests and promotes technological innovation  in the Andean region and in other parts of the  world. Throughout his productive career, Dr.  Perez has demonstrated a particular sensitivity  and commitment with Bolivian ancient cultures,  the highlands and quinoa.  His  perception of the Andean worldview and his  awareness of the demands and needs of small  farmer families in the Andean region has been  his personal identity seal and work motivation  throughout his years of professional life. Like very few professionals working in  institutions that finance technology  development, his first concern is to strengthen  and improve the efficiency and competitiveness  of researchers and research institutions.   As monitoring responsible for projects funded by  the McKnight Foundation, he believes that  context is variable and that projects must be in  constant reflection, adjusting and amending  plans, ensuring that benefits reach target a  groups in the fastest and most effective way.  Dr. Perez is a professional who combines  strategic vision with pragmatism. He has the  ability to strike balance between the ambition of  reaching goals and the limitations of reality.  He  is a lifelong researcher of quinoa, convinced that  it is one of the greatest legacies of the Bolivian  culture, that is allowing thousands of farmer  families to escape poverty, and at the same  time, convinced that achieving sustainable  production is feasible.  His vision and approach  to global issues such as climate change, are an  inspiration to researchers, technicians and  producers. He is convinced that a key success factor is the  complementation of capacities and efforts from  producers, researchers, marketers and  exporters, including entrepreneurs.  Finally, his human virtues are invaluable.  He  has the wisdom and the capacity to motivate, to  generate passion and commitment with  development, thus promoting better conditions  for the poor.  His actions speak of his profound  commitment to service.  With these lines we wish to pay tribute and  recognition to his important contribution to the  well-being of families living in rural areas of  Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador and many other places  where the positive energy of Carlos changed  attitudes and practices, benefiting the lives and  opportunities of thousands of human beings.  Cochabamba, July 2014      RECOGNITION TO  DR. CARLOS PEREZ     Revista de Agricultura is a national scientific communication space that provides   the reader with information and knowledge about the Bolivian reality and research   in agricultural, livestock, forestry and veterinary sciences.   Agricultural Sciences and Livestock Faculty  “Martin Cardenas” (FCAyP – UMSS)  Research Institute   Telf.: 4762384. Fax: 4234123 – Casilla 4894  www.agr.umss.edu.bo   “La Violeta” Forages Research Center   Telf.: 4316856. Fax: 4315706  www.agr.umss.edu.bo   Foundation for the Promotion and Research of  Andean Products (PROINPA)   Telf. 4319595. Fax: 4319600 - Casilla 4285  www.proinpa.org   University of San Simon   www.umss.edu.bo   The present edition of the  Revista de Agricultura was  issued with the support and  funding from DANIDA and the  McKnight Foundation.  REVISTA DE AGRICULTURA on the internet:  www.agr.umss.edu.bo  www.sefosam.com/rv/index.html